Journal of Energy Storage 13 (2017) 10–23

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Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

An overview of energy storage and its importance in Indian renewable

energy sector
Part I – Technologies and Comparison
Amit Kumar Rohita,* , Ksh. Priyalakshmi Devib , Saroj Rangnekara
a
Energy Centre, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, India
b
National Institute of Technology, Manipur, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history:
Received 3 February 2017 Energy storage now a days is becoming an imperative part of renewable energy. With the massive growth
Received in revised form 15 April 2017 of renewable energy sources, energy storage can play a substantial role in renewable energy integration
Accepted 7 June 2017 in India. It is beneficial for entire supply chain mainly due to enhanced electric power quality,
Available online xxx dependability and better grid stability. Thus, lowering renewable energy intermittency, with increased
user-friendliness and accessibility of electrical energy in remote places and reduction in harmful
Keywords: emissions. This paper Part-I of two papers primarily presents an overview of the selected energy storage
Mechanical energy storage system technologies like Pumped hydro energy storage, Compressed air energy storage, Battery energy storage,
Electrical energy storage system
Flywheel, Supercapacitors, Hydrogen energy storage, Superconducting magnetic energy storage, and
Chemical energy storage system
Thermal energy storage. It highlights driving factors for growing energy storage in India. A
Energy storage comparison
Cross linear thermal technology comprehensive comparison of various technical characteristics and features of these technologies is
also discussed.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2. Need for energy storage in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1. Renewable energy sources and their future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2. Energy security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3. Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4. Climate change and emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3. Classifications and overview of energy storage technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1. Based on discharge duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.1. Short term response energy storage technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.2. Medium term response energy storage technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.3. Real long term response energy storage technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2. Based on form of energy stored . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3.1. Mechanical energy storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3.2. Electrochemical energy storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3.3. Chemical energy storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3.4. Electrical energy storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3.5. Thermal energy storage (TES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4. Energy storage technologies and comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.1. Energy and power density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: amitrohit8@gmail.com (A.K. Rohit).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2017.06.005
2352-152X/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 A.K. Rohit et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 13 (2017) 10–23 11

4.2. Storage Capacity/Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4.3. Power rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.4. Discharge time and self-discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.5. Round-trip efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.6. Technology maturity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.7. Capital cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.8. Response time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.9. Impact on environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1. Introduction reduce peak power demand, cut electricity bills and lower
greenhouse gas release.
Energy is the major source for the economic growth of any In this paper, need for energy storage in renewable energy,
nation. India is second most populated country, which is 18% of selected energy storage technologies outlining their technical
global population and consumes only 6% of the global primary characteristics and comparison have been presented.
energy [1]. Rapid increase in population and enhanced living
standard of life led to the energy consumption upsurge in India, 2. Need for energy storage in India
making it fourth in energy consumption in the world [2]. India is
among top three power generating nations in the world with total Some of the driving factors for energy storage in India are
installed capacity of 314GW [3] as of January 2017. In last six discussed in this section.
decades Indian energy consumption has reached 16 fold and
installed capacity by 84 times [4]. 2.1. Renewable energy sources and their future
India has tremendous potential for further rapid growth in
energy sector. Its energy requirement has become nearly twice Renewable energy potential in India is about 900GW from
than in the year 2000. Thermal power generation with share of economically exploitable sources [14]. India is resolved to be one of
70%, stays biggest benefactor in Indian power segment [1]. During the world's driving clean energy makers [15]. Large hydro plants
the year 2010–14, India’s net energy imports increased by 5.5% p.a. along with other renewable energy sources form 29.9% (94GW)
(per annum), with coal imports rising by 28% p.a. gas and oil share out of total installed capacity of 314GW [3,16] till 31 January
imports rose by 12.4% p.a. and 4.9% p.a. respectively [5]. To 2017. Till February 2017, installed electric capacity with percentage
maintain fast pace of growth in industrial and manufacturing in shares of renewable energy sources (in MW) in India [17] is shown
India, non-availability of reliable and quality power supply acts as a in Fig. 1 below.
major hurdle [6]. Over recent years India has gained colossal ground in energy
India is a vast nation with many remote locations unable to segment and created renewable energy sources at noteworthy
access grid electricity. Renewable energy with energy storage is pace. Fig. 2. depicts the progressive efforts in renewable energy
very suitable option in these cases than establishing conventional sector growth till 2015–16.
grid power as it is much more cost-effective. It takes less time to set The Government has up-scaled the objective of renewable
up renewable energy plant ensuring clean and green energy in energy ability to 175GW by the year 2022 which incorporates
remote households [7]. For energy security, rural electrification, 100GW from solar based, 60GW from wind, 5GW and 10GW from
and carbon emission reduction with rapid growth of renewable small hydro-power and bio-power respectively [14]. According to
generation resources, there is a need for energy storage systems. planning commission of India in the year 2031–32, fuel mix–
The issues of variability, intermittency, unpredictability, location installation and fuel mix – generation [18,19] will be as shown in
dependency of renewable energy sources can be addressed with Fig. 3.
energy storage systems [8]. Extensive storage facilities can give In above targets wind and sun based are the commanding
power in long-term, and also provide low-cost ancillary services renewable energy sources yet because of their discontinuous
[9]. Energy storage helps in increasing reliability of electric power nature, likewise called as Variable Renewable energy sources
grids and securing availability of electric power. (VRES) [20].
In transportation, battery powered vehicles or other electric
advancements can possibly uproot vehicles consuming gasoline
and diesel fuel, lessening related emissions and interest for oil [10].
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in India reached to 2.47 billion
tonnes in 2015, which was 5.1% [11] more than in 2014 due to
increase in its total energy consumption (particularly the 8.1%
increase in oil consumption and the 4.8% increase in coal
consumption). Co2 emitted from fossil fuels is considered as an
important worldwide danger because of its influence to a global
warming [12] as a result, alternative renewable power generation
systems are preferred. Due to this, energy storage has pulled the
attention of governments, partners, scientists and financial
specialists as it might be utilized to boost the energy supply
performance [13].
Deployment of storage technologies will make country's
electricity grid more solid while likewise empowering more
Fig. 1. Installed capacity of electricity from renewable sources in India as on
effective utilization of existing energy sources and in addition new 28.02.2017.
ones, for example, wind and solar. These advances can possibly Source: MNRE [17]
12 A.K. Rohit et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 13 (2017) 10–23
Fig. 2. Growth of renewable energy from 1999 to 2000 to 2015–16.
Source: MNRE [14].
Fig. 3. Fuel mix–installation and Fuel mix – generation [18].
2.2. Energy security
India is expected to grow at 6.7–7.5% [21] for the year 2017–18.
The energy requirement amid the year 2015–16 enrolled a growth
of 4.3% and peak demand enlisted a growth of 3.5% [22]. There has
been lack of 2.1% in energy and 3.2% [22] of peak power in the
nation during 2015–16. Transmission and Distribution (T&D) losses
in India were 21.46% [23] in 2013–2014. A sensible position of
energy storage would diminish the T&D losses and would bring
about more prominent entire system efficiency [24]. Electricity
storage technologies can give energy to the grid to smooth out
transient uncertainties brought on by short-term interferences and
sudden load changes [24].
2.3. Transportation
Vehicle possession has increased in the recent two decades in
India. According to the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
(MoRTH) in 1991, the quantity of vehicles enrolled in the nation
was a little more than 21 million [25]. By 2013, the number had
expanded to 184 million. Transport demand is going to increment
essentially in future. The demand of road transport has increased at
a higher rate compared to rail transport. Road transport has
witnessed 8% compound annual growth rate (CAGR) during the
period 1990 to 2010 compared to 6% in railways [26]. Also, air
traffic is growing at a faster rate compared to rail and road but its
share is 2% only. As per report [27] two wheelers will keep on
increasing and will remain maximum in number among road
transport vehicles in 2035. The share of four wheelers will also rise
significantly.
In year 2011–12, out of total energy consumed by transport
sector, 93%, 5%, and 2% [28] are the percentage share of fuel
consumed by road, rail and aviation/shipping. Energy consumption
in the transport sector has increased from 12.4 million tonnes of oil
equivalent (Mtoe) to 55.5 Mtoe in 2010–11, diesel with the highest
share of 64% followed by gasoline with 24% [26] share in 2010–11.
Imported oil is the major source to fulfil this demand, costing
billions of dollars to the Indian government. Urban transport
arranging in India needs to address various difficulties: breaking
down of air quality, adverse rising energy security dangers, and
rising greenhouse gas discharges. To handle this issue, the
legislature of India propelled National Electric Mobility Mission
in April 2015 which goes for 6–7 million [9] electric vehicles by
2022.
2.4. Climate change and emissions
India is as of now the fourth biggest emitter of Greenhouse
Gasses (GHG) on the planet [27]. Thermal power generation stays
biggest donor in Indian power division with share of 70% [1,29]. But
then, thermal power plants are harmful for both human wellbeing
and environment because of GHG outflows. Note that, degree of
Co2 release (0.9–0.95 kg/kWh) and Sox, Nox discharges from
thermal power plants adds to a dangerous global warming
 A.K. Rohit et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 13 (2017) 10–23
prompting to climate change [2]. Since outflows from fossil fuel
contribute fundamentally to climate change, it is important to
change the present system for generating energy keeping in mind
the final goal to confine a hazardous global warming to well
underneath 2  C above pre-industrial levels, as expressed in the
Paris agreement 2015 [30].
Electrical Energy Storage (ESS) could assume a vital part in the
profound decarbonization of the power sector by offering new,
carbon-free source of operational adaptability, boosting the
integration of various renewable energy sources (i.e., wind and
solar) and enhancing the usage of generation assets in the power
system [31]. This utilization of EES could lessen the measure of
fossil fuel burned by generators, prompting to customary discharge
and GHG reductions [32].
3. Classifications and overview of energy storage technologies
Energy storage system incorporates a method by which
electricity imported from a power grid, is changed over into a
form that could be stored at off- peak demand, when energy cost is
generally low or amid surplus production, and changed over back
to electricity at peak demand or when required [33].
There are several technologies available for storing energy.
These technologies are often classified per the aim that the energy
is hold on. Different approach exists for categorising energy storage
technologies with the form of energy storage and the time of
discharge being the most common. Fig. 4. illustrates broad
classification of energy storage.
3.1. Based on discharge duration
Energy storage technologies depending on discharge period are
divided as short-term (a few seconds or minutes), medium-term
(minutes or hours) and long-term (several h to few days) [24].
3.1.1. Short term response energy storage technology
This category consists of energy storage technologies which
have high power density (MW/m3) and capable respond for short
spans. Power quality improvement, predominantly to maintain the
voltage stability during transients (few seconds or minutes) are
main applications of such energy storage technologies [24].
3.1.2. Medium term response energy storage technology
These energy storage technologies are capable to hold and
supply electrical energy from few minutes to hours. They are
mainly used in power system applications and contribute in
frequency regulation, grid congestion management, and energy
management [24].
Fig. 4. Classification of Energy storage technologies.
13
3.1.3. Real long term response energy storage technology
These technologies are capable of withholding and supplying
energy for real long-term (days, weeks, or months). They are
typically applied to fulfil demand and supply gap over a day or
longer [24].
3.2. Based on form of energy stored
The form of converted energy widely determines the classifi-
cation of energy storage technologies. They may be divided into
five major categories such as mechanical, electrochemical,
chemical, electrical, and thermal energy storage as shown in
Fig. 5. These technologies first convert energy into other form for
storing and converting them back to useful form as required
[13,33].
3.3. Overview
3.3.1. Mechanical energy storage
3.3.1.1. Pumped hydro energy storage (PHES). PHES stores
gravitational potential by lifting water at higher altitude
reservoir from lower reservoir i.e. charging process, with the
help of an electric pump utilizing electric energy during off peak
hours. The releasing procedure i.e. from higher to lower reservoir
at peak demand is the turnaround, it changes gravitational
potential energy into mechanical energy and after that to
electrical energy [34].
PHES has a roundtrip efficiency of 70–80%. Anticipated lifetime
of PHES is around 40–60 years. It is a low cost and most widely used
alternative for storing energy at large scales [33]. The Nagarjuna
sagar plant 770MW, commissioned in 1981 is first pumped storage
plant in India and Tehri Pumped Storage Hydroelectric Power Plant
is the recent one [35]. India plans for 10GW of pumped hydro
storage across the nation over the subsequent five or six years [36].
Due to the permitting procedure required for pumped hydro,
such projects often have a longer development timeline compared
to other forms of energy storage [37]. Low cost, dependability and
ability to deliver power at high levels for numerous hours are its
significant benefits. Readily available energy is it’s another
advantage [38].
3.3.1.2. Compressed air energy Storage(CAES). The working
principle of CAES is very simple. The storage is charged by the
utilization of electrically driven compressors, which change over
the electric energy into potential energy of pressurized air. The
pressurized air is discharged upon demand to create power again
by extension of the air through an air turbine [39]. Normally air is
14 A.K. Rohit et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 13 (2017) 10–23
Fig. 5. Classification of electrical energy storage systems [9].
used as working fluid. CAES systems must store the gas under high
pressure (p = 10 to 30 MPa) [40,41].
Depending on the procedure, CAES technologies are separated
into, Adiabatic (A), Diabatic (D) and Isothermal (I) CAES concepts.
Thus relying on the how heat is handled while compression and
prior to expansion of the air helps in their categorization [42]. In D-
CAES an external heat source is required for the discharging phase
to avoid condensation and freezing of the expansion machinery by
preheating compressed air upstream of the expander. In A-CAES
supplementary thermal energy storage devices captures heat
produced during compression which is then used preceding to
expansion and eliminates the requirement of additional heat
sources while discharging. As opposed to D-CAES and A-CAES
ideas, heat of compression is to be minimized or even averted in I-
CAES ideas [39,42].
Currently it stands second for bulk energy storage after PHES
[13]. CAES works best at the utility size of 10 MW to 100MW, and is
utilized as a wellspring of adaptable supply to give consistent load
reaction and peak-generation [37]. CAES with assessed efficiency
of 70% works well for about 40 years [13,39]. A little self-discharge
rate gives CAES ability to compete with established PHES as the
only potential energy storage technology for long term and large
scale applications [43].
3.3.1.3. Flywheel energy storage (FES). Flywheel acts as a
mechanical battery by storing kinetic energy in the form of
rotating mass [37]. Rotor is generally mounted in evacuated
cylinder, enabling it to accelerate at very fast speed utilizing
renewable or off-peak electricity and storing it in form of rotational
energy [37]. At the time of storing energy i.e. charging, device
works as a motor and as a generator while discharging FESs have
high energy efficiency (>85%). Flywheels are apt for swapping
medium and high powers (kW–MW)for short durations(seconds)
[13,37,44].
Little maintenance, good reliability and very high efficiency,
large number of charge/discharge cycles (hundreds of thousands)
independent of the temperature and the Depth of Discharge (DOD)
provides FES very long(420 years) useful lifetime and its discarding
does not have harmful impact on environmental [37,45].
3.3.2. Electrochemical energy storage
3.3.2.1. Battery energy storage (BES). Secondary or rechargeable
battery is an electrochemical device considered to be the oldest
form of electrical energy storage device [13]. Batteries arrive in an
adaptable cluster of sizes, and are advanced for various
applications. With costs falling as scale increase, these batteries
are encountering fast development [37].
Some of the important secondary batteries such as Lead acid,
Lithium ion, Nickel cadmium, Sodium sulphur, Redox flow and
Hybrid flow batteries are discussed in this section.
3.3.2.1.1. Lead acid battery. The lead-acid battery is a secondary
battery sponsored by 150 years of improvement for various
applications and they are still the most generally utilized for
energy storage in typical applications like emergency power
supply systems, stand-alone systems with PV, battery systems for
mitigation of output fluctuations from wind power and as starter
batteries in vehicles [44,46].
The lead-acid battery consists negative electrode (anode) of
lead, lead dioxide as a positive electrode (cathode) and an
electrolyte of aqueous sulfuric acid which transports the charge
between the two. At the time of discharge both electrodes
consume sulfuric acid from the electrolyte and are converted to
lead sulphate. While recharging the lead sulphate is converted
back to sulfuric acid, parting pure lead on the anode and layer of
lead dioxide on the cathode [47].
The self-discharge rate is low [13]. But deep discharge results in
corrosion of the positive plate [48]. Lead-acid batteries are reliable,
with efficiency (65–80%) and good surge capabilities, are mostly
appropriate for uninterruptible power supply, spinning reserve
and power quality applications. They have low price compared to
other batteries [47]. They have short life (500–1000 cycles), low
energy density (30–50 Wh/kg), releases explosive gas and acid
fumes, require regular maintenance and requires thermal man-
agement system as they perform poorly in cold temperatures [47].
3.3.2.1.2. Nickel cadmium battery (NiCd battery). Nickel Cadmium
(NiCd) batteries are in use since around 1915, then Nickel Metal
 A.K. Rohit et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 13 (2017) 10–23
Hydride (NiMH) batteries which were introduced around 1995
[44].
NiCd batteries composed of a cadmium hydroxide negative as
an anode plate, nickel hydroxide positive cathode plate, with a
separator and a soluble electrolyte. NiCd batteries normally
encased in metal with a sealing plate outfitted with a self-fixing
security valve [47]. NiCd batteries are the only batteries capable of
carrying out well even at low temperatures in the range from
20  C to 40  C. But memory effect in NiCd batteries makes them
unsuitable for VRES integration applications and noxious proper-
ties of cadmium is threat to the environment [44,46,47].
Since Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries have a higher energy
density (50–75 Wh/kg) and have a better life (2000–2500 cycles),
directly compete with lead acid batteries. They are suitable for
uninterruptible power supply and generator start applications
[47].
3.3.2.1.3. Lithium ion battery. Lithium-ion batteries were
commercialized by Sony in 1991[47]. The internal structure and
operation of the lithium-particle battery is distinctive that of
normal batteries. The electrolyte is comprised of lithium salts, (for
example, LiPF6) broke up in organic carbonates. When the battery
is charged, the lithium particles in the cathode become ions and
relocate through the electrolyte toward the carbon anode where
they join with outside electrons and are collected between the
carbon layers as lithium atoms. This procedure is turned around
during the discharge [47].
They can be scaled up to any size required [37]. High power
density, energy density of 200 Wh/kg, high efficiencies of 95% and
above, long life cycle of 3000 cycles at 80% DOD are some of the
desirable characteristics [47] along with low self-discharge rates
and about 100% discharge-charge efficiency [48]. High cost and the
additional hardware required for security and protection is the
fundamental obstacles for substantial scale lithium-ion batteries
[46,47].There real downside is that they are delicate with
temperature dependent life cycle [13]. Concerning environment
effect of transition metals i.e. cobalt, technologies for recuperating
it from spent batteries are available [48].
Fig. 6. Working of Vanadium Redox Flow Battery [49].
15
3.3.2.1.4. Sodium sulphur battery (NaS battery). Initially created by
the Ford Motor Company in the 1960's. Sodium sulphur batteries
store energy chemically into sulphur and sodium by separating
sodium polysulphide [37].
Sodium sulphur batteries, comprise of fluid (liquid) sulphur at
the positive terminal and fluid (liquid) sodium at the negative
electrode, the ceramic electrolyte isolates dynamic materials by a
strong beta alumina. Battery temperature is maintained in the
range of 300  C–350  C to keep electrodes in molten stage [44,47].
The electrolyte permits just the positive sodium particles to pass
through it and fuses with sulphur to shape sodium polysulphides
[47].
Due to high power density (150–240 W/kg), good efficiency
(75–90%), 600% rated pulse power capability that can last 30 s and
cycles up to 2500 times makes NaS batteries as fascinating rising
technology for VRES generation management. NaS batteries are
environmentally benign. Furthermore, battery materials more
than 99% of its general weight is reusable. Just sodium must be
taken care of as a dangerous material [46].
Regular life cycles of about 4500 cycles and a release time of
6.0 h to 7.2 h is achieved by the NaS battery [44]. The real
disadvantage is that it requires heat source which exploits the
battery's own stored energy, in part lessening the battery
performance [47,13].
3.3.2.1.5. Redox flow battery. A flow battery is also a rechargeable
battery having two electrolytes each with a redox couple.
Important feature of this battery is that their energy and power
can be expanded, energy by expanding the measure of the
electrolyte tank and power by expanding the cell dimensions [48].
Fig. 6, demonstrates operation of Vanadium Redox Batteries
(VRB). In this battery one or both active material is always in the
electrolyte solutions. These batteries store energy by exploiting
vanadium redox couples (V4+/V5+ in the positive half-cells and
V2+/V3+ in the negative). During the charge/release cycles, H+
particles are transferred between the two electrolyte tanks
through the hydrogen-ion penetrable polymer membrane. The
efficiency can be as high as 85% and cell voltage in the range of 1.4
to 1.6 V [47,44]. Their points of interest include: tolerance to
16 A.K. Rohit et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 13 (2017) 10–23
overcharging, low support cost, and capacity to be deep charged
without influencing the cycle life [13].
VRB are modular down to 5 kW/10 kW h, have an efficiency of
75%–80%, and have a high cycle life of more than 12,000 at 100%
depth of charge. Due to their energy density of 16–33 kW h/m3,
they involve a lot of space, and are appropriate for little or medium
stationary VRES applications [46]. Sun-carrier Omega Net Zero
Building in Bhopal, India utilizes VRB of 45 kW rated power and
100 kW h energy storage capacity to store energy generated from
Solar PV [35,50].
3.3.2.1.6. Hybrid flow Battery(HFB). In Hybrid Flow Battery(HFB),
one of the active masses is internally stored inside the
electrochemical cell, while another stay in the fluid electrolyte
and is stored remotely in a tank. The capacity of the battery relies
on the size of the electrochemical cell. Typical examples of a HFB
are the Zn-Ce and the Zn-Br systems. In both cases the anolyte
comprises of an acid solution of Zn2+ particles. Amid charging Zn is
stored at the anode and at releasing Zn2+ backpedals into solution.
As film a microporous polyolefin material is utilized; the greater
part of the cathodes are carbon-plastic composites [44]. Fig. 7,
shows schematic of Zinc-bromine battery. The net efficiency of this
battery is about 75%.
3.3.3. Chemical energy storage
New substance capable of holding potential energy for later use
can be created through suitable chemical reactions. They include:
methane, hydrogen, hydrocarbons, synthetic natural gas, metha-
nol, butanol and ethanol. Hydrogen is regarded as chemical
compound which can be easily produced from electricity amongst
the above listed compounds [13,37].
3.3.3.1. Hydrogen energy Storage(HES). A normal hydrogen storage
system comprises of an electrolyzer, a hydrogen storage tank and a
fuel cell. An electrolyzer is a converter which parts water with the
assistance of electricity into hydrogen and oxygen
electrochemically. To create power, both gasses flow into the
fuel cell where an electrochemical reaction which is opposite to the
water splitting happens: hydrogen and oxygen react and deliver
water, heat is discharged producing electricity [44,46].
Off peak power is utilized to electrolyse water to create
hydrogen for energy storage application [13]. Storing hydrogen in
Fig. 7. Working of Hybrid Flow Battery [13].
different forms as compressed gas, liquefied gas, metal hydrides or
carbon nanostructures is also possible. In fixed applications,
gaseous storage under high compression is the most prevalent
decision. Smaller measures of hydrogen can be stored in over the
ground tanks or bottles at pressure up to 900 bar [44].
One noteworthy disadvantage is the considerable energy loss
amid a single cycle (from hydrogen production to electricity
generation from fuel cell) in utilizing hydrogen for energy storage.
3.3.3.2. Synthesis natural gas (SNG). Methane synthesis (likewise
called engineered common gas, SNG) is the second alternative for
storing electricity in chemical form. After water splitting by an
electrolyzer, another step is required in which hydrogen and
carbon dioxide react to methane in a methanation reactor. Just like
the case for hydrogen, the SNG produced can be put away in
pressure tanks, underground, or encouraged straight forwardly
into the gas grid. Several CO2 sources are available for the methane
synthesis process, for example, fossil-fuelled power stations,
industrial establishments or biogas plants. The creation of SNG
is ideal at areas where CO2 and excess electricity are both
accessible. Specifically, the utilization of CO2 from biogas
generation procedures is promising as it is a broadly utilized
technology [44].
Comparatively low efficiency of SNG owing to the conversion
losses in methanation, electrolysis, storage, transport and the
subsequent power generation are the key disadvantage. It has an
overall AC–AC efficiency <35%, even lower than hydrogen. Fig. 8,
underneath shows a comprehensive diagram of the consolidated
utilization of hydrogen and SNG as chemical energy storage.
3.3.4. Electrical energy storage
3.3.4.1. Double layer capacitors (Supercapacitors). Electrochemical
double Layer Capacitors (DLC), otherwise called Supercapacitors,
are energy storage devices which follow same basic equations as
traditional capacitors but uses thinner dielectrics and often porous
carbon or higher surface area electrodes for accumulating large
amount of charge carriers and capacitances (up to 5000F) [51,47].
As a result of the minimum distance between the plates(less than
1 nm) and larger surface area of activated carbons up to 2000 m2
per gram, provides capability for supercapacitors to have extensive
 A.K. Rohit et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 13 (2017) 10–23 17

Fig. 8. Overall concept for the use of Hydrogen and SNG as energy carriers [44].

Fig. 9. Double Layer Capacitor/Supercapacitor [47].

energy storage and capacitances [47,13]. Fig 9, shows
supercapacitor and its working principle.
Benefits include, enormously high capacitance qualities, of the
order of numerous thousand farads [44], long cycle life, low inner
resistance, quick charging and discharge, great reversibility,
incredible low temperature execution, no destructive substance,
lower cost per cycle, high cycle efficiency (up to 95%), no moving
parts, modular design, perfect with existing source-voltage
inverter, can give VAR(reactive power) and kW (active power)
support [51].
GigaCapacitor Hyderabad Test Project (IL) in Hyderabad India, is
Supercapacitor based facility with rated power of 15,000kW [35].
3.3.4.2. Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
(SMES). Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
system is based on an electrodynamic principle. The flow of
direct current in a superconducting coil cryogenically cooled at
very low temperature creates magnetic field in which energy is
stored. Ordinarily, the conductor is made of niobium-titanium, and
the coolant can be fluid helium at 4.2 K, or super liquid helium at
1.8 K [13,44,46,47]. The SMES system with three noteworthy parts,
is shown in Fig. 10.
The energy stored in the SMES coil can be figured by E = 0.5LI2,
where L is the coil inductance and I is the current circulating in it
[47].
The essential benefits of SMES are the swift response time: the
demanded power is accessible promptly. Additionally, the
framework is described by its high general round- trip efficiency
(85%–90%) and the powerful yield which can be supplied for a brief
timeframe. However, the over-all reliability depends immediately
on the refrigeration framework [44]. The significant issues going
up against the usage of SMES units are the high cost and ecological
issues connected with solid magnetic field [47].
3.3.5. Thermal energy storage (TES)
Thermal Energy Storage(TES) now a day exists in a wide range of
applications. Materials used in it can be kept at high/low
temperatures in insulated containments. The overall round trip
18 A.K. Rohit et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 13 (2017) 10–23

KVK Energy Solar Project with rated power 1000 kW and

Gujarat solar one with rated power 25,000 kW are molten salt
based thermal energy storage plants in Rajasthan and Gujarat of
India respectively [35].

3.3.5.2. Cross linear concentrated solar plant (CL-CSP). The

Fig. 10. SMES system.
efficiency of TES is low (30–60%) in spite of the fact that the heat
cycle efficiency could be high (70–90%), yet it is generous to the
earth and may have certain focal points for renewable and
commercial buildings [47]. Thermal storage can be subdivided into
distinct technologies: storage of sensible heat, storage of latent
heat, and thermo-chemical absorption and adsorption storage
[44].
Latent heat storage can be attained by employing phase change
materials (PCMs). Thus, utilizing molten salts as a thermal storage
medium for Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) plants [44]. empow-
ers them to dispatch power outside their ordinary operational
hours of daytime sun [10].
innovative Cross linear solar concentration system, invented by
Prof. Yutaka Tamaura at Tokyo Institute of Technology can achieve
the temperature range of 300–600  C [54,55]. The basic idea of CL-
CSP system is shown in Fig. 12. It’s hybridization of two solar
thermal technologies. It is a dual axis system and has merits of both
conventional Linear Fresnel and Tower technologies. This solar
concentration system is placed between linear and point focusing
concentration. This technology is a new, low-cost solar
concentrator system [56,54].
It is marked with the better thermal efficiency and optical
efficiency (than Linear Fresnel and Trough type) as well. The CL-
CSP concept is 30% efficient than existing solar energy which is 15%
efficient, and may reduce 10% of coal consumption worth of
Rs.1000 crore in the India per year [54,57].
Worlds first 30 kW-thermal Cross Linear Concentrated Solar
Plant (CL-CSP) test unit is successfully installed at the Rajiv Gandhi
Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya (RGPV), Bhopal, India. This pilot
project is the joint venture of Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy, Govt. of India, Bergen Solar Power & Energy Ltd., Tokyo
Engineering Corporation, Japan and SolarFlame Corporation, Japan
with Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya (RGPV) as the
implementing institute [54,55,57].

3.3.5.1. Concentrated solar power (CSP). CSP utilizes TES for storing
solar thermal energy [52]. Thermal energy in the form of heat is
collected from solar field and stored in system with storage. Molten
salt is the most frequently used storage medium and is used in the
two-tank storage system [10,53].
Fig. 11, displays the concept of storage technique in the CSP
plant. The extra heat gathered in the solar field is released to the
heat exchanger and warms the molten salt going from the cold
tank to the hot tank. At peak period, the put away heat can be sent
to the steam generator to create the steam [24]. The CSP has power
capacity extends between 10 kW for little applications to 200 MW
(or much higher) for grid linking applications [52]. Their
efficiencies of CSP varies depending on the heat storage material
used [9].
Fig. 12. Concept of Cross Linear Concentrated solar power plant [56].

Fig. 11. Concentrated solar power plant.

 A.K. Rohit et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 13 (2017) 10–23 19

4. Energy storage technologies and comparison from few watts to thousands of megawatts providing information
about the installed capacity of the system.
Every energy storage technology has various features and
characteristics, with some exceptional characteristics making
4.4. Discharge time and self-discharge
them different from each other. With the help of these character-
istics and features, it is possible to select most suitable energy
Discharge time is the entire time in which maximum power of
storage technology for a given conditions. This segment concen-
an energy storage device is released (maximum-power discharge
trates on the comparison of the technical features of selected
duration) [58]. The portion of the energy in storage device, stored
energy storage technologies. Tables 1 and 2 gives comparison of
initially after charging and has dissipated over a certain amount of
different characteristics.
non-use time refers to the self-discharge of the storage device [58].
4.1. Energy and power density
4.5. Round-trip efficiency
The power density of any Energy Storage(ES) technology is
Round-trip efficiency or cycle efficiency is the ratio of the
characterized as the rated power yield divided by the volume of the
electricity output to the electricity input. Thus, SMES, Super-
device. Its unit is W/kg or W/l. This is marginally not the same as
capacitors, Flywheel and Li-ion battery with very high cycle
the energy density which is characterized as energy stored divided
efficiency of >90% are at the top amongst energy storage devices.
by the volume of the storage device (Wh/kg or Wh/l) [13]. Fig. 13,
PHES, CAES, Batteries and Flow batteries hold high cycle efficiency
and moreover Table 1 gives a quick comparison.
in the range of 60–90%. But Hydrogen energy storage and Thermal
energy storage exhibits cycle efficiency lower than 60% [13,47,58].
4.2. Storage Capacity/Duration
4.6. Technology maturity
The overall energy available or stored in the energy storage
device after charging refers to the storage capacity. It is measured
It plays an important role while selecting any energy storage
in Watthour (Wh). Storage duration of any energy store device acts
technology. A matured technology is preferred owing to more
as a crucial property as well. It refers to the stored energy which
expertise in the field. As technology becomes more mature, there is
can be supplied by an energy storage device over a period of time
reduction in the investment required [13,47]. Maturity level is
[13,47,58]. Table 2 shows, PHES and CAES have large storage
shown in Fig. 15.
capacity which makes them appropriate for grid scale energy
storage application.
4.7. Capital cost
4.3. Power rating
For widespread use of any energy storage technology, capital
Power rating comparison of various energy storage devices is cost is an imperative factor. As shown in Table 1, it is expressed in
shown in Fig. 14 and Table 2, gives quick these technologies ranging cost per kWh and per kW. The supplementary parts utilized by

Table 1
Comparison of different energy storage technologies [10,13,24,41,47].

ES Energy Density Power Density Discharge Time Life Time Capital Cost Technological
Technology Wh/kg (Wh/l) W/kg (W/l) (Years) Maturity
$/KW $/KWh
Mechanical Energy Storage
PHES 0.5–1.5 (0.5–1.5) – 1–24 h + 40–60 600–2000 5–100 Matured
CAES 30–60 (3–6) (0.5–2.0) 1–24 h + 20–40 400–800 2–50 Developed
Flywheel 10–30 400–1500 Millisecs– 15 250–300 500–1000 Commercial
15 min

Electrochemical Energy Storage

Lead Acid Battery 30–50 (50–80) 75–300 (10–400) Secs–hrs 5–15 200–300 120–150 Commercial
NiCd Battery 50–75 (60 150) 150–300 Secs–hrs 10–20 500–1500 800–1500 Commercial
Sodium Sulfur (NaS)Battery 150–240 (150–250) 150–230 Secs–hrs 10–15 1000– 300–500 Commercial
3000
Lithium Battery (Li-ion) 75–200 (200–250) 150–315 Mins–hrs 5–15 1200– 300–1300 Demonstration
4000
VRFB 10–30 (16–33) –– Secs–10 h 5–10 600–1500 150–1000 Demonstration

Electrical Energy Storage

Double Layer Capacitor/ super 2.5–15 (10–30) 500–5000(100,000 Millisecs–60 20+ 100–300 300–2000 Developed
Capacitor +) min
SMES 0.5–5 500–2000 Millisecs–secs 20+ 200–300 1000– Demonstration
10,000

Chemical Energy Storage

Hydrogen Fuel Cells 800–10,000 (500– 500+ (500+) Secs–24 h+ 5–15 – 6000– Developing
3000) 20,000
SNG 10,000(1800) (0.2–2) 1–24 h + 10–30 – – Developing

Thermal Energe Storage

CSP (43.05) – Mins–hrs 30 – 3500–7000 Developing
20 A.K. Rohit et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 13 (2017) 10–23

Table 2
Comparison of different energy storage technologies [10,13,24,41,47,59,60].

ES Technology Power Storage Self Cycle Life Round trip Response Class Impact on Environment
Rating duration Discharge (cycles) Efficiency (%) time
Per day
Mechanical Energy Storage
PHES 100– Hours– Very small – 65–87% 1–2 min Real Significant, huge areas of natural landscapes are
5000 MW months long required.
term
CAES 5– Hours– Small – 50–89% 1–2 min Real Emissions from combustion of natural gas.
300 MW months long
term
Flywheel 0– Sec–mins 100% – 85–95% 1–2 min Short Negligible, only for production, construction.
250 kW term

Electrochemical Energy Storage

Lead Acid Battery 0–20 MW Mins– 0.1–0.3% 500–1000 75–80% Seconds Long Lead is known to be very poisonous and
days term contaminating for soil and water.
NiCd Battery 0–40 MW Mins– 0.2–0.6% 2000– 85–90% Seconds Long Cadmium is toxic and dangerous for health and
days 2500 term environment.
Sodium Sulfur (NaS) 50 kW– Sec- 20% 2500 80–90% Seconds Short Significant as the liquid sodium reacts easily
battery 8 MW hours term with the water in the atmosphere.
Lithium Battery 0– Mins– 0.1–0.3% 1000– 85–90% Seconds Long Rather low, impact mostly through emissions in
(Li-ion) 100 kW days 10000+ term manufacturing of the cells.
VRFB 30 kW– Hrs– Small 12000+ 85–90% Seconds Real Toxic remains.
3 MW months long
term

Electrical Energy Storage

Double Layer Capacitor/ 0– Sec– 20–40% 100,000+ 90–95% Milliseconds Short Negligible, no heavy metal or disposal issue.
super Capacitor 300 kW hours term
SMES 100 kW– Mins– 10–15% 100,000+ 95–98% Milliseconds Short Harmful due to very strong magnetic field.
10 MW hours term

Chemical Energy Storage

Hydrogen Fuel cell 0–50 MW Hrs– Almost Zero 100+ 20–50% Sec–mins Real Negligible, as by product is water and little
months Long amount of Co2.
term
SNG – – – 1000– 30–38% Mins Real Very low, only for construction.
10,000 Long
term

Thermal Energe Storage

CSP 10 kW– – 1% – <60% 10 min Long Negligible, only for construction.
200 MW term

Fig. 13. Comparison of Power density and Energy density (in relation to volume) of ES technologies [44].
 A.K. Rohit et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 13 (2017) 10–23 21

Fig. 14. Comparison of Rated power, Energy content and Discharge time of different ES technologies [44].

Fig. 15. Maturity of ES technologies [43].

some energy storage technology add to the aggregate capital cost
of the system.
4.8. Response time
Response time of any energy storage technology basically refers
to, how swiftly an energy storage device releases its stored energy
to fulfil the required demand. Flywheel, SMES and Supercapacitors
offers very swift response time in milliseconds, Batteries response
time in seconds and PHES, CAES in minutes [13]. This is shown in
Table 2.
4.9. Impact on environment
In present global world, sustainable development, emissions
and climate change have become major point of concern. As a
result, impact of energy storage technologies on environment has
become an important aspect in their selection for any application
[47,58]. Influence of various energy storage technologies on
environment is shown in Table 2.
5. Conclusion
Based on the study following points can be concluded: –
1. No single energy storage technology meets all the requirement
to be an ideal one. It is found that every energy storage
technology has got some unique features which gives it an edge
over the other and their selection depends on the task to be
accomplished.
2. HES have enormously high energy density and PHES, SMES,
Capacitor/supercapacitor and Flywheel have least energy
density. Whereas Batteries, TES and CAES hold medium energy
density. But, the power densities of SMES, Supercapacitor and
Flywheel are quite high. Among the batteries, NaS and Li-ion
batteries have a higher energy density.
3. PHES and CAES due to long discharge durations are fit for
energy management of largescale generations. Hydrogen fuel
cell, TES and Flow batteries finds application in medium scale
energy management. Quick response devices like SMES,
Supercapacitor, Flywheels and Batteries are apt for
22 A.K. Rohit et al. / Journal of Energy Storage 13 (2017) 10–23
maintaining the power quality like, voltage drop and flicker
mitigation. Batteries, Flow batteries and HES have compara-
tively long discharge durations and are more applicable in
bridging power.
4. PHES, CAES, HES and Flow batteries have very little self-
discharge and can supply energy for long durations, whereas
Lead acid battery, NiCd, Li-ion and TES have medium self-
discharge. NaS battery, Supercapacitor and SMES have 10–40%
self-discharge per day, which is quite high among the selected
energy storage devices.
5. In relation to capital cost per kWh, CAES, PHES, falls in the low
range. CAES requires lower capital cost per kWh than the PHES.
Flywheel, supercapacitors, SMES have both large power
density and capital cost per kWh, whereas fuel cell is the
most expensive among all.
6. In Thermal energy storage, CL-CSP technology can play a
pivotal role in near future to increase renewable energy share.
It is low cost and more efficient technology than other
focussing Solar thermal storages.
7. In terms of life time, CAES, PHES, and HES usually have very
long life. SMES and Supercapacitors also have comparatively
long life. Whereas chemical deterioration in batteries shortens
their life.
8. Battery energy storage system is one of the most suitable
option among energy storage systems to fulfil rural energy
demands as it is easily available, most mature technology, and
portable. It can also be scaled up as per demand.
9. PHES can become essential link in bridging supply and demand
gap in India, by utilizing abundant renewable energy for grid
scale energy generation.
10. With expanding renewable and conventional energy sector in
India, implementation of energy storage systems would be a
critical part to accomplish the inclusive goal of India’s dynamic
energy initiatives. Hence Energy storage systems has a very
momentous role to play.
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