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8
Columns

Loren W. Zachary 8.1 Fundamentals

Buckling of Long Straight Columns • Effective Lengths •
Iowa State University
Compression Blocks and Intermediate Lengths
John B. Ligon 8.2 Examples
Michigan Technological University 8.3 Other Forms of Instability

A column is an initially straight load-carrying member that is subjected to a compressive axial load. The
failure of a column in compression is different from one loaded in tension. Under compression, a column
can deform laterally or buckle, and this deflection can become excessive. The buckling of columns is a
major cause of failure. To illustrate the fundamental aspects of the buckling of long, straight, prismatic
bars, consider a thin meter stick. If a tensile axial load is applied to the meter stick, the stable equilibrium
position is that of a straight line. If the stick is given a momentary side load to cause a lateral deflection,
upon its release the stick immediately returns to the straight line configuration. If a compressive axial
load is applied, a different result may occur. At small axial loads, the meter stick will again return to a
straight line configuration after being displaced laterally. At larger loads the meter stick will remain in
the displaced position. With an attempt to increase the axial load acting on the buckled column, the
lateral deformations become excessive and failure occurs.
In theory, a column that is long and perfectly straight is in stable equilibrium for small loads up to a
specific critical buckling load. At this critical buckling load, the beam will remain straight unless it is
perturbed and displays large lateral deformations. This is a bifurcation point since the column can be in
equilibrium with two different shapes — laterally displaced or perfectly straight. The load in this neutral
equilibrium state is the critical buckling load and, for long slender columns, is referred to as the Euler
buckling load. At loads higher than the critical load the beam is in unstable equilibrium.

8.1 Fundamentals
Buckling of Long Straight Columns
In 1757, Leonhard Euler published the solution to the problem of long slender columns buckling under
compressive loads. Figure 8.1(a) shows a column that is deflected in the lateral direction. The load Pcr is
the smallest load that will just hold the column in the laterally deflected shape. The ends of the beam
are free to rotate and are commonly referred to as being pinned, hinged, or simply supported. The following
assumptions are used in determining Pcr:
1. The beam is initially straight with a constant cross-section along its length.
2. The material is linearly elastic, isotropic, and homogeneous.
3. The load is applied axially through the centroidal axis.

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Pcr Pcr
Pcr Pcr

Leff Leff L

Pinned-Pinned Fixed-Free Fixed-Fixed Fixed-Pinned

Leff = L Leff = 2L Leff = L/2 Leff = 0.7L

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 8.1 Effective column lengths.

4. The ends are pinned–pinned (pinned end condition at both ends).

5. No residual stresses exist in the column prior to loading.
6. No distortion or twisting of the cross-section occurs during loading.
7. The classical differential equation for the elastic curve can be used since the deflections are small.
Standard mechanics of materials textbooks [Riley and Zachary, 1989] and structural stability textbooks
[Chajes, 1974] contain the derivation of the following formula:

Pcr
L = np, n = 1, 2, 3,K (8.1)
EI

The smallest value for Pcr occurs when n = 1. Larger values of n give magnitudes of Pcr that will never be
reached in practice.

p 2 EI
pcr = (8.2)
L2

The Euler buckling load, Pcr, is calculated using the moment of inertia I of the column cross-section about
which axis buckling (bending) occurs. The moment of inertia can also be written in terms of the radius
of gyration about the same axis:

I = Ar2 (8.3)

Table 8.1 gives some formulas that are helpful in determining the radius of gyration and moment of
inertia. Using Equation (8.2) and Equation (8.3), the Euler buckling stress, scr , in terms of the slenderness
ratio L/r, is

Pcr p2E
s cr = = (8.4)
A (L / r )2

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Table 8.1 Properties of Selected Areas

Ro A = p(Ro2 - Ri2 )

p 4
c Ic = (R - Ri4 )
Ri 4 o
4 4
1 Ro - Ri
rc =
2 Ro2 - Ri2

y A = bh

1 3 1 3
Ix = bh Iy = hb
h
x 12 12
h b
b rx = ry =
12 12

wf y A = w f t f + hwt w
tf
Ê t f ˆ h 2t
x w f t f Á hw + ˜ + w w
Ë 2¯ 2
d hw y=
–
y
A
1 1 1
I x = w f (d - y)3 + t w y 3 - (w f - t w )(hw - y)3
tw 3 3 3
1 1
Iy = t f w 3f + hwt 3w
12 12
rx = I x / A ry = I y / A

wf y A = 2w f t f + hwt w
tf
d
y=
2
d hw x
tw 1 1
Ix = w f d3 - (w f - t w )hw3
12 12
tf
wf 1 1
I y = t f w 3f + hwt 3w
6 12
rx = I x / A ry = I y / A

Effective Lengths
The development given above is for a beam with simple supports at both ends. Other boundary conditions
give equations similar to Equation (8.4) if the physical length of the beam, L, is replaced by the effective
length Leff.

p2E
s cr = (8.5)
(L eff / r )2

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400 MPa

Compressive Failure Stress σcr σys

0 MPa
0 100 200 300 400
Slenderness Ratio L /r
Euler
Yield

FIGURE 8.2 Effect of slenderness ratio on compressive failure stress.

Figure 8.1 gives the effective lengths for four classic end condition cases. The effective lengths are all
measured between the inflection points of the elastic curves. The moments at the inflection points, yn =
0, are zero. This observation can be used to estimate the effective length of other boundary condition
cases. If one can estimate the elastic curve and visualize the location of the inflection points, a rough
estimate of the effective length can be obtained.

Compression Blocks and Intermediate Lengths

A plot of Equation (8.5), using a generic steel with a Young’s modulus, E, of 200 GPa for illustration
purposes, is shown as the solid curved line in Figure 8.2. For columns that are very short and stocky
where L/r approaches zero, Equation (8.5) predicts that the column will support a very large load or
normal stress. However, the mechanism of failure changes when the column becomes a short compression
block. The compressive yield strength limits the compressive normal load that can be carried by the
column. The horizontal dotted line in Figure 8.2 represents the yield stress limit that the column can
sustain due to compressive block failure.
Critical buckling loads for large values of L/r are predicted with a high degree of confidence using
Euler’s column equation. Failure loads for small values of L/r are reliably predicted from compressive
yield strength criteria for the compression block. Columns that have effective lengths in the region near
the yield strength magnitude on the Euler curve may behave either as an Euler column or a compressive
block. Experiments using the particular material in question establish the shape of the curve between
the compression block values and the Euler column values. Standard mechanics of materials textbooks
[Riley and Zachary, 1989] give empirical formulas for this range. Using a horizontal line to cover the
complete compression block and intermediate ranges usually predicts a higher critical buckling load than
is found experimentally.

8.2 Examples
The following examples illustrate the procedure for determining the critical buckling load and stress for
columns of several different cross-sections and effective lengths. Initially, the slenderness ratio for the
two principal directions of possible buckling must be calculated to determine which direction controls.
The direction with the largest slenderness ratio will give the smallest buckling load.

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20 mm
y

35 mm

FIGURE 8.3 Cross-section used in Example 8.1.

Example 8.1: Checking Both Directions for Buckling

Consider the rectangular cross-section shown in Figure 8.3. Both ends of the column are pinned
for the pinned–pinned condition in Figure 8.1(a). The physical length of the column is 1.5 m.
Determine the Euler buckling load if the column is made of steel (E = 200 GPa). Using Table 8.1,

A = (20 mm)(35 mm) = 700 mm2

h 20 mm
ry = = = 5.77 mm
12 12
b 32 mm
rz = = = 10.10 mm
12 12

The column tends to bend (buckle) about the y axis since ry is smaller than rz, producing the
maximum L/r and the smallest Pcr and scr for the 1.5-m length.
If the ends of the column are later restrained or fixed with respect to buckling about one of the
axes — say the y axis — this changes the boundary conditions for buckling to the fixed–fixed
condition [Figure 8.1(c)] for that direction. The effective length of the beam is then half the physical
length or 750 mm for buckling about the y axis.

Ly L / 2 750 mm
= = = 130
ry ry 5.77 mm

L z L 1500 mm
= = = 149
rz rz 10.10 mm

The column will now buckle about the z axis before the load can become large enough to cause
buckling about the y axis. Although the moment of inertia and radius of gyration about the y axis
are smaller than about the z axis, the end conditions significantly influence the slenderness ratio
and the axis about which buckling occurs.

p 2 EA p 2 200(10)9 N / m2 ¥ 700(10)-6 m2
Pcr = 2
= = 62.2 kN
(L z / rz ) (149)2 Ans.

Pcr 62.2(10)3 N
s cr = = = 88.9 MPa Ans.
A 700(10)-6 m2

According to the Euler buckling formula, any load below 62.2 kN will not cause the column to
buckle. No factor of safety is included in the calculations. In practice, however, such a factor should

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8 mm

z
50 mm

z y

R −
y
25 mm
y

(a) (b)

FIGURE 8.4 Cross-sections used in Example 8.2a and Example 8.2b.

be used, since real columns are never ideally straight nor is column loading purely axial. Some
inadvertent bending moment or load eccentricity is always possible. The scr calculated above is the
axial compressive stress in the beam just before the beam deforms laterally. This stress is relatively
small when compared to a yield strength for structural steel of approximately 250 MPa. The
compressive stress in long slender beams at or below the critical buckling stress scr can be much
less than the yield strength of the material. It is imperative that failure due to buckling be checked
for compressive loads.

Example 8.2a: Built-Up Section

A single 20-mm solid steel rod is being used in compression. It has been determined that the rod
will buckle. It has been decided that two rods will be welded together — Figure 8.4(a) — in order
to increase the buckling load. Does this increase the Euler buckling load?
The parallel axis theorem can be used to determine the combined moments of inertia and radii of
gyration. The term d in the following equation is the transfer distance from the centroid of the
component area to the centroid of the entire cross-section.

I= Â(I c + Ad 2 )

2 Arcz2 + 2 Adz2 R
rz = I z / A = = rcz2 + dz2 = (R / 2)2 + R2 = 5
2A 2

2 Arcy2 + 2 Ady2 R
ry = I y / A = = rcy2 + dy2 = (R / 2)2 + 0 =
2A 2

The radius of gyration is not increased for bending about the y axis compared to the single rod
value of R/2. The buckling load will remain the same even though the column has been stiffened
in one direction.

Example 8.2b: Built-Up Section

Consider the composite aluminum (E = 70 GPa) section in Figure 8.4(b). Determine the maximum
compressive stress that can be applied. The end conditions are as follows: about the y axis, the ends

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are fixed–pinned [see Figure 8.1(d)], and about the z axis, the ends are fixed–fixed [see Figure
8.1(d)]. The column length is 2 m.

Compared to Example 8.2a, the radius of gyration about the y axis has the same basic definition,
but the details are slightly different.

Arect = (8 mm)(50 mm) = 400 mm2

Arod = p(12.5 mm)2 = 490.9 mm2

y=
 Ay = (400 mm )50 mm + (490.9 mm)12.5 mm = 29.34 mm
2

ÂA
2 2
400 mm + 490.9 mm

r =
y
 I =  A(r + d )
y y
2 2
y

ÂA ÂA
Ê Ê 50 ˆ 2 ˆ Ê Ê 12.5 ˆ 2 ˆ
2 2
400 Á Á + (50 - 29.34) ˜ + 490 .9 Á ÁË ˜ + (29.34 - 12.5) ˜
Á Ë 12 ˜¯ ˜ Ë 2 ¯ ¯
Ë ¯
=
890.9
= 21.52 mm

rz =
 I =  A(r + d )
z z
2 2
z

ÂA ÂA
2 2
Ê 8 ˆ Ê 12.5 ˆ
400 Á ˜ + 490.9 ÁË ˜
Ë 12 ¯ 2 ¯
= = 4.891 mm
890.9

The slenderness ratio for buckling about the z axis controls since rz is less than one-fourth of the
value about the y axis:

Ly 0.7 L 0.7(2000 mm)

= = = 65.1
ry ry 21.52 mm

For many materials a slenderness ratio of 65.1 places the beam in the intermediate length range.

L z L / 2 1000 mm
= = = 204.5
rz rz 4.891 mm

The beam acts as an Euler beam for buckling about the z axis:

p2E p 2 70(10 9 ) N / m2
s cr = 2
= = 16.52 MPa Ans.
(L z / rz ) (204.5)2

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8.3 Other Forms of Instability

Beams can also fail due to local instabilities. There can be a crushing type of failure that is familiar in
the crushing of thin-walled soda pop cans. The above formulas do not apply in such instances [Young,
1989]. Hollow rods subjected to torsion can buckle locally due to the compressive principal stress acting
at a 45∞ angle to the longitudinal axis of the rod. Beams can fail in a combined bending and torsion
fashion. An I-beam, with a pure moment applied, can have the flanges on the compression side buckle.
When lateral loads are present in conjunction with an axial compressive load, the beam acts as a beam-
column [Chen and Atsuta, 1976].

Defining Terms
Critical buckling load — The smallest compressive load at which a column will remain in the laterally
displaced, buckled shape.
Critical buckling stress — The smallest compressive stress at which a column will remain in the laterally
displaced, buckled shape.
E — Young’s modulus of elasticity, which is the slope of the stress versus strain diagram in the initial
linear region.
Euler buckling load — Same as the critical buckling load if the column is long and slender.
Euler buckling stress — Same as the critical buckling stress if the column is long and slender.

References
Chajes, A. 1974. Principles of Structural Stability Theory. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Chen, W. F. and Atsuta, T. 1976. Theory of Beam-Columns, vol. 1, In-Plane Behavior and Design. McGraw-
Hill, New York.
Riley, W. F. and Zachary, L. W. 1989. Introduction to Mechanics of Materials. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Young, W. C. 1989. Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Further Information
Journal of Structural Engineering of the American Society of Civil Engineers
Engineering Journal of American Institute of Steel Construction
Structural Stability Research Council. 1976. Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures, 3rd
ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Salmon, C. G. and Johnson, J. E. 1990. Steel Structures, 3rd ed. HarperCollins, New York.

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