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I
Statics
1 Force-System Resultants and Equilibrium Russell C. Hibbeler
Force-System Resultants • Equilibrium
2 Centroids and Distributed Forces Walter D. Pilkey and L. Kitis
Centroid of a Plane Area • Centroid of a Volume • Surface Forces • Line Forces •
Calculation of Surface Area and Volume of a Body with Rotational Symmetry •
Determination of Centroids
3 Moments of Inertia J. L. Meriam
Area Moments of Inertia • Mass Moments of Inertia
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1
Force-System
Resultants
and Equilibrium

1.1 Force-System Resultants

Concurrent Force Systems • Moment of a Force • Couple •
Resultants of a Force and Couple System • Distributed Loadings
1.2 Equilibrium
Equations of Equilibrium • Free-Body Diagram • Support
Russell C. Hibbeler Reactions • Friction • Constraints • Internal Loadings •
University of Louisiana at Lafayette Numerical Applications

Statics is a branch of mechanics that deals with the equilibrium of bodies, that is, those that are either
at rest or move with constant velocity. In order to apply the laws of statics, it is first necessary to understand
how to simplify force systems and compute the moment of a force. In this chapter these topics will be
discussed, and some examples will be presented to show how the laws of statics are applied.

1.1 Force-System Resultants

Concurrent Force Systems
Force is a vector quantity that is characterized by its magnitude, direction, and point of application.
When two forces F1 and F2 are concurrent they can be added together to form a resultant FR = F1 + F2
using the parallelogram law, Figure 1.1. Here F1 and F2 are referred to as components of FR. Successive
applications of the parallelogram law can also be applied when several concurrent forces are to be added;
however, it is generally simpler to first determine the two components of each force along the axes of a
coordinate system and then add the respective components. For example, the x, y, z (or Cartesian)
components of F are shown in Figure 1.2. Here, i, j, k are unit vectors used to define the direction of the
positive x, y, z axes, and Fx, Fy, Fz are the magnitudes of each component. By vector addition, F = Fx i +
Fy j + Fzk. When each force in a concurrent system of forces is expressed by its Cartesian components,
the resultant force is therefore

FR = ÂF i + ÂF j+ ÂF k
x y z (1.1)

where SFx, SFy , SFz represent the scalar additions of the x, y, z components, respectively.

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Fz k

F
force
F2 line of
FR action Fy j
y

Fx i

F1 x

FIGURE 1.1 Addition of forces by parallelogram law. FIGURE 1.2 Resolution of a vector into its x, y, z com-
ponents.

Moment of a Force
When a force F acts on a body, it will cause both external and internal effects on the body. These effects
depend upon where the force is located. For example, if F acts at point A on the body in Figure 1.3, it
will cause a specific translation and rotation of the body. However, if F is applied to some other point,
B, which lies along the line of action of F, then the external effects regarding the motion of the body
remain unchanged, although the body’s internal effects will be different. This effect of sliding a force
along its line of action is called the principle of transmissibility. If the force acts at point C, which is
not along the line of action AB, then both the external and internal effects on the body will change. The
difference in external effects — notably the difference in the rotation of the body — occurs because of
the distance d that separates the lines of action of the two positions of the force.
This tendency for the body to rotate about a specified point O or axis as caused by a force is a vector
quantity called a moment. By definition, the magnitude of the moment is

MO = Fd (1.2)

where d is the moment arm or perpendicular distance from the point to the line of action of the force,
as in Figure 1.4. The direction of the moment is defined by the right-hand rule, whereby the curl of the
right-hand fingers follows the tendency for rotation caused by the force, and the thumb specifies the
directional sense of the moment. In this case, MO is directed out of the page, since F produces counter-
clockwise rotation about O. It should be noted that the force can act at any point along its line of action
and still produce the same moment about O.

A F
O
d MO d
B C

FIGURE 1.3 FIGURE 1.4 Moment of a force.

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y
F Fy

r F
Fx
y
d
MO
X O
O MO
x

FIGURE 1.5 FIGURE 1.6

Fz

F Fy
Fx

MO
r z

y
O x
y
x

FIGURE 1.7

Sometimes the moment arm d is geometrically hard to determine. To make the calculation easier, the
force is first resolved into its Cartesian components and then the moment about point O is determined
using the principle of moments, which states that the moment of the force about O is equal to the sum of
the moments of the force’s components about O. Thus, as shown in Figure 1.5, we have MO = Fd = Fxy + Fyx.
The moment about point O can also be expressed as a vector cross product of the position vector r,
directed from O to any point on the line of action of the force and the force F, as shown in Figure 1.6. Here,

MO = r ¥ F (1.3)

If r and F are expressed in terms of their Cartesian components, then as in Figure 1.7 the Cartesian
components for the moment about O are

Mo = r ¥ F = (xi + yj + zk) ¥ (Fx i + Fy j + Fz k)

= ( yFz - zFy )i + (zFx - xFz )j + (xFy - yFx )k (1.4)

i j k
= x y z
Fx Fy Fz

Couple
A couple is defined as two parallel forces that have the same magnitude and opposite directions and are
separated by a perpendicular distance d, as in Figure 1.8. The moment of a couple about the arbitrary
point O is

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r −F
F
d

r1 r2

FIGURE 1.8

MC = r1 ¥ F + r2 ¥ (- F) = (r1 – r2 ) ¥ F
(1.5)
= r¥F

Here the couple moment MC is independent of the location of the moment point O. Instead, it depends
only on the distance between the forces; that is, r in the above equation is directed from any point on
the line of action of one of the forces (-F) to any point on the line of action of the other force F. The
external effect of a couple causes rotation of the body with no translation, since the resultant force of a
couple is zero.

Resultants of a Force and Couple System

A general force and couple-moment system can always be replaced by a single resultant force and couple
moment acting at any point O. As shown in Figure 1.9(a) and Figure 1.9(b), these resultants are

FR = ÂF (1.6)

M RO = ÂM O (1.7)

where SF = F1 + F2 + F3 is the vector addition of all the forces in the system, and SMO = (r1 ¥ F1) + (r2 ¥
F2) + (r3 ¥ F3) + M1 + M2 is the vector sum of the moments of all the forces about point O plus the sum
of all the couple moments. This system may be further simplified by first resolving the couple moment
M RO into two components — one parallel and the other perpendicular to the force FR, as in Figure

FR
F1 M2 FR

MRO M
M
r1 θ
= = O
O r3 F3 O
r2 d
M⊥

F2

M1
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 1.9

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1.9(b). By moving the line of action of FR in the plane perpendicular to M^ a distance d = M^/FR, so that
FR creates the moment M^ about O, the system can then be represented by a wrench, that is, a single
force FR and collinear moment M||, Figure 1.9(c).
Note that in the special case of q = 90º, Figure 1.9(b), M|| = 0 and the system then reduces to a single
resultant force FR having a specified line of action. This will always be the case if the force system is either
concurrent, parallel, or coplanar.

Distributed Loadings
When a body contacts another body, the loads produced are always distributed over the surface area of
each body. If the area on one of the bodies is small compared to the entire surface area of the body, the
loading can be represented by a single concentrated force acting at a point on the body. However, if the
loading occurs over a large surface area — such as that caused by wind or a fluid — the distribution of
load must be taken into account. The intensity of this surface loading at each point is represented as a
pressure and its variation is defined by a load-intensity diagram. On a flat surface, the load intensity
diagram is described by the loading function p = p(x, y), which consists of an infinite number of parallel
forces, as in Figure 1.10. Applying Equation (1.6) and Equation (1.7), the resultant of this loading and
its point of application ( x, y ) can be determined from

FR =
Ú p(x, y)dA (1.8)

x=
Ú x p(x, y)dA y=
Ú y p(x, y)dA (1.9)
Ú p(x, y)dA Ú p(x, y)dA
Geometrically, FR is equivalent to the volume under the loading diagram, and its location passes
through the centroid or geometric center of this volume. Often in engineering practice, the surface loading
is symmetric about an axis, in which case the loading is a function of only one coordinate, w = w(x).
Here the resultant is geometrically equivalent to the area under the loading curve, and the line of action
of the resultant passes through the centroid of this area.
Besides surface forces as discussed above, loadings can also be transmitted to another body without
direct physical contact. These body forces are distributed throughout the volume of the body. A common

FR

p = p (x, y ) y

x–

y–

FIGURE 1.10

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example is the force of gravity. The resultant of this force is termed the weight; it acts through the body’s
center of gravity and is directed towards the center of the earth.

1.2 Equilibrium
Equations of Equilibrium
A body is said to be in equilibrium when it either is at rest or moves with constant velocity. For purposes
of analysis, it is assumed that the body is perfectly rigid, meaning that the particles composing the body
remain at fixed distances from one another both before and after applying the load. Most engineering
materials deform only slightly under load, so that moment arms and the orientation of the loading
remain essentially constant. For these cases, therefore, the rigid-body model is appropriate for analysis.
The necessary and sufficient conditions to maintain equilibrium of a rigid body require the resultant
external force and moment acting on the body to be equal to zero. From Equation (1.6) and Equation
(1.7), this can be expressed mathematically as

ÂF = 0 (1.10)

ÂM O =0 (1.11)

If the forces acting on the body are resolved into their x, y, z components, these equations can be
written in the form of six scalar equations, namely,

ÂF x =0 ÂM Ox =0

ÂF y =0 ÂM Oy =0 (1.12)

ÂF z =0 ÂM Oz =0

Actually, any set of three nonorthogonal, nonparallel axes will be suitable references for either of these
force or moment summations.
If the forces on the body can be represented by a system of coplanar forces, then only three equations
of equilibrium must be satisfied, namely,

ÂF x =0

ÂF y =0 (1.13)

ÂM O =0

Here the x and y axes lie in the plane of the forces and point O can be located either on or off the body.

Free-Body Diagram
Application of the equations of equilibrium requires accountability for all the forces that act on the body.
The best way to do this is to draw the body’s free-body diagram. This diagram is a sketch showing an
outlined shape of the body and so represents it as being isolated or “free” from its surroundings. On this
sketch it is necessary to show all the forces and couples that act on the body. Those generally encountered
are due to applied loadings, reactions that occur at the supports and at points of contact with other
bodies, and the weight of the body. Also one should indicate the dimensions of the body necessary for

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TABLE 1.1 Force Systems

Connection Reaction Connection Reaction

θ
θ
F Fz
cable smooth surface

Fy
Fy
Fx
Fz
roller ball and socket

Mz

Fx

My Fy
Fy
Fx
Fz
pin single pin

Fy Fy
Fx
Fx My
Fz
M Mx
fixed support fixed support Mz

computing the moments of forces. Once the free-body diagram has been drawn and the coordinate axes
established, application of the equations of equilibrium becomes a straightforward procedure.

Support Reactions
Various types of supports can be used to prevent a body from moving. Table 1.1 shows some of the most
common types, along with the reactions each exerts on the body at the connection. As a general rule, if
a support prevents translation in a given direction, then a force is developed on the body in that direction,
whereas if rotation is prevented, a couple moment is exerted on the body.

Friction
When a body is in contact with a rough surface, a force of resistance called friction is exerted on the
body by the surface in order to prevent or retard slipping of the body. This force always acts tangent to
the surface at points of contact with the surface and is directed so as to oppose the possible or existing
motion of the body. If the surface is dry, the frictional force acting on the body must satisfy the equation

F < msN (1.14)

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TABLE 1.2 Typical Values for

Coefficients of Static Friction
Materials ms

Metal on ice 0.03 to 0.05

Wood on wood 0.30 to 0.70
Leather on wood 0.20 to 0.50
Leather on metal 0.30 to 0.60
Aluminum on aluminum 1.10 to 1.70

The equality F = ms N applies only when motion between the contacting surfaces is impending. Here N
is the resultant normal force on the body at the surface of contact, and ms is the coefficient of static
friction, a dimensionless number that depends on the characteristics of the contacting surfaces. Typical
values of ms are shown in Table 1.2. If the body is sliding, then F = mk N, where mk is the coefficient of kinetic
friction, a number that is approximately 25% smaller than those listed in Table 1.2.

Constraints
Equilibrium of a body is ensured not only by satisfying the equations of equilibrium, but also by its being
properly held or constrained at its supports. If a body has more supports than are needed for equilibrium,
it is referred to as statically indeterminate, since there will be more unknowns than equations of equilib-
rium. For example, the free-body diagram of the beam in Figure 1.11 shows four unknown support
reactions, Ax, Ay, MA, and By, but only three equations of equilibrium are available for solution [Equation
(1.13)]. The additional equation needed requires knowledge of the physical properties of the body and
deals with the mechanics of deformation, which is discussed in subjects such as mechanics of materials.
A body may be improperly constrained by its supports. When this occurs, the body becomes unstable
and equilibrium cannot be maintained. Either of two conditions may cause this to occur — when the
reactive forces are all parallel (Figure 1.12) or when they are concurrent (Figure 1.13).
In summary, then, if the number of reactive forces that restrain the body is a minimum — and these
forces are not parallel or concurrent — the problem is statically determinate, and the equations of
equilibrium are sufficient to determine all the reactive forces.

Internal Loadings
The equations of equilibrium can also be used to determine the internal resultant loadings in a member,
provided the external loads are known. The calculation is performed using the method of sections, which

F
F

A B A C
B

F
F
Ay

Ax
MA Ay By Cy
By ΣFx ≠ 0

FIGURE 1.11 FIGURE 1.12

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F1

F3

F F2

F4
A
(a)

z
B F1

F Mz
Ay
Vz
Ax
A F2
Vx Ny
Ty y
Mx
x
NB B
(b)

FIGURE 1.13 FIGURE 1.14

states that if a body is in equilibrium, then so is any segment

F2
of the body. For example, if an imaginary section is passed
through the body in Figure 1.14(a), separating it into two parts, F3
the free-body diagram of the left part is shown in Figure
1.14(b). Here the six internal resultant components are
“exposed” and can be determined from the six equations of
equilibrium given by Equation (1.12). These six components
are referred to as the normal force, Ny , the shear-force com- F4
F1
ponents, Vx and Vz, the torque or twisting moment, Ty , and (a)
the bending-moment components, Mx and Mz.
If only coplanar loads act on the body [Figure 1.15(a)], then
only three internal resultant loads occur [Figure 1.15(b)], F2
y
namely, the normal force, N, the shear force, V, and the bending
moment, M. Each of these loadings can be determined from
M
Equation (1.13). Once these internal resultants have been com-
puted, the actual load distribution over the sectioned surface, x
N
called stress, involves application of the theory related to V
mechanics of materials.
F1
(b)
Numerical Applications
The following examples illustrate application of most of the FIGURE 1.15
principles discussed above. Solution of any problem generally
requires first establishing a coordinate system, then representing the data on a diagram, and finally
applying the necessary equations for solution.

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z
FR
400 N
O 200 N
rC

y– x– rB
C
300 N rA B 0.5 m
A y
x 1.5 m 2m
1m

FIGURE 1.16

Example 1.1
Simplify the system of three parallel forces acting on the plate in Figure 1.16 to a single resultant
force and specify where the force acts on the plate.

Solution
First, Equation (1.6) and Equation (1.7) are applied in order to replace the force system by a single
resultant force and couple moment at point O.

FR = ÂF FR = -300k - 400k - 200k = {-900k} N Ans.

M RO = ÂM O M RO = rA ¥ (-300k) + rB ¥ (-400k) + rC ¥ (-200k)

= (2i + 1.5 j) ¥ (-300 j) + (2.5 j) ¥ (-400k)
+(-0.5i + 2.5 j) ¥ (-200k)
= {-1950i + 500 j}N ◊ m

Since the forces are parallel, note that as expected FR is perpendicular to M RO.
The two components of M RO can be eliminated by moving FR along the respective y and x axes an
amount:

x = M Oy / FR = 500 N ◊ m / 900 N = 0.556 m Ans.

y = M Ox / FR = 1950 N ◊ m / 900 N = 2.17 m Ans.

Both coordinates are positive since FR, acting at r = {0.556i + 2.17j} m, will produce the required
moment M RO = r ¥ FR.

Example 1.2
Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown in Figure 1.17(a).

Solution
Using Table 1.1, the free-body diagram for the beam is shown in Figure 1.17(b). The problem is
statically determinate. The reaction NB can be found by using the principle of moments and

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2m
500 kN
5 3
4 60°
A

2m 2m
(a)

2m
500 kN 60° NB
5 3
4 60°
Ax

2m 2m
Ay
(b)

FIGURE 1.17

summing moments about point A to eliminate Ax and Ay . Applying Equation (1.13) with reference
to the coordinate system shown gives

ÂM A =0 -500 N(3 / 5)(2 m) + N B cos 60∞(4 m + 2 cos 60∞ m)

+ N B cos 60∞(2 sin 60∞ m) = 0 Ans.
N B = 150 N

ÂF x =0 Ax - 500 N(4 / 5) - 150 sin 60∞ N = 0

Ans.
Ax = 530 N

ÂF y =0 Ay - 500 N(3 / 5) + 150 cos 60∞ N = 0

Ans.
Ay = 225 N

Since the answers are all positive, the assumed sense of direction of the reactive forces is shown
correctly on the free-body diagram.

Example 1.3
The compound beam shown in Figure 1.18(a) consists of two segments, AB and BC, which are
pinned together at B. Determine the reactions on the beam at the supports.

Solution
The free-body diagrams of both segments of the beam are shown in Figure 1.18(b). Notice how the
principle of action — equal but opposite reaction, Newton’s third law — applies to the two force

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400 N/m

C
A B
4m 3m y

x
(a)

1600 N
Ay 600 N

Bx Bx
Ax

MA 2m 2m 2m
1m
By By Cy
(b)

FIGURE 1.18

components at B. Also, the distributed loading has been simplified to resultant forces, determined
from the area under each loading diagram and passing through the centroid or geometric center
of each area.
The six unknowns are determined by applying Equation (1.13) to each segment. For segment BC:

ÂF x =0 Bx = 0 Ans.

ÂM B =0 -600 N(1 m) + C y (3 m) = 0
Ans.
C y = 200 N

ÂF y =0 By - 600 N + 200 N = 0
Ans.
By = 400 N

For segment AB:

ÂF x =0 Ax = 0 Ans.

ÂF y =0 Ay - 1600 N - 400 N = 0
Ans.
Ay = 2000 N

ÂM A =0 M A = 1600 N(2 m) - 400 N(4 m) = 0

Ans.
M A - 4800 N ◊ m

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500 N
P
30°

2m
A B

3m 3m
(a)

y
500 N
P x
30°

2m
A B
0.3 NA
0.3 NB
3m 3m
NA NB
(b)

FIGURE 1.19

Example 1.4
The table in Figure 1.19(a) rests on a rough surface for which ms = 0.3. If it supports a load of 500
N, determine the largest magnitude of force P that can be applied before it begins to move.

Solution
The free-body diagram is shown in Figure 1.19(b). Since the maximum force P is to be determined,
slipping must impend at both A and B. Therefore, the friction equation F = ms N applies at these
points. There are three unknowns. Applying the equations of equilibrium yields

ÂM = 0 B - N A (6 m) + 500 N(3 m) + P cos30∞(2 m) = 0

ÂF = 0x 0.3N A + 0.3N B - P cos30∞ = 0

ÂF = 0y N A + N B - 500 N - P sin30∞ = 0

Solving,

P = 209 N

N A = 310 N Ans.

N B = 294 N

Since NA and NB are both positive, the forces of the floor push up on the table as shown on the free-
body diagram, and the table remains in contact with the floor.

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Defining Terms
Concurrent forces — Forces that act through the same point.
Couple — Two forces that have the same magnitude and opposite directions and do not have the same
line of action. A couple produces rotation with no translation.
Free-body diagram — A diagram that shows the body “free” from its surroundings. All possible loads
and relevant dimensions are labeled on it.
Friction — A force of resistance caused by one surface on another.
Method of sections — This method states that if a body is in equilibrium, any sectioned part of it is also
in equilibrium. It is used for drawing the free-body diagram to determine the internal loadings
in any region of a body.
Parallelogram law — The method of vector addition whereby two vectors, called components, are joined
at their tails; parallel lines are then drawn from the head of each vector so that they intersect
at a common point forming the adjacent sides of a parallelogram. The resultant vector is the
diagonal that extends from the tails of the component vectors to the intersection of the lines.
Principle of moments — This concept states that the moment of the force about a point is equal to the
sum of the moments of the force’s components about the point.
Principle of transmissibility — A property of a force that allows the force to act at any point along its
line of action and produce the same external effects on a body.
Weight — The gravitational attraction of the earth on the mass of a body, usually measured at sea level
and 45∞ latitude.
Wrench — A force and collinear moment. The effect is to produce both a push and simultaneous twist.

Reference
Hibbeler, R. C. 2004. Engineering Mechanics: Statics, 10th ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Further Information
Many textbooks are available for the study of statics; they can be found in any engineering library.

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