IB SL Environmental and Social Systems Duck

Anil Nair- Overseas Family School, Singapore

(The words that are blue and underlined are usually images to help you, so click on them because i was lazy to insert them so
they are hyperlinked. hmu if something is wrong)

GOOD LUCK.
Topic 1- Systems and Models
Topic 2- The Ecosystem
2.1 Structure
2.2 Measuring Abiotic Components of the system
2.3 Measuring Biotic Components of the system
2.4 Biomes
2.5 Function
2.6 Changes
2.7 Measuring Changes in the system
Topic 3- Human Population, Carrying Capacity and Resource Use
3.1: Population Dynamics
3.2: Resources- Natural Capital
3.3: Energy Resources
3.4: The Soil System
3.5: Food Resources
3.6: Water Resources
3.7: Limits to Growth
3.8: Environmental demands of human populations
Topic 4- Conservation and Biodiversity
4.1: Biodiversity in Ecosystems
4.2: Evaluating Biodiversity & Vulnerability
4.3: Conservation of Biodiversity
Topic 5- Pollution Management
5.1: Nature of Pollution
5.2: Detection and monitoring of Pollution
5.3: Approaches to Pollution Management
5.4: Eutrophication
5.5: Solid Domestic Waste
5.6: Depletion of Stratospheric Ozone
5.7: Urban Air Pollution
5.8: Acid Deposition
Topic 6- The issue of Global Warming
Topic 7- Environmental Value Systems

Topic 1- Systems and Models

● What is a system?

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 ○ A system is an assemblage of parts that are working together which in turn form a
functioning whole.
○ The number of inputs, outputs, flows and storages increase as the size of the system
increases.
● Gaia Model/Hypothesis:
○ In 1979, James Lovelock created this idea that we all should look at the Earth as one
whole living organism.
○ Basically it viewed the planet like a person, a living functioning whole.
○ Although system changes may have happened, the overall conditions remained
similar throughout.
● Open System: Exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings (most living things)
● Closed System: Exchanges energy but not matter with the environment. (Does not exist
naturally, but the planet is a closed system.)
● Isolated System: Exchanges neither matter nor energy. (Does not exist)
● Entropy: Amount of thermal energy not available to do work.
● First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy can be neither created nor destroyed.
● Second Law of Thermodynamics: Entropy of an isolated system not in equilibrium will tend
to increase over time.
● Equilibrium: Tendency of a system to return to an original state following a disturbance.
○ Steady State Equilibrium: Continuous inputs and outputs of energy and matter.
Although there might be small term fluctuations, in the long term, no massive
change.
○ Static Equilibrium: No change over time.
● Positive Feedback: Results in the further increase or decrease in the output and results in the
system becoming more unstable or moving to a new equilibrium. ( a change occurs)
● Negative Feedback: Neutralises any movement from the equilibrium. (No change occurs)
● Transfer: Movement of material in living organisms /non-living things / energy
○ Flows through a system and involves a change in location. Energy and matter can
flow through an ecosystem, but can also be stored within an ecosystem.
● Transformation: Interaction within a system and formation of a new end product or change in
state
○ Examples: matter to matter, matter to energy, energy to energy, energy to matter.
● Models: Simplified description designed to show the structure or workings of an object,
system or concept.
○ They assist in making a prediction of a future event.
○ They are not accurate because it is only a prediction.

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Topic 2- The Ecosystem
2.1 Structure
● Biotic: Living Factors (plants/animals)
● Abiotic: Non-Living Factors (precipitation/soil)
● Trophic Level: Position of an organism or a group of organisms in a community occupies in a
food chain.
○ Level 1: Producer
○ Level 2: Herbivore (primary consumer)
○ Level 3: Carnivore (secondary consumer)
○ Level 4: Carnivore (tertiary consumer)
■ Top Carnivores are found at the highest level, essentially they are animals
which no one else eats.
● Food Chain: Shows the flow of energy from one organism to the next
● Food Web: Complex network of interlinked food chains
● Producers (autotrophs): They manufacture their own food from sunlight
● Consumers (heterotrophs): Feed on the producers or other animals
● Pyramids:
○ Pyramid of Numbers
■ The literal number of species in an area
○ Pyramid of Productivity
■ Refers to the flow of energy through an ecosystem
○ Pyramid of Biomass
■ Represents standing stock of each trophic level.
■ Measured in gm^-2 or J m^-2 or kg
● Bioaccumulation: Concentration of a toxin increases in a body over time
○ It could just keep becoming more and more concentrated as time goes on.
● Biomagnification: As one goes through trophic levels, the amount of toxin increases.
○ If a plant species gets a toxin, and then a herbivore eats the species, as it is eating
numerous plants, the amount of toxin in its body increases. From there, through
reproduction, will spread the toxin, to which a carnivore may eat it and then the toxin
biomagnifies in its body as time goes on.
● Species: A particular type of organism
● Population: Group of individuals of the same species living in the same place
● Habitat: Environment where the species lives
● Niche: Responsibility of an organism, its unique role in an ecosystem
● Community: Group of population living and interacting with each other in a common habitat
● Ecosystem: This is a community of interdependent organisms and the abiotic factors in the
environment they live in.
● Competition: Two or more organisms attempting to use the same resource.
○ If there is a limited amount of resources then competition is high.
○ If there is an abundance of resources; low competition.
● Parasitism: A type of relationship between species, Essentially one species will benefit from
the relationship, while the other does not. (Taken advantage of)
● Mutualism: A type of relationship between two or more species, all benefit and non suffer
● Commensalism: A type of relationship between species, one species is helped, but none are
harmed

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 ● Predation: A type of relationship between species, one animal eats another animal
● Herbivory: A type of relationship between species, when an animal feeds on plants

2.2 Measuring Abiotic Components of the system

● Examples of Abiotic Components
○ Atmosphere
○ Climate
○ Soil
○ Water
○ Level of Pollution
● Limiting Factors: Physical or biological necessities that an ecosystem can not live without. If
there is a lack of their presence, adverse and negative effects can occur.
○ Temperature
○ Salinity
○ Dissolved Gases
○ Pressure

2.3 Measuring Biotic Components of the system

● Dichotomous Key
○ There are two types, one a flow chart and one a questionnaire
● Lincoln Index
○ Measures population size
○ In order for it to work, the Quadrats or Capture-Mark-Release-Recapture method
must be used
■ Quadrats:
● An area must be marked out
● Quadrats are placed randomly throughout the selected area and then
one must count how many individuals are in each quadrat and
calculate the mean.
○ Quadrats are good for plants, since they don’t move, but to
calculate animals quadrats will be very difficult.
■ Capture-Mark-Release-Recapture
● Capture as many individuals as possible in the area
● Mark each individual carefully
○ Ensure that it is not in a way which would affect the lifestyle of
the animal.
● Release them
● Recapture a random amount, and count how many are marked vs
unmarked
● Use Lincoln Index.
○ Both these ways assume that the population is “closed” meaning that they will not
immigrate or emigrate.

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 ● Diversity: A function of two components, the number of different species and the relative
numbers of individuals of each species.
○ Simpson's Diversity Index
■ Measures Diversity in an ecosystem

2.4 Biomes
● Biome: A collection of ecosystems which share similar climatic conditions so therefore have
similar vegetation.
● Examples of Biomes:
○ Tropical Rainforest
■ Distribution: within 5º North and South of the equator.
■ Climate: High rainfall 2000 – 5000 mm per year. High temperatures 26 - 28ºC
mean and little seasonal variation. High levels of insolation due to closeness
to equator.
■ Structure: Very high levels of biodiversity; plants compete for light causing
multi-storey profile (stratification) from floor to canopy. Due to high plant
diversity many niches and habitats for animals.
■ Relative Productivity: Estimated to produce 40% of NPP of all terrestrial
ecosystems. Growing season all year round, fast decomposition, respiration
and photosynthetic rates. Biomass gain is very high in immature plants, but
there is no net gain in larger more mature plants. Rapid recycling of nutrients.
■ Issues and Human Activity: deforestation from logging and land clearing for
agriculture. 50 % of world’s population live in the tropics and subtropics and 1
in 8 live in or near a tropical rainforest, which places a huge strain on tropical
rainforests for resources.
○ Desert
■ Distribution: cover 20 – 30% of Earth’s land surface about 30º North and
South of Equator, where dry air descends. Most are in the middle of
continents (e.g. Gobi desert – cold desert). The Atacama desert in Chile can
have no rain for 20 years or more, and is the driest place on Earth.
■ Climate: Water limited, precipitation less than 250 mm per year and irregular.
Evaporation exceeds precipitation (E>P)
■ Structure: few species, low biodiversity. What can survive in deserts is well
adapted. Soils can be rich in nutrients as they are not washed away. Plants
mostly cacti and succulents. Reptiles are dominant, snakes, lizards, but small
mammals can survive by adapting to nocturnal life or reduce sweat loss by
not having sweat glands and absorbing water from their food. Slow rate of
decomposition.
■ Relative Productivity: Both primary and secondary productivity are low due
to limited water and plant biomass can not build up. Food chains tend to be
short.
■ Issues and Human Activity: traditionally nomadic tribes herd animals such as
camels and goats as agriculture. Population density low as cannot support
large human population. Oil has been found under deserts and many are rich
in minerals including gold and silver. Irrigation is possible by tapping
underground aquifers but there is extremely high rate of evaporation causing
increased salt content until crops can not grow (salinization).

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○ Temperate Forest
■ Distribution: Between 40º and 60º North and South of the equator.
■ Climate: P>E. Rainfall is 500 – 1500mm per year. Winters freezing in some e.g.
Eastern China, milder in Western Europe due to Gulf Stream. Temperatures
range from -30º to +30ºC. Summers cool.
■ Structure: Fewer species than tropical rainforests, Relatively few species and
many woodlands are dominated by one species. Beneath the canopy is a
lower shrub layer is not too dense, is of covered in a thick undergrowth of
brambles, grass, bracken and ferns. The forest floor has a reasonably thick
leaf litter that is readily broken down. Rapid recycling of nutrients, although
some are lost through leaching. Well-developed food chains in these forests
with many autotrophs, herbivores (rabbits, deer and mice) and carnivores
(foxes).
■ Relative Productivity: 2nd highest NPP after tropical rainforests but much
lower than these because of leaf fall in winter so reduced photosynthesis and
transpiration and frozen soils when water is limiting. Temperatures and
insolation lower in winters too as further from the equator.
■ Issues and Human Activity: Much temperate forest has been cleared for
agriculture or urban developments. Large predators (wolves, bears) virtually
wiped out. Most of Europe’s natural primary deciduous woodland has been
cleared for farming, for use as fuel and in building, and for urban
development. Some that is left under threat, e.g. US pacific Northwest old-
growth temperate and coniferous forests. Often mineral wealth under for
forests is mined. Examples: US Pacific Northwest
○ Arctic Tundra
■ Distribution: Just south of the Arctic ice cap and small amounts in southern
hemisphere. (Alpine tundra is found as isolated patches on high mountains
from the poles to the tropics.)
■ Climate: Water is limiting but fire can also stop the climax community
forming. Frozen ground (permafrost), cold, high winds and little precipitation
mean the growing season is only 6 weeks per year. Permafrost reaches to the
surface in winter but in summer the top layers of soil defrost and plants can
grow. Low temperatures so rates of respiration, photosynthesis and
decomposition are low. Slow growth and slow recycling of nutrients. Water,
temperature, insulation and nutrients can be limiting. During spring and
summer, animals are active, and plants begin to grow rapidly. Sometimes
temperatures reach 30C. Much of this energy is absorbed as the latent heat of
melting of ice to water.
■ Structure: No trees but thick mat of low-growing plants, e.g. grasses, mosses,
and shrubs. Adapted to withstand drying out with leathery leaves or
underground storage organs. Animals also adapted with thick fur and small
ears to reduce heat loss. Mostly small mammals, e.g. hares. Predators e.g. the
Artic fox, lynx, snowy owl. Most hibernate and make burrows. Low biodiversity
and poor soil.
■ Relative Productivity: Very low. Slow decomposition rate so many peat bogs
where most carbon is stored.
■ Issues and Human Activity: Few humans but mining and oil. Fragile
ecosystem that takes a long time to recover from disruption. Mining and oil

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 extraction in Canada and Siberia destroy tundra. Vulnerable to global
warming effects.

2.5 Function
● Producers: Converts light energy into chemical energy during photosynthesis. Starts all food
chains. Extremely important
● Consumers: They eat producers and other consumers. They do so to gain energy.
● Decomposers: They obtain their energy from dead organisms and they also break down
dead organic matter and return minerals + nutrients to the soil.
● Photosynthesis: Process in which, Light Energy is converted to Chemical Energy.
○ Inputs: Water, Co2, Chlorophyll and Light
○ Outputs: Oxygen, Glucose and Water
○ Vital as it provides the basis for any food chain, the plant will harness the energy from
the sun, providing it to others.
● Respiration: Process in which chemical energy is converted into usable energy for an
organism.
○ Inputs: Food and Oxygen
○ Outputs: Co2, Water and Waste
○ Glucose + oxygen → energy + water + carbon dioxide
● When energy is transferred between different trophic levels, some of it is lost during the
transfer.
● Carbon Cycle: This is the process where through Photosynthesis, Respiration, carbon is
absorbed by the atmosphere.
● Nitrogen Cycle: This process is when nitrogen is used to help develop the ecosystem.
○ Nitrogen fixation: Nitrogen fixation is a process in which nitrogen (N2) in the
atmosphere is converted into ammonium (NH4+).
○ Denitrification: Denitrification is essentially the conversion of nitrate to nitrogen gas.
○ Nitrification: Nitrification is the biological oxidation of ammonia or ammonium to
nitrite followed by the oxidation of the nitrite to nitrate.
● Hydrological Cycle: Transfer of water between the atmosphere and rivers lakes and oceans.
● Gross Productivity: Total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time.
● Net Productivity: Gain in energy or biomass per unit per unit time after respiration.
● Net Primary Productivity: Rate at which plants accumulate dry mass. Store of energy (NPP=
GPP- R)
● Net Secondary Productivity: Energy in the food ingested (NSP= GSP-R)
● Gross Primary Productivity: Total amount of energy produced by plants from sunlight.
● Gross Secondary Productivity: Gain in energy/biomass per unit area per unit time by
consumers.

2.6 Changes
● Limiting Factors: Factors that limit or prevent a community, population or organism from
growing larger.
● Carrying Capacity: The maximum number of species that an environment can sustainably
support.
● Population Curves:
○ J- Curve: Growth is exponential
○ S- Curve: Growth is rapid and it fluxuates

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 ● Density Dependent factors: These are factors that affect the population size based on the
population density.
○ Predation
○ Disease
○ Availability of resources
○ Space
● Density Independent factors: Affects the population size regardless of the population
density.
○ Natural Disasters
● Internal factors: include most density dependent, fertility or size of breeding territory.
● External factors: includes most density independent factors, predation and disease.
● K-Strategists: These are animals which are:
○ Larger
○ Slower Reproduction Rate
○ Long Lifespan
○ High Parental care
○ Population tends to be stable
○ Elephants, Humans, Tigers
● R-Strategists: These are animals which are:
○ Smaller
○ Fast Reproduction Rate
○ Short Lifespan
○ Low Parental care
○ Population size is very unstable
○ Flies, Mosquitoes
● Succession: This refers to the orderly succession of a species towards a climax community
over time.
○ Primary Succession: Starts from bare rock, exposed rock and it will develop.
○ Secondary Succession: Begins on soil from which a previous community was there,
but has been since removed.
● Pioneer Community: The organisms in pioneer communities are specialized to take
advantage of the newly open environment, They tend to include such organisms as grasses.
● Climax Community: An ecological community in the final stage of succession, in which the
species composition remains relatively stable until a disturbance occurs. The disturbance will
not be completely permanent
● Zonation: How an ecosystem changes along an environmental gradient or zone like water in
soil.

2.7 Measuring Changes in the system

● One way in which they can be measured is through Transects, which there are 3 types of:
○ Line Transect: Simple version, in a line across the zone
○ Belt Transect: Strip of an ecosystem is chosen and it is tested in this area, usually 1m
wide.
○ Interrupted Transect: Samples are taken at set intervals along a belt or line transect
● Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): This is a report which outlines the potential risks of
development in an area, on the ecosystem.

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Topic 3- Human Population, Carrying Capacity and Resource
Use
3.1: Population Dynamics
● (Crude) Birth Rate (BR): Number of live births per 1000 people per year. Also known as
Natality.
● (Crude) Death Rate (DR): Number of deaths per 1000 people per year. Also known as
Mortality.
● Natural Increase Rate: Calculated by subtracting the Crude Death Rate from the
Crude Birth Rate. (CBR-CDR).
● IMR. Crude death rate of infants less than one year of age. (Infant Mortality Rate)
● CMR. Crude death rate of children below the age of 5. (Child Mortality Rate)
● Fertility Rate. Average number of births a woman has in her childbearing years.
○ A replacement rate of 2.1 is needed for a population to sustain itself and grow.
● Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is the average number of children a woman would be expected to
have if she survives childbirth.
○ Factors which affect high or low fertility rates include
■ Urbanization (family planning and need or want of children)
■ Culture/traditions
■ Healthcare
■ Importance of children
■ Education/Employment opportunities for women
■ Infant Mortality Rate (a country may have a high TFR but their IMR may also
be pretty high)
■ Average Age of marriage
■ Availability of abortions and contraceptives.
● Life Expectancy. Average number of years of life remaining at a given age, usually measured
at birth.
○ E being the average number of subsequent years of life for someone now aged x.
● Divisions in Age Groups: The youthful population (youthful economically dependent) is
known as people between 0 and 15 years of age. The economically active population is
between 15 and 65 years of age. Elderly dependents are 65 and above. ( Teachers usually want us
to at least make a mention of this when annotating the population pyramids.)

● Population Pyramids are important to show the structure of a population in terms of sex and
age. They show trends in Birth rate, death rate, and life expectancy. They can also project
population momentum and show population projections.
○ Population Momentum is the rate of the change of a population.
○ Population Projections can be determined from population pyramids by looking at
the gradient of the slopes. They show how a population might look in the future.
● To analyze population pyramids you have to look out for certain characteristics outlined in
the images below. Something else you should look out for is the scale and in what units the
population is being measured in. For example it could be thousands, millions, a percentage,
etc.

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Reasons for indents/bulges and tall/short pyramids:
In population pyramids there are usually some form of bulges or indents on either one or both sides
of the graph. Reasons for this may be:
● High/Low birth rate or death rate
● High/Low life expectancy
● Baby boom
● Government policies (pro-/anti- natalist)
● Immigration/Emigration (Emigration is the act and the phenomenon of leaving one's native country to settle in
another country. It is the same as immigration but from the perspective of the country of origin.)
● Communities of certain types of people (elder, women, economically active, etc)

● Demographic Transition Model (DTM): This is a model which describes the pattern of the
decline in mortality and fertility of a country with regards to the social and economic
development of it.
○ 5 stages:
■ Pre-Industrial Society
● Characterised by high BR and high DR, due to poor infrastructure, lack
of healthcare and cultural reasons (such as wanting larger families).
Examples are Amazonian Tribes.
■ LEDC
● DR drops due to slow improvement in healthcare. BR is still very high,
with high IMR. Examples are Yemen and Afghanistan.
■ Wealthier LEDC
● BR and DR both fall. Population growth slows down. Family size also
decreases. Examples include India, Malaysia.
■ common MEDC
● Low DR and BR. Stable population growth. Examples include Canada,
UK and USA.
■ rare MEDC
● This is when the BR is lower than the DR. Meaning an aged workforce
will appear. Countries as examples are Germany and Japan.

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3.2: Resources- Natural Capital
● Natural Income: Yield or harvest or services that are provided by the environment.
○ Idea is that the product is something we don't have to look after but rather it is
something which we just have to preserve. Earth provided us with everything.
● Natural Capital: Goods and services that are not manufactured by have value to humans.
○ Types:
■ Renewable Natural Capital: Living species and ecosystems, they are
essentially self producing, self maintaining and makes use of solar energy
and photosynthesis. Examples include wood.
■ Replenishable Natural Capital: Non-living but still dependable on the solar
energy. Examples include groundwater and the ozone layer.
■ Non-Renewable Natural Capital: This is when using this resource means that
it cannot be replaced and will subsequently deplenish in stock. Examples
include fossil fuels like coal.
● Different values in resources:
○ Economic (shit for sale)
○ Ecological (water storage, gas exchange)
○ Technological (medicines)
○ Intrinsic (wow such beauty)
■ It is very difficult to classify something as having intrinsic value as the idea of it
is subjective to the person viewing the nature.
● Sustainability: Refers to living in such a way that it can be continued at the same level of use
on the environment with all of the natural resources having the ability to self replenish.
● Sustainable Development: Introduced in 1987 in the Brundtland Report (Our Common
Future).
○ Defined as the development which meets current needs without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
● Sustainable Yield: Essentially this is the rate of increase in natural capital that can be used
without depleting the original stock.

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 ○ Calculated by:

3.3: Energy Resources

● All energy originates from the Sun.

● Two types of resources can be used for energy.
○ Renewable
■ Solar
■ Wind
■ Hydro Electric
■ Nuclear (arguable & risky to put as an answer)
○ Non-Renewable
■ Coal
● Comparing a renewable and non-renewable resource.
○
Energy Source Origin Advantage Disadvantage

Coal (non- Fossilized plants It is easy to As it is non-

renewable) left out for transport, cheap renewable, using
millions of years and there is no this source can
leads to them need for result in harmful
becoming coal. It processing. environmental
is then burnt to Roughly 250 effects. Burning it
provide heat years are left leads to Carbon
energy or with current Dioxide + other
electricity supply. Greenhouse
through turbines. gases being
released.

Solar Power Uses the suns As it is a Very expensive

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 (renewable) energy which is renewable to install. It is
then absorbed resource, the also not very
by solar panels. supply is effective in being
These panels are plentiful and it the sole source
made up of can be of energy to
interconnected replenished as it power a
silicon cells is simply household. The
which help to absorbing the panels can only
use the energy light energy from absorb the rays
for the the sun and of the sun when
household or converting it to the light is out
commercial heat and (during the day).
scale in all forms. chemical energy.
When it is up
and running, it is
also free.
● Note: The amount of resources in the world is depleting quite rapidly, it is up to us and the
future generations to have innovation in this area and help the problem of resource depletion.

3.4: The Soil System

● Soil is made up for 4 main components:

○ Mineral particles
○ Organic Remains
○ Water (in the spaces between soil particles)
○ Air (in the spaces between soil particles)
● Soil is made up of many “levels” known as Horizons.

○ Humus:
■ Decomposed material from recently dead organisms. Organic Matter.
○ Topsoil:
■ Soil hummus builds up here.

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 ○Subsoil:
■ In the layer where soluble material and organic matter tend to be
deposited from the layers above.
○ Weathered rock fragments:
■ Mainly weathered rock, lack of wildlife.
○ Bedrock:
■ Pure rock
● These layers are formed when water passes through the soil particles in a process
known as translocation.
● Minerals are also transported throughout in a process known as salinization
● When water rich in minerals travels down the horizons, it is known as leaching.

○ This process takes minerals away from each horizon, meaning its bad for the
soil as its overall amount of minerals decreases.

● Soil texture is extremely important in the ability for it to be useful for agriculture or
any other uses. Some example of the texture are,
○ Clay (very fine particles)
○ Silt (fine particles)
○ Sand (medium-sized particles)
○ Gravel (coarse to very coarse particles)

Texture Mineral Infiltration Water Aeration Workability

Content Holding
Capacity

Clay Good Poor Good Poor Poor

Silt Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium

Sand Poor Good Poor Good Good

Loam Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium

● So what is the best soil for agriculture?

○ Loam Soil. It is fertile, drains well and is easy to work with. Meaning that is the
perfect soil for agricultural use.
● The texture can be used to determine the soil porosity.
○ This is the measure of the volume of pores or the average space between
pores in the soil..
● Soil Permeability: The rate at which water and air move from upper to lower soil
layers.
● Infiltration: Downward movement of water through soils.
● Soil Degradation: A reduction in the quality of soil, making it harder to grow things.
● Desertification: The process of soil becoming degraded and turning to desert

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 ● Soil erosion: The removal of topsoil (topsoil is normally the most fertile layer) usually
by wind and water. Soil is much more vulnerable to erosion when no vegetation is
growing on it.
● The idea of soil conservation is becoming more important as the world grows.
○ Crop Rotation and Fallow Periods: By using different crops and allowing the
land to rest it gives nutrients and minerals chance to return to soil making it
more fertile and hopefully increase yields over longer periods.
○ Desalination: Taking water from the sea and removing the salt to make it
good for drinking and agricultural uses. If more water is available it is then
possible to water arid areas of land and hopefully increase crop production.
○ Irrigation: This means watering the land. By irrigating more arid areas we
should be able to increase agricultural output while preserving the soil.
○ Reforestation and afforestation: By foresting areas of land it can ensure that
the nitrogen cycle (nutrients) is maintained, it can increase the stability and
integrity of the soil and it can form a wind break from erosion and finally
prevent flash floods. All these factors should improve the quality of the soil
and hopefully crop yields
○ Terracing: Retains water for crops at each level and reduces the amount of
soil erosion.
○ Fertilizers and Pesticides: Although overuse of fertilisers and pesticides can
damage the soil and pollute nearby water courses through runoff, if they are
used properly they should improve the amount of nutrients present in the soil.

3.5: Food Resources

● A general trend is that there is enough food in the world but it is mismanaged and therefore
people go hungry
○ 2007: 854 million people are undernourished.
■ If it is in children can lead to massive problems with their development.
● In MEDCs people have the choice with foods, seasonal foods do not exist anymore because
food exists all year long.
● In LEDCs the idea of food resources are something which is very important. Many people are
starving in these countries do not have food choices due to their reliance on the seasonal
growth of their crops.
● The diets of MEDCs and LEDCs, differ as well. MEDCs average calorie intake is about 3314
whereas LEDCs is only about 2666 per day
● Terrestrial ecosystems tend to be more productive when producing food when compared to
an aquatic ecosystem.
○ However, an aquatic system has more energy transfers.
● Types of Farming:
○ Arable, pastoral and mixed farming
■ Arable farms cultivate crops and do not involve livestock. The crops grown in
arable farming maybe change over time or increase their range. For example:
if the market price of potatoes increases, more farmers will be attracted to
grow this crop.
■ Pastoral farming involves keeping livestock such as dairy cattle, beef cattle,
sheep and pigs.

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 ■ Mixed farming involves cultivating crops and keeping livestock together on a
farm.
○ Subsistence and commercial farming
■ Subsistence farming is the most basic form of agriculture where the
produced goods are consumed entirely or mainly by the family who work the
land and treat the livestock.
■ Commercial Farming is for profit.
○ Extensive and intensive farming
■ Extensive farming is where a small amount of agricultural produce is obtained
per hectare of land, they tend to cover large areas of land. Inputs per unit of
land are low. Extensive farming can be both arable and pastoral in nature.
● Rice farming in Borneo, Indonesia.
■ Intensive farming is characterized by high inputs per unit of land and achieve
high numbers of yields per hectare.
● Rice farming in California.
○ Organic and non-organic farming.
● Cultural roles of food play a big role in the type of farming which is undertaken by that
particular society.

3.6: Water Resources

● 70% of Earth's surface is covered by water.
○ 3% if that is fresh (97% salty)
■ 69% of that is stored in polar ice caps, 30% in groundwater.
● Lakes, rivers and swamps only make up 0.3% of the total.
● The sustainability of water is a key component in the world.
○ Water can be conserved easily:
■ Reduce domestic use of water
■ Wash cars in car washers with closed water system (or don’t wash)
■ Select drought resistant crops which require little water to thrive in order to
be sustained.
■ Reduce overspray in crop farming (water goes too far doesn't hit the crops)

● Case Study: Three Gorges Dam, Yangtze River, China.

○ Took 17 years to make, completed in 2011.
○ Hydroelectric power from the dam accounts for 9% of China’s energy consumption.
○ 1.2 million people had to be resettled.
○ Cost was USD$30 billion.
○ A lot of culture was “washed away”

● Case Study: Water scarcity in Mali

○ Capital: Bamako.
○ Population: 16.4 million.
○ 2 major rivers; Niger and Senegal.
○ Mali is 65% in the Sahara.
■ Frequent Droughts
○ The population is concentrated near the rivers (100,000 on the bank on the Niger).
○ 11 million people lack access to water.

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 ○ Large population increase -> large demand for water.
■ 36% of population lives under the poverty line
○ Large disparities in access and quality of the water provided.
○ Contaminated water from industry/agriculture.
○ 80% diseases are water related in Mali.
○ ‘WaterAid’ is an NGO running a scheme in Bamako to provide clean water and
sanitation. They have financed the construction of a water network. They train locals
to manage and maintain this.

3.7: Limits to Growth

● Carrying Capacity: Maximum number or load of individuals that an environment can
sustainably carry or support.
● Concept of Reduce, Reuse, Recycle is important in the modern society. People have to
become more aware of it in order to help solve the problems of a rapidly growing human
population.
● Remanufacturing also common.
○ This is when an old product is taken back to its original state and then reused as
another product. One such example is PET which makes new plastic bottles from old
ones.

3.8: Environmental demands of human populations

● Ecological footprint: This refers to the the area of land which would be required to
sustainable sustain a population to provide all of its requirements such as resources or
assimilation (processes).
● Carrying Capacity: Maximum number or load of individuals that an environment can
sustainably carry or support.
● Calculating the amount of ecological footprint is shown below:

● The amount of ecological footprint for a particular country depends on a few factors
○ Population Size and consumption per person (capita)
■ “How many people and how much land is used for them”

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● Countries are either viewed as being debtors or creditors
○ Creditors: Smaller footprint than their natural resources
○ Debtors: Larger footprint
■ Debtors can be represented as unsustainable harvesting of their goods.
● Country’s ecological footprint:
○ 10.3 hectares: USA
○ 0.8 hectares: India
● Development policies worldwide can affect the population dynamics and growth in particular
countries.
○ Education increases about birth control
○ Education of women increase
○ Lowering of parents being dependent on their kids

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Topic 4- Conservation and Biodiversity
4.1: Biodiversity in Ecosystems

● Biodiversity: The number of species of different animals and plants in the same area at the
same time.
● Genetic Diversity: Range of genetic material present in a species or population.
● Species Diversity: Number of different species within a habitat
● Habitat Diversity: Number of different habitats per unit area.
● Natural Selection: This is a process in which a particular species adapts itself to the
environment it lives in , in order to have an advantage over those whom have not adapted as
well.
● Speciation: This is when species are formed by a gradual change over a long period of time.
○ This may occur when the separation of a population happens, meaning that
interbreeding can not occur anymore.
● Isolation: After an extended period of time that a particular group has been separated from
the original species they were apart of, it leads to them becoming unable to reproduce with
the original species as they have been altered too much.
○ Example: Emu & Ostrich, they were originally apart of a large continent which is now
made up of Africa, Australia + NZ and South America, thus the bird is now split up
over the world.
● Layers of the Earth:
○ Core: This is a hot, molten rock area.
○ Mantle: The portion of the earth, about 2900 km thick, between the crust and the
core.
○ Crust: The outer layer of the earth, about 35 km deep under the continents
(continental crust) and 10 km deep under the oceans (oceanic crust).
● Continental Drift: The process of the tectonic plates moving between 50 and 100mm per
year.
○ Results in new habitats
■ This meant that species soon had to learn how to adapt with their new
climatic conditions once the large supercontinent of Pangea broke into 7 new
ones.
○ Motions of the drift:
■ Sliding across: This is when the plates slide along side each other, example is
the San Andreas Fault line in California.
■ Diverge: This is when they are slowly moving away from each other.
■ Converge: This is when the plates are both being forced upwards, forming
mountains.
■ Sliding underneath: The heavier plate slides underneath the other, forming
deep ocean trenches.
○ The effects of the plates moving is that there will be a physical barrier between the
species.
■ With this barrier, the species cannot interbreed and then they will soon begin
to change, soon being unable to breed with the original species. With the
plate moving, it may have moved to a drastically different temperature, will
lead to the species adapting to the new conditions.

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● Ecosystem Stability: Refers to the ability of the ecosystem to remain stable by maintaining
biodiversity and environmental harmony between different organisms.
○ Every organism has a role in an ecosystem, known as an ecological niche.
○ More complex a food web of an ecosystem = its resilience increases.
○ As Habitat Diversity increases, the species and genetic diversity also increase.
○ Human interference can also cause the ecosystem to become unstable.
● Succession: A following of things, events, people, or ranks after another in sequence of time,
as in a succession of disasters.

● Inertia: Ability of an ecosystem to withstand or resist change when subjected to a disrupted

force. Critical to environmental managers to understand which sites will handle disruption the
best.

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4.2: Evaluating Biodiversity & Vulnerability
● Biodiversity can be lost by:
○ Natural Hazards
○ Habitat loss
○ Overexploitation of Resources
○ Agriculture
○ Pollution
○ Introduction of non-native species
● Tropical Rainforests are especially vulnerable.
○ Half the number of species in the world live there.
■ Yet, 1.5 hectares of rainforest is cleared every second.
○ The demand for the resources from the rainforest is too high, that it cannot replace
itself fast enough, leading to an eventual loss of it.
● Extinction Rate: Natural extinction rate of all species.
○ Currently, we are in the 6th Mass Extinction of the History of the Planet.
○ The amount of species becoming extinct is simply growing and growing.
■ This is due to the transforming of the environment, with pollution increasing,
the genetic diversity pool decreasing and the introduction of alien/ predatory
species are also increasing.
○ Species can become extinct due to:
■ Narrow Geographic Range (lives only in one place)
■ Small Population size (rate of decline is rapid)
■ Low Population density
■ Few groups of these species worldwide
■ Large bodied species
■ Low Reproduction Rate
■ Seasonal Migrants
■ Very difficult to spread their species (go to somewhere new)
■ Niche Requirements of a particular habitat running out
■ Over hunted
● IUCN Red List
○ These are lists of threatened species which are then ranked to the level of threat.
○ Their status is determined by their:
■ Narrow Geographic Range (lives only in one place)
■ Small Population size (rate of decline is rapid)
■ Low Population density
■ Few groups of these species worldwide
■ Large bodied species
■ Low Reproduction Rate
■ Seasonal Migrants
■ Very difficult to spread their species (go to somewhere new)
■ Niche Requirements of a particular habitat running out
■ Over hunted

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● Case Study: Dodo Bird
○ Large flightless bird
○ They had no predators, thus didn't need to fly.
○ In 16th Century, Portuguese sailors invaded its home of Mauritius and ate the bird
extensively. When the island became a penal colony, many foreign predators were
introduced, killed them off. Extinct by 1681.
● Case Study: Rafflesia
○ Large, “smelly” plant in South-East Asia.
○ Pressured as the plant needs specific climatic conditions in order to survive.
○ Sanctuaries in Sabah (Malaysia) and Sumatra (Indonesia)
● Case Study: Australian Saltwater Crocodile
○ Massive croc m8, 5m in length, it's a top predator (no shit)
○ They are really pretty scary tbh, violent creatures that will eat others and just
hardcore
○ They are exploited for their skin, meat and other body parts, it was also hunted along
with being killed for just hurting a human.
○ In order to restore the, the Australian government put some laws on the culling of
them, also providing sanctuaries for their young and offspring to grow and develop.
● Case Study: Wood Bison National Park, Alberta, Canada.
○ Set up in 1922, this national park is home to numerous Bison and vegetation (like the
White and Black Spruce)
○ In 1983, it became a UNESCO World Heritage Site
○ It is at threat due to the contamination of the Wood Bison with normal Buffalo (lol
losers). The delta, is also drying up thanks to the construction of a dam and climate
change. Their water source, the Peace River is affected by pollution upstream. Native
people are also telling the National Park to gtfo their land.

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4.3: Conservation of Biodiversity

● Biodiversity is something which is extremely valuable. It can be a:

○ Food Source
○ Medicinal value
○ Centre of ecosystem productivity.
■ Photosynthesis
○ Scientific/ Educational value
○ Intrinsic Value
● NGO: Non-Governmental Organisation
○ This is when an organisation are not controlled by a government body.
● GO: Governmental Organisation
○ This when a particular organisation is controlled by a governmental body.
● Comparision:
○
GO NGO

Use of media High, with ready made They tend to use raw
statements presented to footage sent to media
journalists. outlets to garner attention

Speed of Response Slow, too many Faster

governmental “layers”

Political Involvement High Low, no political agenda,

can go on their own
accord.

Enforceability Usually hampered by the No legal power,

needs of the particular sometimes force must be
country over the actual used to spread message.
cause of the organisation

● NGO: Greenpeace
○ An international environmental organization (40 countries)
○ They have a confrontational approach.
○ They tackle issues such as waste disposal, deforestation, nuclear power, and
industrial pollution.
■ Goal: “To ensure continuing ability of the earth to nurture life in all its diversity”
○ Main interests:
■ Stopping climate change
■ Preserving oceans
■ Saving ancient forests
■ Peace/Nuclear disarmament
■ Sustainable farming
■ Eliminating toxic chemicals

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● GO: UNEP
○ United Nations Environmental Programme
○ Set up the IPCC (International Panel on Climate Change) and enforced the Montreal
Protocol.
● When designing a conservation area, there are certain criteria that must be fulfilled:
○ Size of the Area
○ Number of population
○ Fragmentation (how to spread it out or leave it all condensed)
○ Edge Effects (more internal space, solved by decreasing circumference to area ratio)
○ Shape of the area
○ Proximity it is to other reserves or humans
○ Corridors (connectors to other reserves, over human induced blockages)
● Case Study: Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuary
○ Located in Sichuan Province, China.
○ 900,000 hectares of space for the 1600 Pandas living in it. (6000 plant species too)
○ Errors were made before, with the forced breeding of the Pandas occurring, which
meant putting them in cages, in the hope they would breed. Failed.
○ In order to create the reserve, Human populations were told to move out.
○ The sanctuary suffers from a potential lack of Bamboo, which puts the Panda’s at risk.
● Case Study: CITES ( the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora)
○ It is a large international agreement which governments set up to protect the species
which are becoming endangered due to international (legal or illegal) trade.
● Zoo’s:
○ They are a controversial topic.
○ People feel that animals should not be restricted, and captured to be placed in the
restrictive areas of Zoos.
○ However, Zoo’s do offer some benefits for these Animals:
■ They are a safe haven for some endangered species.
■ They provide a stable diet, balanced as well.
● However, if the animals were to be released back into the wild, they
would be useless as they don’t know how to hunt. (Will die)
■ Some Zoo’s would encourage the reproduction of endangered species,
further improving their numbers.

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Topic 5- Pollution Management
5.1: Nature of Pollution
● Pollution: Addition of a substance to an area or biosphere due to human activity.
● Point Source Pollution: Release of pollutants from a single source. Easier to maintain and
regulate.
● Non-Point Source Pollution: Release of pollutants from numerous sources.
● There are 4 main sources of pollution:
○ Fossil Fuel burning
■ Pollutants: Carbon Dioxide, Sulphur Dioxide, Nitrogen oxides and smog.
■ Effects: Global Warming & Climate Change
○ Domestic Waste
■ Pollutants: Organic Waste, paper, plastics, glass
■ Effects: Eutrophication (increased nutrients in a water body), water borne
diseases, landfill leakage spoiling the environment.
○ Industrial Waste
■ Pollutants: Heavy metals, fluorides, lead, acids
■ Effects: Poisoning (Mercury, Minamata disaster in Japan, fish were tainted due
to a leakage by a factory which made people have reactions negatively to it.)
○ Agricultural Waste
■ Pollutants: Nitrates (from fertilizers), organic waste and pesticides
■ Effects: Eutrophication, disease spread and bioaccumulation.

5.2: Detection and monitoring of Pollution

● How to measure air pollution?
○ Use a large glass pane with some sticky substance on it, leave exposed for a
particular amount of time and then subsequently count how many dust particles
remain on the pane.
● How to measure soil pollution?
○ Nitrate or Phosphate test. Collect a soil sample, drain the water from it and then test
that water. Use the scale provided in the test to then understand the results and how
polluted the soil is.
● Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): Measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen required
to break down the organic matter in a given volume of water.
● Indicator Species: These are species which will only appear in an area which has levels of
pollution suitable to their development.
● Biotic Index: Scale that gives a measure of the quality of an ecosystem. Measured through
the presence, absence, abundance or scarcity of a particular species.

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5.3: Approaches to Pollution Management

●
● In order to reduce/manage pollution, certain approaches can be taken.
○ Altering Human Activity
○ Regulating
○ Clean-up
■ Reduce, Reuse, Recycle is another approach.
● Human lifestyle can have great effect on how the opinion on pollution is taken, some
traditional cultures may feel that natural means may solve pollution (nature will solve it).
● The WHO (World Health Organisation) banned DDT.
○ DDT is a powerful, odourless, colourless pesticide which harms the people around it.
The benefit of this is that less people got sick, but more pests were harming the
crops.

5.4: Eutrophication
● Eutrophication: This is the process in which excess nutrients are added to a freshwater
ecosystem.
○ This is bad for the water body as too much nutrients can lead to an increase in the
amount of algae which will limit the productivity of the water body.
○ It occurs when fertilizers are washed into the body of water (run off). With increased
levels of phosphate, the algae will grow. Oxygen is used up by it, meaning the wildlife
do not have as much to breathe with, soon dying out.
● Anthropogenic Eutrophication: This is a very unsightly thing. Bad smelling gases such as
hydrogen sulphide are also released.
○ Leads to:
■ Water low in oxygen
■ Loss of biodiversity and shortened food chains.
■ Death of wildlife
■ Turbidity of the water increased.

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 ● Managing Eutrophication:
○ Use the A.R.C approach.
○ A: Create fertilisers which are natural, in order to reduce the amount of phosphates
that will be in the water. However, ensure they are still suitable for helping plant
growth.
○ R: Control the amount of pollution at the source
○ C: Pumping mud into the lake can help reduce eutrophication.

5.5: Solid Domestic Waste

● Types:
○ Paper, Glass, Metal, Plastics, Organic Waste.
■ Basically everything you would throw away at home.
● 3kg of waste is produced per person per day in the USA
● 500kg of waste per year per person in the EU (European Union)
● Management strategies:
○ 3 R’s: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
○ Landfills
■ Burying the trash
■ Initial cost is very cheap
■ Lined with special plastic liner in order to prevent leachate (liquid waste) from
getting out.
■ However, leakage still occurs, leading to poor quality of soil, destroying
biodiversity.
○ Incinerators
■ At 2000 degrees, trash is burnt.
■ It is cheap, everything is burnt meaning no space constraints.
■ Ash that is produced is sterile and will not cause infections.
■ Steam produced is then reorganised into being used to provide energy for
people.
■ Air pollution is caused. Co2 and other greenhouse gases are released.
○ Composting
■ This is a natural means which uses the waste as fertilizer or soil conditioner.

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5.6: Depletion of Stratospheric Ozone
● The planet is made up of 3 levels of atmosphere.

○
○ Ozone is considered good to be found in the Stratosphere.
■ Blocks UV rays.
○ Ozone is considered bad to be found in the Troposphere.
■ Pollutant and danger to human life.
● UV radiation is absorbed during the formation and destruction of ozone from oxygen.
● Halogen gases are normally stable but when they are exposed to UV radiation, they slow the
rate of ozone re-formation which is due to the atoms reacting with oxygen. Pollutants make
this reaction faster.
○ Pollutants such as,
■ CFCs which are chlorofluorocarbons or HCFCs which are
hydrochlorofluorocarbons.
● How to reduce these?
○ Recycle products they are used in, such as refrigerators and
air-cons.
■ Or if they have to be thrown, make sure its done
properly
○ In spray cans, don't use them to help spray, but just
compressed air.
■ Halons (fires extinguishers releasing bromine atoms)
■ Methyl Bromide (pesticides also releasing bromine atoms)
● UV radiation can have drastic effects on the biosphere.
○ Causes an increase in cancer
○ Sunburns increase
○ Mutation rates increase, effects on DNA
○ Reduces the rate of photosynthesis, meaning that food chains will be messed up.

● Role of the UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme)

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 ○ 1987: Montreal Protocol: Stopping the production of productions which were high in
CFCs/ Halons by the year 2000.
○ However, this goal was unrealistic as many developing societies still needed them to
develop and they had no replacement.
○ Also, the amount of CFCs and their long lifespan mean a return to original levels can
occur by 2050.

5.7: Urban Air Pollution

● When fossil fuels are burnt:
○ Hydrocarbons and nitrogen monoxide (NO) is released
○ the NO reacts with oxygen to form NO2. (haze)
■ Forms ozone.
○ Ozone is a toxic gas which causes numerous problems.
■ Tropospheric ozone is absorbed by plant leaves which affects chlorophyll so
photosynthesis is decreased meaning lowered productivity.
○ Photochemical Smog: Mixture of 100 primary and secondary pollutants formed
under the influence of sunlight. (Ozone is the main contributor).
■ The severity of the smog is dependent on the area, with some experiencing
much worse than others.
○ One way to solve this is putting catalytic converters on cars to limit how much fumes
are released.
■ Hybrid Cars or Electric Vehicles can also become more widespread.

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5.8: Acid Deposition
● Acid Deposition: General term for acids falling down to Earth from the air above.
○ Acid falls in Wet deposition (rain)
○ Sometimes it also falls in Dry deposition (gas)
● Chemistry behind it:

○
○ Primary Pollutants: Factory smog or from a vehicle.
■ Sulfur Dioxide, Nitrogen Dioxide

● Effects of Acid Deposition:

○ Acid Rain (pH below 5) effects as it kills the chlorophyll in plants which leads to the
reduction in the amount of photosynthesis. The leaves also change colour due to a
lack of chlorophyll.
○ It also affects the level of pH in soil, a lower pH makes the soil too acidic, which
means it can't function at its very best.
■ When rain comes, runoff from soil is very bad. This means that the soil will
end up polluting water bodies around it. Nutrients such as calcium,
magnesium and potassium are also leached out meaning that the soil
becomes weaker.
■ In the soil, the aluminium in the soil will react with the acid leading to a very
toxic wasteland soon appearing
○ From a historical perspective, marble monuments will be easily eroded, ruining years
of culture and history as it will soon disappear.
● Acid Deposition is regional and not global.
○ Areas that in the downwind path from industrial regions, will end up suffering the
most, as all the smog is carried downwards to essentially pollute that area although
they were not the cause of it.
■ Example: USA pollution is blown towards Canadian Forests.
○ Acid rain also does not affect every single thing. For example, calcium carbonate rock
is hardly affected as it is alkaline, which helps to neutralise the acid.

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● 1979: UN Convention on Long Range Transboundary Pollutants
○ This was later modified in 1983 and signed by 15 EU countries + Canada and the USA
to cut sulfur emissions by 30% of the 1980 levels by 1993.
○ 1993: Cut the levels by 80% of the 1980 levels by 2003.
● How to reduce the effects of Acid Deposition?
○ Liming lakes:
■ Adding of powdered limestone to lakes and rivers.
■ Solved issue of the pH but the limestone seemed to take away calcium from
the ecosystem resulting in a lack of calcium in it.

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Topic 6- The issue of Global Warming
● Role of Greenhouse gases:
○ Greenhouse effect is a normal and necessary condition for life on Earth.
● The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from
Earth is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-
radiated in all directions.
■ Needed to maintain Earth’s mean temperature.
■ Effect is caused by particular gases (known as Greenhouse Gases) trapping
heat energy that is reflected back from the Earth’s surface.
○ Greenhouse gases absorb Infrared Radiation and give this heat to other atmospheric
gases, heating them up.
○ Incoming rays are made up of UV Light, visible light and infrared heat.
■ 45% of this is absorbed, scattered or reflected before it even reaches the
planet.
■ 55% reaches the surface. (short-wave radiation)
● Of this 55%, 51% is absorbed by the Earths surface (for photosynthesis
and heating of the planet) 4% is reflected as long wave radiation.
○ Examples of Greenhouse gases: Carbon Dioxide, Nitrous Oxide, Methane, Water
Vapor, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Ozone.
■ All lead to Global Warming.
● Effects of Global Warming
○ Biomes Shift along with a loss of biodiversity, habitat extinction.
■ Melting of the permafrost can lead to an increase in the release of methane
which is a greenhouse gas.
■ Warmer temperatures may also mean that new species can be introduced
which may cause the population of certain plants to be hurt.
○ A change in climate can result in different weather patterns and different type of
crops grown.
■ Food production will change as the warmer temperatures will lead to faster
rates of photosynthesis.
○ Coastal Inundation
■ Increase in the amount of flooding within coastal areas.
○ Sea levels can rise.
■ An increase of between 1.5 and 4.5ºC could mean a sea level rise of 15-95cm.
■ Low lying countries at risk of disappearing.
○ Humans may also be forced to migrate or the economy may suffer.
○ Polar Ice Caps melting
■ Increases the volume of water in the seas.
■ Albedo (reflectivity) would go down.
■ However, the melting would allow for new trade routes to be opened up
along the Arctic and undersea oil reserves can be exploited.

● Feedback mechanisms of global warming

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 ○ Negative:
■ Increased evaporation -> increased snowfall on ice caps -> reduces average
global temperature
○ Positive:
■ Increased thawing -> increase in methane levels -> increase in mean global
temperature.
● Pollution Management strategies
○ Carbon Dioxide is the main problem, in terms of the greenhouse effect.
■ China is the main contributor followed by the USA.
○ “Do nothing approach”
■ Only done if the threat is viewed as being insignificant.
○ “Wait and see approach”
■ Risky. Action is only taken when the problems slowly get out of hand.
○ “Precautionary approach”
■ Acting immediately to help solve the problem that lies at hand. Most common
approach.
● Conferences:
○ Montreal Protocol, 1987
■ Covered topics about CFCs and how to reduce them
■ Overall, a success. Countries tended to reduce the amount of CFCs that were
used.
● China and India, along with other LEDCs were unsuccessful as there
was no replacement technologies to help them.
● The Brundtland Report, concept of Sustainable Development was
introduced.
○ Rio Earth Summit, 1992.
■ Useless conference, 150 countries discussed, but nothing happened.
○ Kyoto Protocol, 1997
■ 160 nations at the third United Nation Framework Convention on Climate
Change conference (UNFCCC), pledged to reduce emissions to help the
environment.
■ 2.2% of the Carbon Dioxide emissions were to be reduced along with 5 other
greenhouse gases.
■ Extremely ineffective
● China and the USA didn’t sign and they were the two main
contributors of emissions
● Lack of support given to emerging economies to help them develop
sustainable solutions.
○ Copenhagen Climate Change Summit, 2009
■ Climate Change conference with the USA present.
■ Was designed to further increase the Kyoto Protocol, essentially update it
and make it relevant for it to be implemented.
■ Also a failure.

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 ○ IPCC: International Panel on Climate Change.
■ UN Organisation
■ 2000 scientific experts are there to “explain” climate change and help find
solutions for the problem.

● Global Warming Debate

○ Believers vs Non-Believers
■ Believers feel that this case of temperature increase is the most extreme one
yet.
■ Non-Believers feel that the predictions are not good enough and
temperatures have increased and decreased drastically in the past.
○ George Monbiot
■ Feels that Global Warming can be stopped, but many politicians are not keen
to stop it.
■ Wrote a book that outlined how carbon emissions can be lowered by 90% by
2030.
○ Al Gore
■ Climate change is a very real problem.
■ Uses real science and statistics to increase public awareness.

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Topic 7- Environmental Value Systems

● Stewardship: The ethical duty to protect and nurture Earth,

36