6 CHAPTER 1 STRESS
Equations of Equilibrium. Equilibrium of a body requires both
1 a balance of forces, to prevent the body from translating or having
In order to design the horizontal members
of this building frame, it is first necessary
to find the internal loadings at various
points along their length.
accelerated motion along a straight or curved path, and a balance of
moments, to prevent the body from rotating. These conditions can be
expressed mathematically by two vector equations
!F = 0
(1–1)
!MO = 0
Here, ! F represents the sum of all the forces acting on the body, and
! MO is the sum of the moments of all the forces about any point O
either on or off the body. If an x, y, z coordinate system is established
with the origin at point O, the force and moment vectors can be resolved
into components along each coordinate axis and the above two equations
can be written in scalar form as six equations, namely,
!Fx = 0 !Fy = 0 !Fz = 0
(1–2)
!M x = 0 !M y = 0 !M z = 0
Often in engineering practice the loading on a body can be represented
as a system of coplanar forces. If this is the case, and the forces lie in the
x–y plane, then the conditions for equilibrium of the body can be
specified with only three scalar equilibrium equations; that is,
!Fx = 0
!Fy = 0 (1–3)
!M O = 0
Here all the moments are summed about point O and so they will be
directed along the z axis.
Successful application of the equations of equilibrium requires
complete specification of all the known and unknown forces that act on
the body, and so the best way to account for all these forces is to draw
the body’s free-body diagram.
 1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY 7

F4 MRO
F3 1

FR

O
section

F1 F1
F1 F2 F2 F2
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1–2

Internal Resultant Loadings. In mechanics of materials, statics

is primarily used to determine the resultant loadings that act within a
body. For example, consider the body shown in Fig. 1–2a, which is held in
equilibrium by the four external forces.* In order to obtain the internal
loadings acting on a specific region within the body, it is necessary to pass
an imaginary section or “cut” through the region where the internal
loadings are to be determined. The two parts of the body are then
separated, and a free-body diagram of one of the parts is drawn, Fig. 1–2b.
Notice that there is actually a distribution of internal force acting on the
“exposed” area of the section. These forces represent the effects of the
material of the top part of the body acting on the adjacent material of
the bottom part.
Although the exact distribution of this internal loading may be
unknown, we can use the equations of equilibrium to relate the external
forces on the bottom part of the body to the distribution’s resultant force
and moment, FR and MRO, at any specific point O on the sectioned area,
Fig. 1–2c. It will be shown in later portions of the text that point O is most
often chosen at the centroid of the sectioned area, and so we will always
choose this location for O, unless otherwise stated. Also, if a member is
long and slender, as in the case of a rod or beam, the section to be
considered is generally taken perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
the member. This section is referred to as the cross section.

*The body’s weight is not shown, since it is assumed to be quite small, and therefore
negligible compared with the other loads.
 8 CHAPTER 1 STRESS

Torsional
1 Moment
T
MR O MRO
Normal
FR N Force
FR

O Bending M O
Moment V
Shear
Force

F1 F1 F2
F2
(d)
(c)

Fig. 1–2 (cont.)

Three Dimensions. Later in this text we will show how to relate the
resultant loadings, FR and MRO, to the distribution of force on the
sectioned area, and thereby develop equations that can be used for
analysis and design. To do this, however, the components of FR and MRO
acting both normal and perpendicular to the sectioned area must be
considered, Fig. 1–2d. Four different types of resultant loadings can then
be defined as follows:

Normal force, N. This force acts perpendicular to the area. It is

developed whenever the external loads tend to push or pull on the two
segments of the body.

Shear force, V. The shear force lies in the plane of the area, and it is
developed when the external loads tend to cause the two segments of the
body to slide over one another.

Torsional moment or torque, T. This effect is developed when the

The weight of this sign and the wind
loadings acting on it will cause normal and
shear forces and bending and torsional
moments in the supporting column.
external loads tend to twist one segment of the body with respect to the
other about an axis perpendicular to the area.
Bending moment, M. The bending moment is caused by the
external loads that tend to bend the body about an axis lying within the
plane of the area.

In this text, note that graphical representation of a moment or torque is

shown in three dimensions as a vector with an associated curl. By the
right-hand rule, the thumb gives the arrowhead sense of this vector and
the fingers or curl indicate the tendency for rotation (twisting or bending).
 1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY 9

F2 section
F3 y
Shear 1
F2 Force
V
MO Bending
Moment
O x
F1 N
Normal
F4 F1 Force
(a) (b)

Fig. 1–3

Coplanar Loadings. If the body is subjected to a coplanar system of

forces, Fig. 1–3a, then only normal-force, shear-force, and bending-moment
components will exist at the section, Fig. 1–3b. If we use the x, y, z
coordinate axes, as shown on the left segment, then N can be obtained
by applying !Fx = 0, and V can be obtained from !Fy = 0. Finally, the
bending moment MO can be determined by summing moments about
point O (the z axis), !M O = 0, in order to eliminate the moments caused
by the unknowns N and V.

Important Points
• Mechanics of materials is a study of the relationship between the
external loads applied to a body and the stress and strain caused
by the internal loads within the body.
• External forces can be applied to a body as distributed or concentrated
surface loadings, or as body forces that act throughout the volume of
the body.
• Linear distributed loadings produce a resultant force having a
magnitude equal to the area under the load diagram, and having a
location that passes through the centroid of this area.
• A support produces a force in a particular direction on its attached
member if it prevents translation of the member in that direction, and
it produces a couple moment on the member if it prevents rotation.
• The equations of equilibrium !F = 0 and !M = 0 must be
satisfied in order to prevent a body from translating with
accelerated motion and from rotating.
• When applying the equations of equilibrium, it is important to
first draw the free-body diagram for the body in order to account
for all the terms in the equations.
• The method of sections is used to determine the internal resultant
loadings acting on the surface of the sectioned body. In general,
these resultants consist of a normal force, shear force, torsional
moment, and bending moment.
 10 CHAPTER 1 STRESS

1 Procedure for Analysis

The resultant internal loadings at a point located on the section of a

body can be obtained using the method of sections. This requires the
following steps.
Support Reactions.
• First decide which segment of the body is to be considered. If the
segment has a support or connection to another body, then before
the body is sectioned, it will be necessary to determine the reactions
acting on the chosen segment. To do this draw the free-body
diagram of the entire body and then apply the necessary equations
of equilibrium to obtain these reactions.

Free-Body Diagram.
• Keep all external distributed loadings, couple moments, torques,
and forces in their exact locations, before passing an imaginary
section through the body at the point where the resultant internal
loadings are to be determined.

• Draw a free-body diagram of one of the “cut” segments and

indicate the unknown resultants N, V, M, and T at the section.
These resultants are normally placed at the point representing
the geometric center or centroid of the sectioned area.

• If the member is subjected to a coplanar system of forces, only

N, V, and M act at the centroid.

• Establish the x, y, z coordinate axes with origin at the centroid

and show the resultant internal loadings acting along the axes.

Equations of Equilibrium.
• Moments should be summed at the section, about each of the
coordinate axes where the resultants act. Doing this eliminates
the unknown forces N and V and allows a direct solution for M
(and T).
• If the solution of the equilibrium equations yields a negative
value for a resultant, the directional sense of the resultant is
opposite to that shown on the free-body diagram.

The following examples illustrate this procedure numerically and also

provide a review of some of the important principles of statics.
 1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY 11

EXAMPLE 1.1 1

Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section

at C of the cantilevered beam shown in Fig. 1–4a.

270 N/m

A B
C
3m 6m
(a)

Fig. 1–4

SOLUTION
Support Reactions. The support reactions at A do not have to be
determined if segment CB is considered.

Free-Body Diagram. The free-body diagram of segment CB is

shown in Fig. 1–4b. It is important to keep the distributed loading on
540 N
the segment until after the section is made. Only then should this
loading be replaced by a single resultant force. Notice that the intensity 180 N/m
of the distributed loading at C is found by proportion, i.e., from Fig. 1–4a, MC
w >6 m = (270 N>m)>9 m, w = 180 N>m. The magnitude of the
resultant of the distributed load is equal to the area under the loading NC C B
curve (triangle) and acts through the centroid of this area. Thus, VC
2m 4m
F = 21(180 N>m)(6 m) = 540 N, which acts 13(6 m) = 2 m from C as
shown in Fig. 1–4b. (b)

Equations of Equilibrium. Applying the equations of equilibrium

we have
+ !Fx = 0;
S -NC = 0
NC = 0 Ans.
+ c !Fy = 0; VC - 540 N = 0
540 N
VC = 540 N Ans. 135 N
90 N/m
a + !M C = 0; -M C - 540 N(2 m) = 0 180 N/m
M C = -1080 N # m 1215 N MC
Ans.
A C NC
NOTE: The negative sign indicates that MC acts in the opposite 3645 N"m
direction to that shown on the free-body diagram. Try solving this 1.5 m VC
1m
problem using segment AC, by first obtaining the support reactions 0.5 m
at A, which are given in Fig. 1–4c. (c)
 12 CHAPTER 1 STRESS

1
EXAMPLE 1.2
The 500-kg engine is suspended from the crane boom in Fig. 1–5a.
D Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section
of the boom at point E.
1.5 m

C SOLUTION
A E B Support Reactions. We will consider segment AE of the boom, so
1m 1m 1m
we must first determine the pin reactions at A. Notice that member CD
is a two-force member. The free-body diagram of the boom is shown
in Fig. 1–5b. Applying the equations of equilibrium,

a + !MA = 0; FCD 1 53 2 (2 m) - [500(9.81) N](3 m) = 0

FCD = 12 262.5 N
(a)
+ !F = 0;
S A x - (12 262.5 N) 1 54 2 = 0
x
FCD
3 5 A x = 9810 N
4
Ax
A + c !Fy = 0; -A y + (12 262.5 N) 1 53 2 - 500(9.81) N = 0
2m 1m
A y = 2452.5 N
Ay
500(9.81) N
(b) Free-Body Diagram. The free-body diagram of segment AE is
shown in Fig. 1–5c.
ME
9810 N Equations of Equilibrium.
A E NE
VE
1m
+ !F = 0;
S NE + 9810 N = 0
x
2452.5 N
NE = -9810 N = -9.81 kN Ans.
(c)

Fig. 1–5 + c !Fy = 0; -VE - 2452.5 N = 0

VE = -2452.5 N = -2.45 kN Ans.

a + !M E = 0; M E + (2452.5 N)( 1 m) = 0

M E = -2452.5 N # m = -2.45 kN # m Ans.

 1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY 13

EXAMPLE 1.3 1

Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section

at G of the beam shown in Fig. 1–6a. Each joint is pin connected.

B C
FBC ! 6200 lb
1500 lb 1500 lb
3 ft 3 ft
G D E
Ex ! 6200 lb
A Ey ! 2400 lb

300 lb/ft
2
2 ft 2 ft 6 ft 6 ft (6 ft) ! 4 ft
3
1
(6 ft)(300 lb/ft) ! 900 lb
2
(a) (b)
Fig. 1–6

SOLUTION
Support Reactions. Here we will consider segment AG. The free-body B
diagram of the entire structure is shown in Fig. 1–6b. Verify the calculated 6200 lb
5
reactions at E and C. In particular, note that BC is a two-force member 3
4
since only two forces act on it. For this reason the force at C must act
along BC, which is horizontal as shown. FBA ! 7750 lb
Since BA and BD are also two-force members, the free-body FBD ! 4650 lb
diagram of joint B is shown in Fig. 1–6c. Again, verify the magnitudes (c)
of forces FBA and FBD .

Free-Body Diagram. Using the result for FBA , the free-body diagram 1500 lb 7750 lb
of segment AG is shown in Fig. 1–6d.
5
3
4
Equations of Equilibrium. NG
A G
+ !F = 0; MG
S x 7750 lb 1 54 2 + NG = 0 NG = -6200 lb Ans. 2 ft VG

+ c !Fy = 0; -1500 lb + 7750 lb 1 53 2 - VG = 0 (d)

VG = 3150 lb Ans.

a + !M G = 0; M G - (7750 lb) 1 53 2 (2 ft) + 1500 lb(2 ft) = 0

M G = 6300 lb # ft Ans.
 14 CHAPTER 1 STRESS

1
EXAMPLE 1.4
Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section
at B of the pipe shown in Fig. 1–7a. End A is subjected to a vertical
force of 50 N, a horizontal force of 30 N, and a couple moment of
70 N # m. Neglect the pipe’s mass.
C
SOLUTION
0.75 m
The problem can be solved by considering segment AB, so we do not
B 0.5 m need to calculate the support reactions at C.
D
Free-Body Diagram. The x, y, z axes are established at B and the
50 N
free-body diagram of segment AB is shown in Fig. 1–7b. The resultant
1.25 m force and moment components at the section are assumed to act in the
positive coordinate directions and to pass through the centroid of the
A 30 N cross-sectional area at B.
70 N!m
(a) Equations of Equilibrium. Applying the six scalar equations of
equilibrium, we have*
z
"Fx = 0; (FB)x = 0 Ans.
(FB)z
(MB)z "Fy = 0; (FB)y + 30 N = 0 (FB)y = -30 N Ans.
(FB)y
(MB)y
0.5 m "Fz = 0; (FB)z - 50 N = 0 (FB)z = 50 N Ans.
(MB)x B
(FB)x
"(M B)x = 0; (M B)x + 70 N # m - 50 N (0.5 m) = 0
50 N y
x 1.25 m
(M B)x = -45 N # m Ans.
A 30 N
70 N·m "(M B)y = 0; (M B)y + 50 N (1.25 m) = 0
(b)
(M B)y = -62.5 N # m Ans.
Fig. 1–7
"(M B)z = 0; (M B)z + (30 N)(1.25) = 0 Ans.

(M B)z = -37.5 N # m

NOTE: What do the negative signs for (FB)y, (M B )x , (M B )y and (MB)z

indicate? The normal force N B = ! (FB)y ! = 30 N, whereas the shear
force is VB = 2(0)2 + (50)2 = 50 N. Also, the torsional moment is
T B = ! (M B)y ! = 62.5 N # m and the bending moment is M B =
2(45)2 + (37.5)2 = 58.6 N # m.

* The magnitude of each moment about an axis is equal to the magnitude of each
force times the perpendicular distance from the axis to the line of action of the force.
The direction of each moment is determined using the right-hand rule, with positive
moments (thumb) directed along the positive coordinate axes.
 1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY 15

It is suggested that you test yourself on the solutions to these examples, by covering them over and then trying
to think about which equilibrium equations must be used and how they are applied in order to determine the 1
unknowns. Then before solving any of the Problems, build your skills by first trying to solve the Preliminary
Problems, which actually require little or no calculations, and then do some of the Fundamental Problems given
on the following pages. The solutions and answers to all these problems are given in the back of the book. Doing
this throughout the book will help immensely in understanding how to apply the theory, and thereby develop your
problem-solving skills.

PRELIMINARY PROBLEMS
P1–1. In each case, explain how to find the resultant internal
loading acting on the cross section at point A. Draw all
necessary free-body diagrams, and indicate the relevant B
equations of equilibrium. Do not calculate values. The lettered
dimensions, angles, and loads are assumed to be known. A

r
D

f
O u
P
u (d)
A
B C
P C
2a a a

P
a
(a) A
a

w
u 2a
B
P
A C
(e)
a a
a a a

B C a

A
3a
(b) a

D
M

B B
A C u a

a/2 a/2 a P
P
(c) (f)
 16 CHAPTER 1 STRESS

1 FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS

F1–1. Determine the internal normal force, shear force, F1–4. Determine the internal normal force, shear force,
and bending moment at point C in the beam. and bending moment at point C in the beam.

10 kN/m
10 kN
60 kN!m
C
A B
C
A B
3m 3m
2m 1m 1m 2m
F1–4
F1–1

F1–5. Determine the internal normal force, shear force,

F1–2. Determine the internal normal force, shear force, and bending moment at point C in the beam.
and bending moment at point C in the beam.

300 lb/ft

200 N/m
100 N/m
A
C B
A B
C 3 ft 3 ft 3 ft

1.5 m 1.5 m F1–5

F1–2

F1–6. Determine the internal normal force, shear force,

and bending moment at point C in the beam.
F1–3. Determine the internal normal force, shear force,
and bending moment at point C in the beam.

5 kN/m

A C B
20 kN/m
3m
C

B
A
D
2m 2m 2m 2m 2m 2m

F1–3 F1–6
 1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY 17

PROBLEMS 1

1–1. The shaft is supported by a smooth thrust bearing
at B and a journal bearing at C. Determine the resultant
internal loadings acting on the cross section at E.
A B E C
*1–4. The shaft is supported by a smooth thrust bearing
at A and a smooth journal bearing at B. Determine the
resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section at C.
600 N/m
D
A B D

4 ft 4 ft 4 ft 4 ft
400 lb 1m 1m 1m 1.5 m 1.5 m
800 lb

Prob. 1–1 900 N

1–2. Determine the resultant internal normal and shear Prob. 1–4
force in the member at (a) section a–a and (b) section b–b,
1–5. Determine the resultant internal loadings in the
each of which passes through point A. The 500-lb load is
beam at cross sections through points D and E. Point E is
applied along the centroidal axis of the member.
just to the right of the 3-kip load.
a b
3 kip
30!
1.5 kip/ft

500 lb 500 lb
A
D B E C

A 6 ft 6 ft 4 ft 4 ft
b a
Prob. 1–5
Prob. 1–2
1–6. Determine the normal force, shear force, and
1–3. The beam AB is fixed to the wall and has a uniform moment at a section through point C. Take P = 8 kN .
weight of 80 lb>ft. If the trolley supports a load of 1500 lb,
determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross 1–7. The cable will fail when subjected to a tension of 2 kN.
sections through points C and D. Determine the largest vertical load P the frame will support
and calculate the internal normal force, shear force, and
20 ft 10 ft
5 ft 3 ft moment at the cross section through point C for this loading.
A B B
C D

0.1 m
0.5 m
C A

0.75 m 0.75 m 0.75 m

1500 lb P

Prob. 1–3 Probs. 1–6/7

 18 CHAPTER 1 STRESS

*1–8. Determine the resultant internal loadings on the
1 cross section through point C. Assume the reactions at the
supports A and B are vertical.
1–9. Determine the resultant internal loadings on the
cross section through point D. Assume the reactions at the
supports A and B are vertical.
1–11. The forearm and biceps support the 2-kg load at A.
If C can be assumed as a pin support, determine the
resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section of
the bone of the forearm at E. The biceps pulls on the bone
along BD.
D

6 kN
3 kN/m
75!
A

C E B
A B
C D
230 mm
1.5 m 1.5 m 35 mm 35 mm
0.5 m 0.5 m

Probs. 1–8/9 Prob. 1–11

*1–12. The serving tray T used on an airplane is supported

1–10. The boom DF of the jib crane and the column DE
have a uniform weight of 50 lb>ft. If the hoist and load
weigh 300 lb, determine the resultant internal loadings in
the crane on cross sections through points A, B, and C.
on each side by an arm. The tray is pin connected to the arm
at A, and at B there is a smooth pin. (The pin can move within
the slot in the arms to permit folding the tray against the
front passenger seat when not in use.) Determine the
resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section of
the arm through point C when the tray arm supports the
loads shown.
12 N
9N

15 mm 100 mm 150 mm
B A

D B A F 60! T

2 ft 8 ft 3 ft
5 ft

C 500 mm
300 lb

7 ft VC
C
MC

E NC

Prob. 1–10 Prob. 1–12

 1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY 19

1–13. The blade of the hacksaw is subjected to a pretension 1–17. Determine resultant internal loadings acting on
force of F = 100 N. Determine the resultant internal loadings section a–a and section b–b. Each section passes through 1
acting on section a–a that passes through point D. the centerline at point C.

1–14. The blade of the hacksaw is subjected to a pretension 5 kN

force of F = 100 N. Determine the resultant internal loadings B
acting on section b–b that passes through point D.
b
a
1.5 m

C
a 1.5 m
225 mm 45!
30! b b a

A B 45!
A 3m

D
b 150 mm
F a F Prob. 1–17
C
1–18. The bolt shank is subjected to a tension of 80 lb.
Probs. 1–13/14 Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the
cross section at point C.

1–15. A 150-lb bucket is suspended from a cable on the

wooden frame. Determine the resultant internal loadings C
on the cross section at D.
6 in.
*1–16. A 150-lb bucket is suspended from a cable on the 90!
wooden frame. Determine the resultant internal loadings
acting on the cross section at E.
A B

Prob. 1–18

1 ft 1 ft 1–19. Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on

2 ft
the cross section through point C. Assume the reactions at
B the supports A and B are vertical.
D H C
*1–20. Determine the resultant internal loadings acting
2 ft
on the cross section through point D. Assume the reactions
30!
G at the supports A and B are vertical.
1 ft
6 kip/ft 6 kip/ft
E

3 ft
A C B
D
I A
3 ft 3 ft 6 ft

Probs. 1–15/16 Probs. 1–19/20

 20 CHAPTER 1 STRESS

1–21. The forged steel clamp exerts a force of F = 900 N *1–24. Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on
1 on the wooden block. Determine the resultant internal the cross section of the semicircular arch at C.
loadings acting on section a–a passing through point A.

200 mm

F ! 900 N

C
w0
a
F ! 900 N r
A u
30" A B

a
Prob. 1–24

1–25. Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on

Prob. 1–21 the cross section through point B of the signpost. The post
is fixed to the ground and a uniform pressure of 7 lb > ft2
acts perpendicular to the face of the sign.
1–22. The metal stud punch is subjected to a force of 120 N
on the handle. Determine the magnitude of the reactive
force at the pin A and in the short link BC. Also, determine
the internal resultant loadings acting on the cross section
passing through the handle arm at D. z

1–23. Solve Prob. 1–22 for the resultant internal loadings

3 ft
acting on the cross section passing through the handle arm
at E and at a cross section of the short link BC. 2 ft

120 N
3 ft
7 lb/ft2
50 mm 100 mm
60! 50 mm
E
100 mm 6 ft
D
B 30! B
A 300 mm

C A
4 ft
200 mm

x y

Probs. 1–22/23 Prob. 1–25

 1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF A DEFORMABLE BODY 21

1–26. The shaft is supported at its ends by two bearings A
and B and is subjected to the forces applied to the pulleys
fixed to the shaft. Determine the resultant internal loadings
acting on the cross section located at point C. The 300-N
forces act in the -z direction and the 500-N forces act in the
+x direction. The journal bearings at A and B exert only
x and z components of force on the shaft.
*1–28. The brace and drill bit is used to drill a hole at O. If
the drill bit jams when the brace is subjected to the forces 1
shown, determine the resultant internal loadings acting on
the cross section of the drill bit at A.
z
Fx ! 30 lb

O A
Fz ! 10 lb
z
3 in. 9 in. 9 in. Fy ! 50 lb
x
6 in.
6 in. y
6 in.
400 mm
A Prob. 1–28
150 mm 1–29. The curved rod AD of radius r has a weight per
length of w. If it lies in the vertical plane, determine the
x 200 mm
C
resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section
250 mm through point B. Hint: The distance from the centroid C of
300 N segment AB to point O is OC = [2r sin (u >2)]> u.
300 N u
B 2
500 N A O

500 N C u
y

Prob. 1–26 r
B

1–27. The pipe assembly is subjected to a force of 600 N

at B. Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on D
the cross section at C.

z Prob. 1–29
1–30. A differential element taken from a curved bar is
600 N shown in the figure. Show that dN >du = V , dV >du = -N,
dM >du = -T, and dT >du = M.
M ! dM T ! dT

B 60"
V ! dV
30" N ! dN
150 mm
150 mm
A M V
C
500 mm N du
x y
400 mm
T

Prob. 1–27 Prob. 1–30

 22 CHAPTER 1 STRESS

1
1.3 Stress
It was stated in Section 1.2 that the force and moment acting at a specified
point O on the sectioned area of the body, Fig. 1–8, represents the
MRO
FR
resultant effects of the actual distribution of loading acting over the
sectioned area, Fig. 1–9a. Obtaining this distribution is of primary
importance in mechanics of materials. To solve this problem it is necessary
to establish the concept of stress.
We begin by considering the sectioned area to be subdivided into small
areas, such as !A shown in Fig. 1–9a. As we reduce !A to a smaller and
O smaller size, we must make two assumptions regarding the properties of
the material. We will consider the material to be continuous, that is, to
consist of a continuum or uniform distribution of matter having no voids.
Also, the material must be cohesive, meaning that all portions of it are
connected together, without having breaks, cracks, or separations. A typical
finite yet very small force !F, acting on !A , is shown in Fig. 1–9a. This
F1 F2 force, like all the others, will have a unique direction, but for further
discussion we will replace it by its three components, namely, !Fx, !Fy,
and !Fz, which are taken tangent, tangent, and normal to the area,
Fig. 1–8
respectively. As !A approaches zero, so do !F and its components;
however, the quotient of the force and area will, in general, approach a
finite limit. This quotient is called stress, and as noted, it describes the
intensity of the internal force acting on a specific plane (area) passing
through a point.

!Fz
!F tyz txz

z !Fx !Fy z z
tyx
x y sy sx txy
!F

!A

F1 F1
F2

y y y
x x x
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1–9
 1.3 STRESS 23

Normal Stress. The intensity of the force acting normal to !A is

defined as the normal stress, s (sigma). Since !Fz is normal to the area then 1

!Fz
sz = lim
S
!A 0 !A (1–4)

If the normal force or stress “pulls” on !A as shown in Fig. 1–9a, it is

referred to as tensile stress, whereas if it “pushes” on !A it is called
compressive stress.

Shear Stress. The intensity of force acting tangent to !A is called

the shear stress, t (tau). Here we have shear stress components,
z
!Fx
tzx = lim
!A S 0 !A sz
(1–5)
!Fy
tzy = lim
S
!A 0 !A Tzx
Tzy y
x
Note that in this subscript notation z specifies the orientation of the
area !A , Fig. 1–10, and x and y indicate the axes along which each shear Fig. 1–10
stress acts.

General State of Stress. If the body is further sectioned by z

planes parallel to the x–z plane, Fig. 1–9b, and the y–z plane, Fig. 1–9c, we
can then “cut out” a cubic volume element of material that represents sz
the state of stress acting around the chosen point in the body. This state tzy
of stress is then characterized by three components acting on each face tzx
of the element, Fig. 1–11. tyz
txz
txy tyx
Units. Since stress represents a force per unit area, in the International sx sy

Standard or SI system, the magnitudes of both normal and shear stress y

are specified in the basic units of newtons per square meter (N>m2). This x
unit, called a pascal (1 Pa = 1 N>m2) is rather small, and in engineering
Fig. 1–11
work prefixes such as kilo- (103), symbolized by k, mega- (106), symbolized
by M, or giga- (109), symbolized by G, are used to represent larger, more
realistic values of stress.* Likewise, in the Foot-Pound-Second system of
units, engineers usually express stress in pounds per square inch (psi) or
kilopounds per square inch (ksi), where 1 kilopound (kip) = 1000 lb.

*Sometimes stress is expressed in units of N>mm2, where 1 mm = 10-3 m. However, in

the SI system, prefixes are not allowed in the denominator of a fraction and therefore it
is better to use the equivalent 1 N>mm2 = 1 MN>m2 = 1 MPa.