Environmental systems and societies

1 Foundations of environmental systems and societies

1.1 ENVIRONMENTAL VALUE SYSTEMS

1.1.1 The environmental movement

Preservationists
• End of 19th century
• Advocated for preservation of land and resources in pristine untrouched conditions
• Based on the intrinsic value of nature
• John Muir
◦ Book in 1854
‣ Walden
◦ Founded the Sierra club
‣ Preservation organization
• Henry David Thoreau

Conservationists
• End of 19th and early 20th century
• Theodore Roosevelt and Gifford Pinchot
◦ Environment for goods and services it could provide
◦ Sustainable use and management of resources
• Appearance of wildlife conservation societies
• 1889 Plumage League
◦ Protection of animals during mating season
• 1869 Sea Birds Preservation Act
◦ First Nature Protection Law
• Focus on the impacts from industrialization in the mid 1800's to the mid 1900's
Early 20th Century:
• Rise in environmental awareness
• More species becoming extinct
• The impact of DDT on the food chain
• Bleaching of coral reefs
• Deforestation
• Overfishing
• Climate change
◦ 1972
• Impact of CFCs
• Rising sea levels

• High-profile environmental disasters

1.1.2 Hope for the future

Effects of the environmental movement:
• International agreements
◦ UN Paris conference
◦ International Earth Day
• Legislation
◦ Ocean going vessels can't dump at sea
◦ The Montreal Protocol
‣ Control ozone depleting substances
◦ The Kyoto Protocol
 ‣ Control CO2 emissions
◦ Treaty on Persistent Organic Pollutants
• Protection of wildlife
◦ CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
◦ Red list by the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature)
• Factors contributing to the development of the environmental movement:
✰CASE STUDY: Chernobyl Catastrophe
• 1986
• Nuclear accident in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant
• At the time in the Soviet union
• 31-56 immediate deaths
• 4,000 deaths due to cancer
◦ Cases 5x higher that in normal areas
• 30km exclusion zone
• 17 million people contaminated
• Physical abnormalities in livestock
• Decrease of invertebrate populations
• The incidence of Down syndrome in West Berlin peaked nine months after the incident.
• Reactions and impacts
◦ Development programme from the UN
◦ Globally fundamental change
◦ Remediation

1.1.3 Environmental value systems (EVS)

Perception of:
• Environmental threats
• How they can impact the environment
• Wether or not that matters

Value on the points of:

• Goods and services the environment provides
◦ Aesthetic importance
 ◦ Recreational provisions
◦ Resource it supplies
• Intrinsic value
◦ Value because of itself and not because of its use to
humanity

How are environmental values a system?

• Inputs
◦ Culture
◦ Education
◦ Experience
◦ Family
◦ Media
◦ Peers
◦ Personal characteristics
◦ Politics
◦ Science
◦ Society
• Processes
◦ Accepting or rejecting ideas
◦ Cost benefit analysis
◦ Emotion
◦ Evaluation
◦ Assimilating knowledge
◦ Thinking
• Outputs
◦ Actions
◦ Answers
◦ Choices
◦ Decisions
◦ Perspectives
◦ Viewpoints
EVS Approaches
Ecocentrism
• Nature-centered
• Self-reliance and self-restraint
• Sustainability of the whole Earth
• Deep ecologists
◦ Ecocentric nature has intrinsic values in and on itself.
◦ No development
Anthropocentrism
• People-centered approach
• People manage their environment themselves
• Population control and resource management
• Self-reliance Soft Ecologists
◦ Mainly ecocentric with some anthropocentric values
◦ Small scale development
◦ Community identity keeps development in check
• Environmental managers
◦ Natural resources and human population need to be managed
Technocentrism
• Technology will keep pace
• It will provide solutions to all problems
• Emphasis on the use of scientific analysis and prediction
• Understand and control natural processes
• Science will find an alternative

Cornucopian
• Carry on with development because technology will solve problems that arise

1.1.4 Ecocentric value system

Ecocentrism proposes that there is an intrinsic value to natural resources and natural systems
and that spiritual, social and environmental dimensions are all integrated.
• Conservation of the environment
• Humans are a PART of nature
• Work with the natural environment to solve problems
• Economy
◦ Based on maintenance of natural capital
◦ Lifestyle change away from the use of non-
renewable products

1.1.5 Anthropocentric value system

• Based on religion: God gifted us the earth

• Human-centered worldview that believes nature isn't there because it has any intrinsic value,
but because we can use all of its natural resources for our benefit.
• Emphasize the need for population control to improve resource management
• Economic growth and resource exploitation
◦ strongly regulated by independent authorities
• Legal agreements needed to maintain environmental quality
◦ Enforce compensation when environmental
agreements are not followed
• Represented by governments

1.1.6 Technocentric value system

• Absolute faith in technology and industry

• Understanding of natural processes in order
for them to be replaced by technology if
necessary.
• Environmental issues as opportunities for science to advance and industry to move forwards.
• Natural resources have no intrinsic value, they're there for human benefit
• Importance of market and economic growth
• Humans as endlessly resourceful
• All global problems can be solved by science and technology

1.2 SYSTEMS AND MODELS

1.2.1. Systems

• Set of interrelated parts and the connection between them that unites them to for a complex
whole and produces emergent properties.
• Interaction of parts and their environment
• Boundaries in both space and time
• COMPONENTS
1. Inputs
A. Identifies the elements that go into the system
a. Like water, energy, etc.
B. Flows that may be physical or behavioral
a. Environmental value systems, thoughts, cultures, etc.
2. Processes
A. Act on the inputs to make them outputs
B. Or transform inputs in some way
3. Outputs
A. Flows of matter and energy that leave the system
a. Policies could be outputs
• TYPES OF SYSTEMS
◦ Open systems
‣ Exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings
‣ Most natural ecosystems, social systems
◦ Closed systems
‣ Exchanges energy but not matter with its surroundings
‣ Earth is a closed system
‣ Global cycles (nitrogen, carbon and hydrological)
◦ Isolated systems
‣ No exchange in energy nor matter
‣ The universe

1.2.2 Stores and flows

Stores:
- Of energy
- Of matter
Systems diagrams
• stores as boxes and flows as arrows
• Box size can be proportional to the size of the store
Carbon cycle:
• Closed system
◦ no inputs or outputs of matter
◦ Energy= only input
‣ Solar energy
Difference between matter and energy:
• Energy flows
• Matter cycles
◦ Finite
◦ Used and reused
◦ Carbon cycle - stores are not lost but the proportions fluctuate
• The sun as the ultimate source of energy
Transfers and transformations:
• Transfers
◦ Move energy or matter from one place to another
◦ No change in the in anyway
• Transformations
◦ Move energy and matter
◦ Change in form in the process
1.2.3 Models
✦Model: simplified version of reality that represents a specific part of the natural world, with the
intention of making it easier to understand.
• Models are the foundation of the scientific method
• What makes a model good?
◦ Explains how a complex phenomena arises from a simpler one.
◦ Comparing a poorly-understood aspect of the word to a well-understood one.
◦ Must be testable and generate predictions for the real world.
• Systems
• Simulations
• Show how a model works

1.3 ENERGY AND EQUILIBRIA

1.3.1 The laws of thermodynamics

✦Thermodynamics rules: explain the rules that energy flows in a system.

1ST LAW: CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

• Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
• Energy is transformed
• Food chains & the 1st law:
◦ Energy first enters food chains as sunlights and turns into chemical energy during
photosynthesis.
◦ It is passed along the food chain and some is lost to respiration
◦ Lastly it is transformed into heat that is released into the atmosphere.
• Energy production & the 1st law
◦ Sun is the primary source
◦ Use of one type of energy to produce another
• Implications of the first law
◦ In open systems
‣ Once it has entered it will never increase
‣ For it to increase it has to keep entering
◦ In a food chain, energy is transformed from chemical to heat energy
‣ Increasing entropy
‣ Higher trophic levels=less animals
◦ Higher in the food chain= eat a large amount of smaller animals
‣ Toxins will become accumulated across the food chain
‣ Bioaccumulation
◦ Energy cannot be created, only transformed
◦ New energy is not being created in the universe
2ND LAW & ENTROPY

✦Entropy: The increase in disorder and randomness in a system.

• The second law of thermodynamics states that entropy will increase over time, and the only
way for it to be prevented is the constant input of energy to the system.
• Food chains
◦ Light=low entropy
◦ Chemical energy is not 100% efficient, some is converted to heat, which dissipated into the
atmosphere
• Energy production:
◦ At every stage of energy production, the energy becomes less concentrated and more is
released to the atmosphere as heat.
• Implications of the second law:
◦ Entropy will always increase, so to keep a system working there must be a continious input
of energy
◦ Entropy is controlled by the input of food as a source of energy as well.

1.3.2 Feedback and tipping points

Negative feedback
• Promotes stability in a system as it reverses the change and returns the system to the original
state of equilibrium
• Examples
1. Predator prey relationship
2. Human body temperature
3. Toilet flush

Positive feedback
• Amplifies the change in the system and keeps it going in the same direction.
• A small disturbance in the system causes and increase in that disturbance.
• Some are beneficial while others are not
• Examples
1. Climate change and carbon
2. Deforestation

Tipping points
✦ Tipping point: A kick-start in a self-perpetuating positive feedback loop that pushes a system
into a new state of equilibrium.
• Possible problems as a result of tipping points:
1. Environmental support systems collapse
A. Like water regulation, clean air, etc.
2. Deterioration of the land's food production
3. Compromising of the sea's food production capacity
4. Climate may become unsuitable for human existence.
• In large systems, feedback loops may be slow and the impact hard to see immediately.
1.3.3 Equilibria and stability
✦Static equilibrium: non-living systems where the components remain constant over a long period
of time
✦Steady state equilibrium: Has many small changes over short periods of time which occur within
small limits, these changes are countered by negative feedback, creating an average steady
state.
• Most ecosystems are in steady state equilibrium
Stability
✦Stability: Ability of an ecosystem to remain in balance, being resistant and resilient.
✦ Resistance: Ecosystem continues to function during a disturbance
✦Resilience: Ability of the ecosystem to recover after a disturbance

Disturbances:
• If it occurs over an extended period of time, over large areas or of a suficient severity then a
tipping point might be reached.
• Natural
◦ Flooding
◦ Fires
◦ Volcanic eruptions
• Human induced
◦ Deforestation,
 ◦ Pesticides
◦ Introduced species
Factors affecting stability:
• Climate and limiting factors
◦ Equable climate that supports its vegetation
◦ No extreme temperatures or climactic conditions
◦ Deserts have lots of limiting factors and a low stability
• Biodiversity
◦ High biodiversity ensures a complex ecosystem with many interconnected parts
‣ If one part is lost, another can replace it
◦ Tropical forests have a high biodiversity and therefore high stability
• Trophic complexity
◦ Complex food webs support greater biodiversity
◦ Ensure that organisms from the same level can complete the other's if one is missing
• Nutrient stores
◦ The size and distribution ensures that if there is a drought or a depletion then the system
will not collapse
• Frequency and intensity of disturbances
◦ Small disturbances can be overcome
◦ Larger and more recurring disturbances can deeply affect the stability of an ecosystem

1.3.4 Case studies in stability

1.4 SUSTAINABILITY

1.4.1 Natural capital, natural income and sustainability

✦Natural capital: Natural resources that produce sustainable natural income of goods and
services.
• Goods are marketable commodities that can be exploited by humans.
• Services are natural processes that provide benefits for humans.
• Natural capital yields natural income
Sustainability
✦Sustainability: Is the management of the exploitation of resources that allows for replacement
of the resources and full recovery of the ecosystems that mat be affected by extraction
Ecological Footprint (EF)
✦EF: The amount of water that is required to support a human population at a given standard of
living, providing all of the resources and assimilating all the waste
• Gives an indication of the demand for the Earth's natural capital

1.4.2 Sustainability indicators

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA)
• 2001
• UN
• Assess links between ecosystem change and human well-being
• Establish strategies to achieve sustainable use of ecosystems
• Ecosystem Services
◦ Benefits people obtain from ecosystems
◦ Supporting
◦ Provisioning
◦ Regulating
◦ Cultural

1.4.3 Environmental Impact Assessments

• EIA
• Process of identifying, predicting, evaluating, and mitigating the effects of development
proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made.
• Aim:
◦ Identify any impacts that may result from the project
◦ Improve the decision making process (allowing or blocking the project)
◦ Lessen any potential impact
• STEPS
1. Scoping
A. Make sure the EIA is focused on the environmental issues and possible effects.
2. Baseline study
A. Assessment of the area previous to the project
B. Look at biotic and abiotic environment
 C. Review existing human features, cultural heritage, and material assets.
3. Predicting and Assessing effects
A. Good or bad
B. Temporary
a. During the building phase
C. Permanent
4. Mitigation
A. Mitigation of negative impacts
a. Reducing
b. Preventing
c. Offsetting
5. The environmental statement
A. Report with information gathered
• Criticism
◦ No requirement for the environment to be a high priority
◦ No standardization between countries
◦ Difficult to define the extent of the impacts
1.5 HUMANS AND POPULATION
1.5.1 Pollution
✦ Pollution: Addition of substances into the natural environment at a rate that is greater that at
which they can be rendered harmless and causes adverse changes.
• Sources of pollution:
◦ Point source pollution: Single identifiable source of pollution.
◦ Non-point source pollution: From different sources, difficult to monitor and control.
• Forms of pollution:
◦ Organic matter
‣ Is or was living
◦ Inorganic matter
‣ Non-living and generally doesn't contain carbon
◦ Persistent
‣ Do not break down easily
◦ Biodegradable
‣ Breakdown/decompose due to the action of microorganisms
 ◦ Acute
‣ Suddenly and in large quantities for a short period of time
◦ Chronic
‣ Persistent long term release of a pollutant at low concentrations
◦ Primary
‣ Released directly from a source in the form they are produced
◦ Secondary
‣ Primary pollutants react with the environment and other pollutants
• Types of pollution
◦ Air pollution
‣ Gases, particulates or biological elements into the atmosphere
‣ Cause respiratory problems
‣ Can also affect climate change
◦ Water pollution
‣ Pollutants into a body of water
‣ Destroy ecosystems, disrupt food chains, spread diseases, and intoxicate humans
◦ Land pollution
‣ Result of human misuse of land resources
‣ Poor waste disposal
‣ Use of insecticides and other chemicals
‣ Exploitation of land
‣ Degrades ecosystems
• Affects the capacity to support life
‣ Spread of disease
‣ Growth and spread of pathogens
◦ Light pollution
‣ Poor use of lighting
‣ Affect the timing of biological activities
‣ Disrupts creature's navigation
‣ Can interfere with sleep cycles
◦ Noise pollution
‣ Loud sounds
• Harmful or plain annoying
 ‣ Disrupt mammals ability to navigate
‣ Upset nesting birds
‣ Damage hearing
‣ Cause stress
◦ Thermal pollution
‣ Rise of temperature
‣ Deforestation
‣ Decreases the oxygen levels of water
‣ Detrimental to some organisms
◦ Visual pollution
‣ Affects the intrinsic value of an area
1.5.2 Impacts and management

Model of pollution management

• Educate: Alter human activity

◦ People to change their attitudes
◦ Education, campaigns, community pressure or economic incentives
◦ Education is the key
‣ Awareness is the best way to change attitudes
‣ Lifestyle changes depend on attitudes and values
◦ Together= more impact
◦ Campaigns
◦ Penalties get results
• Legislate: Make laws to stop pollution
◦ Regulations to control emissions
◦ Technological improvements
◦ Legislation to companies=higher costs
• Remediate: Clean up the mess
◦ Reaching this point is extremely negligent
 ◦ Pollutant must be extracted
◦ Harder to achieve

1.5.3 DDT

• Organochloride insecticide
• Colorless, tasteless, and odorless
• Effective in controlling malaria and typhus
• Persistent organic pollutant (POP)
◦ Absorbed by the soil and never broken down
• Bioaccumulates
• Discussed in Silent Spring
• Soluble in lipids so it accumulates in fat tissues
• Causes eggshell thinning
• Carcinogenic
• DDT and malaria
◦ highly effective for its eradication
◦ Very deadly disease
◦ DDT was banned

2 Ecosystems and ecology

2.1 SPECIES AND POPULATIONS

2.1.1 Component parts

Biotic components:
• Producers
◦ Plants that convert energy into matter
• Consumers
◦ Animals that eat plants or other animals
• Decomposers
◦ Organisms that breakdown waste into component parts for reuse
• Interactions
◦ Predation
◦ Herbivory
◦ Parasitism
◦ Mutualism
◦ Disease
◦ Competition
✦ Species: Group of organisms that share common characteristics and can interbreed to
produce fertile offspring.
✦Populations: Group of individuals of the same species living in the same area at the same time
• Population size is determined by
◦ Births and immigration
◦ Deaths and emigration

Abiotic components:
• Temperature
• Sunlight
• pH
• Salinity
• Precipitation

2.1.2 Where organisms live

✦Habitat: The environment in which a species usually lives

✦Niche: The role an organism plays and the position it holds in the environment, including all of
its interactions with the environment.
• Smallest unit of the habitat

2.1.3 Population dynamics and limiting factors

✦Limiting factors: resources in the environment that limit the growth, abundance, and distribution
of organisms in and ecosystem.
• Determine the carrying capacity of the area
 ◦ Density dependent
‣ Affect only when it reaches a certain density
‣ Tend to be biotic factors
◦ Density independent
‣ Control populations no matter what the density of it is
✦Carrying capacity: maximum number of individuals of a species that the environment can
sustainably support in a given area

Population growth curves

• J-shaped growth curve
◦ Exponential population growth under ideal
conditions with plenty of resources and
limited competition.
◦ Growth until environmental resistance takes
effect
◦ Generally r-strategists
• S-shaped curve
◦ Resources are limited
◦ Typical for k-strategists
◦ Exponential growth is limited, it plateaus
• Combination of both graphs
◦ More likely
◦ Population is unlikely to slow down immediately
◦ Overshoot followed by fluctuations
◦ Population fluctuates around the carrying
capacity.

2.1.4 Interactions: predation, herbivory, and parasitism

Predation
✦Predation: One organism hunts and kills another to provide itself with energy or for survival
and reproduction
• Example of evolution in action
• Best-fit predators will be more successful at hunting
and survive
• Prey can evolve to increase avoidance tactics to
survive long enough to reproduce

Herbivory
✦Herbivory:The consumption of plant material by an
animal
• Herbivores evolve coping mechanisms to continue
eating after structural changes are made to their
food
• Long necks for giraffes

Parasitism
✦Parasitism: When an organism takes nutrients from another.
• Parasites that live outside of their host = ectoparasites
• Parasites that live inside of their host = endoparasites
• Not beneficial for them to kill their host

2.1.5 Interactions: mutualism, disease, and competition

Mutualism
✦Mutualism: Two organisms of a different species exist in a mutually beneficial relationship
• Vital to ecosystem functioning
• 50% of all terrestrial plants rely on the fungi around their roots to absorb inorganic
compounds from the soil
• Example: Oxpecker
◦ Eats the ticks and parasites that feed on herds of animals

Disease
• Accompanied by signs or symptoms
• May be the result of environmental agents, infective agents, genetic defects, or a combination
of them.
Competition
• Organisms compete for a resource that is in limited supply
• If the resource is plentiful, there is no competition
◦ Growth like the J-shaped curve
• Intraspecific competition
◦ Members of the same species compete for a resource
• Interspecific competition
◦ Different species compete for a resource they both need.
◦ More impact on species survival

2.2 COMMUNITIES AND ECOSYSTEMS

2.2.1 Ecosystem basics - key players

✦Ecosystem: A community of interdependent organisms and the physical environment they

interact with.
✦Community: Group of populations living and interacting with each other in a common habitat.
Difference: Ecosystem contains abiotic factors and community just biotic.

Key players
Producers
• Inorganic compounds into food
• Autotrophs
• Primary producers, base of the food chain
• Green plants
◦ Produce own food through photosynthesis
• Do not only grow on soil
• Some energy is also produced by chemosynthesis, in the absence of light
• Roles
1. Provide food for all other life on earth
2. Regulate the hydrological cycle
3. Absorb CO2 and release oxygen
 A. maintain the balance of gases in the atmosphere
4. Habitats for animals
5. Reduce erosion

Consumers
• Heterotrophs
• Herbivores
◦ Just eat plants
• Carnivores
◦ Just eat meat
• Omnivores
◦ Eat both plants and animals

Decomposers and detrivores

• Clean up the ecosystems as they obtain energy
• Absorb and metabolize waste and dead matter on a molecular level
◦ Released as inorganic chemicals which can be recycled by plants
• Clea ecosystems of dead bodies
• Prevent spread of disease by disposing of dead bodies
• Facilitate the workings of the ecosystem by releasing nutrients that weren't available.

2.2.2 Ecosystem basis - key processes

Photosynthesis
• Green plants take light energy and transform it
into chemical energy
• Chlorophyll is the pigment in chloroplasts that
contains the proteins to absorb light energy
from the sun.
• Word equation
◦ Carbon dioxide + Water →(Light and
chlorophyll) →Glucose + Oxygen
• Chemical Equation
• Systems diagram

Respiration
• reverse of photosynthesis
• Oxidation of glucose to release energy
• Energy is transformed from chemical into kinetic energy and then dissipated as heat
• Word equation
◦ Glucose + Oxygen → (Oxidation)→ Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
• Chemical equation
◦
•
• Systems Diagram

2.2.3 Trophic levels, food chains and food webs

✦Trophic level: Position an organism occupies in the food chain

• Food chains
◦ Model trophic levels
◦ Arrows indicate flow of energy
 ◦ The organism the arrow is pointing at consume the one from where the arrow begins
• Food webs
◦ More complex food chain
◦ More accurate model of relationships between
trophic levels
◦ Once again the arrow shows the flow of energy
• Energy in the food chain
◦ Calculate energy efficiency (second value/initial
value x100)

2.2.4 Ecological pyramids, pyramid of numbers

• Show feeding relationships between groups of organisms

• Trophic levels in the same order
◦ Primary producers at the bottom
◦ Followed by primary consumers and so on
• Width is constant
Pyramid of numbers
• Length depends on the number of organisms
• Number of organisms at each trophic level
• Ignores the biomass
• Can be inverted
• Advantages
◦ Non-destructive data collection
◦ Good when comparing changes in an ecosystem over time
• Disadvantages
◦ All organisms are included regardless of their size
◦ Numbers can be so big they're not appropriately represented
◦ Doesn't allow immature/juvenile forms, just mature organisms

2.2.5 Ecological pyramids: pyramid of biomass

• Biomass is the total amount of living matter in a given area so it represents the standing stock
 of energy at each trophic level
• Measured in grams per meter squared (gm^-2)
• Measured as dry weight, eliminating water variation content in organisms
• Samples are collected, dried and weighed to find the biomass of a trophic level
• Advantages
◦ Overcome the problems of counting seen in pyramids of numbers
• Disadvantages
◦ The whole organism is measures, including parts that aren't consumed
◦ Samples have to be taken, so results are extrapolated
◦ Destructive and unethical methods
◦ Considerable seasonal variation
◦ Not al organisms have the same caloric value

2.2.6 Ecological pyramids: pyramid of productivity

• Each bar represents the amount of energy that is generated and available for the next trophic
level
• Energy/mass per unit are per unit of time (Jm^-2yr^-1)
• Always pyramid shaped
• Advantages
◦ Most accurate
◦ Accurate comparison of ecosystems
◦ Solar input can be added to the model
• Disadvantages
◦ Hard to collect data
◦ Hard to assign trophic levels

2.2.7 Impact of energy efficiencies

• 10% rule (about 10% of energy is lost from one trophic level to another)
• Length of food chains
◦ Terrestrial
‣ Avg 5 trophic levels
 ◦ Aquatic
‣ Avg 7
• They start with much smaller organisms
• Less of the biomass is taken up in skeletal formation
• Although less light gets to primary producers
• Toxins in the food chain
◦ Cannot be eliminated from their bodies
◦ Biomagnification and bioaccumulation
‣ ✦Bioaccumulation: Increase in concentration of a pollutant in an organism as it
absorbs or ingests it from its environment
‣ ✦Biomagnification: Is the increase in the concentration of the pollutant as it moves up
through the food chain
◦ DDT:
‣ POP
‣ Stored in animal fats cells
‣ Cannot be eliminated from the body
‣ Results in both bioaccumulation and biomagnification
‣ Sprayed on land to control malaria
‣ Thins out eggs and beaks, causes fertility issues

2.3 FLOWS OF ENERGY AND MATTER

2.3.1 Energy
• Equatorial areas receive more radiation
◦ Affecting the climate
• Path of solar radiation
Reflectivity of surfaces
• Average planetary
albedo: 30-35%
• Dark surfaces: 4-20%
• Desert sand: 40%
• Clouds: 40-90%
• Fresh snow: 80-90%
• Sent back to space
• Solar radiation is scattered through the atmosphere
• Scattering reflection is about 30%
• Atmospheric gases and particles absorb about 19%
• 51% arrives at the surface
◦ Some is absorbed
◦ Some is used for photosynthesis
◦ Some is reflected

2.3.2 Productivity

• Biomass: Mass of living organisms expressed as

their dry weight
• Productivity:Conversion of energy into biomass in
a given time
• Gross: Total amount of products made
• Net: What is left after losses
• Primary: Plants
• Secondary: Animals

Primary productivity
• Process of photosynthesis or chemosynthesis to make organic compounds
• Either Gross or Net
• Measured for a whole trophic level
• GPP (Gross Primary Productivity)
◦ Biomass produced by primary producers in a given amount of time
• NPP (Net Primary Productivity)
◦ Takes into account respiratory losses (R)
◦ NPP= GPP- R
◦ Amount of usable biomass in an ecosystem
◦ Not all that efficient
◦ Variation
‣ Terrestrial ecosystems and Marine ecosystems have different variations and avg NPP
2.3.3 Secondary productivity and energy pathways

• Gross secondary productivity (GSP)

◦ Assimilation
◦ GSP= food eaten - fecal loss
◦ Total amount of energy assimilated by consumers
◦ 90% of what is assimilated is used for respiration
• Net Secondary Productivity (NSP)
◦ NSP = GSP - R
◦ Can also be interpreted as growth
• Sustainable yield
◦ ✦Sustainable yield (SY): Amount of biomass that can be extracted without reducing
natural capital
◦ Must consider times of the year

2.3.5 Carbon cycles

Stores
• Atmosphere
◦ CO2
• Terrestrial plants and food web
◦ Carbohydrates
• Phytoplankton and food web in marine
ecosystems
◦ Carbohydrates
• Soil and organic matter
◦ Dead organic matter and soil biota
• Coal, oil, and gas
◦ Organic matter decomposed over millions of years
◦ Quickly decreasing
• Sediments and sedimentary rocks
◦ Calcite
• Ocean surface and deep oceans
◦ CO2 is initially dissolved
◦ Incorporated to shells, skeletons and organic matter as carbon
Flows
• Respiration and photosynthesis
◦ Move carbon into and out of the atmospheric store
• Decay
◦ Decomposers release nutrients along CO2 into the atmosphere
• Combustion
◦ Breaking down of hydrocarbon chains releasing CO2
• Biological pump
◦ Movement of carbon along the marine food web
Human interaction
• Dependance on the carbon cycle
• Alterations
• Increasing the atmospheric stores

2.3.6 Nitrogen cycle

Stores
• Atmosphere
◦ Most
• Soil organic matter
• Ocean
• Terrestrial plant biomass
Transformations
• Biological fixation
◦ Bacteria transform nitrogen into ammonium (nitrification)
• Physical fixation
◦ Lightning
• Denitrification
◦ Bacteria remove nitrates from the soil into the atmosphere
• Leaching
 ◦ Dissolve soluble nitrates and wash them out from the soil
• Combustion
◦ Release of nitrogen locked up in organic material
Flows

Human interaction
• Fossil fuel combustion increases nitrogen oxides
• Denitrification due to the draining of wetlands
• Use of inorganic fertilizers
◦ Supplementing natural fixation rates
◦ Increases denitrification and leaching
‣ Leading to eutrophication
• Increase of nutrient stores in the soil
• Livestock increases the amount of ammonia, through their waste.

2.4 BIOMES, ZONATION AND SUCCESSION

2.4.1 Biome location I

Atmospheric circulation and latitude
• More intense sunlight near the equator
• The tri-cellular model
◦ Rising air creates low pressure at the
surface of the earth and high pressure in
the troposphere
◦ Sinking air creates high pressure at the
surface of the earth and low pressure in the
troposphere
◦ Air moves from high pressure to low
pressure
◦ The earth's spin deflects air movement to the
right in the northern hemisphere and to the
left in the southern hemisphere
◦ Shows how thermal energy is distributes
around the planet
◦ Three cells: Hadley cell, Ferrel cell and
Polar cell.
◦ Hadley cell
‣ On the thermal equator
• Shifts along with seasons
‣ Rising air and an equatorial low-
pressure zone (ITCZ)
• Impact on the climate:
◦ Rising air in the ITCZ creates
a band of high rainfall
◦ Descending air is stable and
dry, hence large desert areas
◦ The shift of the ITCZ creates
the tropical rainforest,
savanna and desert climates
‣ Tropical rainforest is always under the influence of the ITCZ
‣ Desert is always under the falling limb of the Hadley cell
‣ Savanna experiences both influences
◦ Ferrel cell
‣ Rising air in cooler regions and sinking air in the warmer latitudes
‣ Average motion of air in mid-latitudes creating the mid latitude westerlies
◦ Polar cell
‣ Mid latitude regions are the starting point
 ‣ Extreme cooling
‣ Air descends at the poles creating high pressure zones
‣ Moves out from the poles as the Polar Easterlies
‣ Effective heat sink

2.4.2 Biome location II

Earth's tilt and seasons

• Rotation
◦ Day length varies depending on the season
◦ However, the closer to the equator, more balance
on length
• Revolution
◦ Tilt defines the seasons
◦ Incites on light
Ocean currents and the maritime effect
• Great ocean conveyor belt
◦ Moves heat around the planet
• Gulf Stream
◦ Warm current
◦ Travels from the Gulf of Mexico up the
Northwestern coast of Europe
◦ Makes the climate warmer
• Humboldt current
◦ Coast of South America, past the
Galapagos Islands, Ecuador, and Peru
◦ Cooling effect on the climate
◦ Prevailing winds
‣ Cannot pickup any moisture
◦ Responsible for the Atacama Desert
• Proximity to the ocean has an impact on climate
• Maritime locations
◦ Warm summers
 ◦ Mild winters
• Continental locations
◦ Cold winters
◦ Hotter summers
◦ Less precipitation
Topography
• Mountains and altitude
◦ Higher=lower temperature
◦ Upwards, divided biomes
• Mountains and precipitation
◦ Long and wide= barrier for air masses
‣ Rise above
‣ Expand and cool
‣ Forms snow
◦ Pass over, air compresses and warms
◦ Loss of moisture on the windward side
◦ Deserts are common on the leewards sides
◦ Marked in coastal mountain ranges
• Aspect
◦ Direction in which the slope face
‣ Affect the microclimate
◦ Northern hemisphere
‣ North facing slope is in the dark for longer
‣ South facing slope receives more solar radiation

2.4.3 Biomes A: general information

✦ Biome: Collection of ecosystems that are

classified according to their predominant
vegetation, sharing similar climactic conditions
and organisms that have adaptations to the
environment
• Smaller unit than the biosphere
• Cover large areas of the earth's surface
• Set of abiotic factors, limiting factors, productivity, and biodiversity
• Types of biomes
◦ Aquatic
‣ Freshwater: Ponds and lakes, streams and rivers, and wetlands such as bogs and
swamps
‣ Marine: Deep ocean, coral reefs, estuaries and mangrove swamps
◦ Forest: Tropical rainforest, temperate forest, and taiga
◦ Grassland: Savanna and temperate
◦ Dessert: Hot, coastal, and cold
◦ Tundra: Arctic and alpine
• Biome Distribution

• Water stress: Assessed by precipitation/evaporation (P/E)

◦ Below 1, water shortages
◦ Ratio of 1, good soil moisture
◦ Ratio above 1, waterlogged and/or heavily
leached soils
• Productivity
◦ High at the equator
◦ Drops towards the poles
• Climate change and biomes
◦ Impacting the distribution of biomes
◦ Biome shifts
◦ Move to higher latitudes and higher altitudes
◦ Rising sea levels, impact aquatic and terrestrial biomes
 ◦ Increased water temperatures can result in coral bleaching

2.4.4 Case study: forest biome

2.4.5 Case study: grassland biome

2.4.6 Case study: desert biome

2.4.7 Survival strategies

• K-strategists
◦ Few offspring Increased quality of them
◦ Parental care
◦ More common in the climax community in succession
◦ large size
◦ Large amounts of time and energy on parental care
◦ Out-compete r-strategists
◦ Mature and reproduce slowly
◦ Regulated by internal factors
◦ Long life span
◦ Slow growth rate
◦ Predators/higher trophic levels
• R-strategists
◦ Quantity of offspring
◦ Little to no parental care
◦ Low survival chances
◦ At least some survive because of the
amount
◦ Beneficial in unstable, unpredictable
environments
◦ Early stages of succession
◦ Small size
◦ vast numbers of offspring and low chances of survival
 ◦ No parental care
◦ Pioneer species
◦ Mature young and reproduce quickly
◦ Regulated by external factors so carrying capacity is often exceeded
◦ Short life span
◦ Pre/low trophic levels

2.4.8 Succession and zonation

• Succession
◦ ✦Predictable change in a vegetation
community over time
◦ Is a change over time
◦ Changes in the plant community can
cause changes in the physical
environment
◦ May occur alone
◦ Starts with a pioneer community
◦ Vegetation transitions through intermediate communities to the final climax community
◦ Steps:
1. Colonization
A. Initiated by pioneer species
a. Suited for unstable environment
B. Find nutrients within the rock
2. Establishment
A. Getting going as an ecosystem
B. Deep enough soil fro invertebrates
C. Building of humus
D. development of habitats
3. Competition
A. Species adapted to specific abiotic
conditions
B. Less extreme conditions
 C. Complex, larger plants
D. K-strategists
4. Climax
A. Stability
B. Steady state equilibrium
C. Self perpetuating
◦ Types of succession
‣ Hydrosere
• Succession in a body of freshwater
• Small lakes may disappear and be replaced by plant communities
‣ Halosere
• Succession in salt water marshes
‣ Psammosere
• Succession along sand dunes
• Stabilizes the dunes and stops them shifting
‣ Lithosere
• Succession starting from bare rock
‣ Xerosere
• Succession in dry areas
• Zonation
◦ ✦Zonation: Change in a vegetation community along an environmental gradient
◦ Caused by things such as: changes in altitude, depth of water, tidal level, distance from
the shore, etc.
◦ Is a spatial change in response to changing conditions
◦ Plant communities adapt to different environmental conditions
◦ Occurs without succession
◦ Changes are spatial and determined by changes in abiotic factors
◦ Altitudinal zonation
‣ Triggered by changes in climactic conditions with increased altitude
‣ Changes up the mountain:
• Shortened growing season
◦ Caused by lower temperatures and longer freezing periods
• Increased precipitation and change from rain to snow
 • Higher rates of insolation
• Strong winds for longer periods of time
◦ Distance from the shore
‣ Increases vegetation communities change with changing conditions
‣ Sand dunes show both succession and zonation
‣ Father from the sea:
• Soil changes
◦ Depth and humus content increase
◦ pH decreases moving from alkaline to neutral
◦ Improvement in moisture holding capacity
• Sea spray and wind speeds decrease

2.4.9 Succession: the final installment

• Production/respiration ratio (P/R)

• Why are they stable?
◦ Complex food chains
‣ I one part is missing another can replace it
◦ Higher level of resilience
◦ More than one stable state
• Secondary succession
◦ Human activities or natural disasters
can destroy the climactic climax and
send the process of succession to the
beginning
◦ The impact of the disturbance depends
on:
‣ How stable the community is
‣ How big that disturbance is

2.5 INVESTIGATING ECOSYSTEMS

2.5.1 Sampling
• Larger samples represent a greater part of the
population
• Number of samples depend on what you are
sampling
• Avoid bias

2.5.2 Sampling strategies

Random Sampling
• Every item has the same chance to be selected
• Use of random numbers
• Methodology
◦ Random points
‣ pair of numbers
◦ Random areas
◦ Random lines
• Unbiased
• May not have access to some sample points
• Suitable for large populations
• Points may miss some places

Systematic sampling
• The nth method
• Every nth term, a sample is chosen
• Easy to apply, no need for a grid
• May be biased due to location of places
• Whole study can be covered
• Patterns can be missed or areas exaggerated

Stratified sampling
• Sample represents the proportions of the populations
• Representative of the population
◦ So long as the proportions are known
• Flexible
• Good for comparing sub-sets
• Must know size of subsets to get an accurate picture

2.5.3 Quadrats and transects

• Quadrat
◦ A plot used to identify the area studies
◦ Square or rectangular
◦ Size depends on the organisms studied
◦ Used to study plants
◦ Calculate the number of individuals
◦ Percentage frequency of how ofter a species appears in an area
◦ Find population density
◦ Quick easy method
◦ Accurate with large species
◦ Good for comparing over time or space
◦ Hard with small species
◦ Inaccurate with some species
◦ May miss some species
◦ Need for the person to identify species
accurately
◦ Species may look different in different life
stages
• Transects
◦ Line transects
‣ Vegetation that touches the line can be
recorded at intervals
‣ Random sampling
• Lines randomly placed
‣ Stratified sampling
• Known subsets
‣ Systematic sampling
 • Studying an environmental gradient
◦ Line placed across
◦ Belt transects
‣ Use a quadrat to create a belt of sampling

2.5.4 Abiotic factors

• Probes
◦ Salinity
◦ pH
◦ Temperature
◦ Dissolved oxygen
◦ Light intensity
◦ Soil moisture
◦ Mineral content
◦ Quick
◦ Accurate
◦ Easy to use
◦ Continuous readings over a period of time
◦ May be expensive
◦ Give false readings if it breaks down
◦ May not be available everywhere
• Turbidity
◦ Cloudiness of a water body
◦ Secchi disk
◦ Method:
‣ Shaded side
‣ Lower the disk slowly until no longer visible
‣ Record when it disappears
‣ Repeat 5 times
◦ Simple instrument
◦ Easy to make
◦ Cheap
◦ Need of a dock or boat
 ◦ Different people may have different abilities to see the disk
• Flow velocity
◦ Flow meter
‣ Speed the water is going
‣ Accurate
‣ Varying depths of readings
‣ Expensive
‣ Problems mixing water and electricity
◦ Float
‣ How long it takes to cover a distance
‣ Method
• Straight section of the river
• Measure 10 m
• Person A stands at the star point and person B at the end point
• Person a passes the float and starts the watch
• Person B tell when the object has reached and PA stops the clock
• Repeat 5 times
• divide by 10 (or the meters travelled) and multiply by 0.85
• meters/second
‣ No equipment needed
‣ Cheap
‣ Not so accurate
‣ Readings only at surface
• Wind speed
◦ Anemometer
◦ Easy to use
◦ Repeat 5 times
◦ Immediate reading
◦ Quick results
◦ Simple to use
◦ Expensive
◦ Not available in all countries
• Slope angle
 ◦ Clinometer
◦ Method
‣ Take two 1 meter poles and place them at least 5 meters apart on the slope.
‣ One person stands at the top pole and two people at the bottom one.
‣ Place the clinometer close to the top of the pole and look up at the top of the other
pole. The weighted string will drop straight down and the third person can read the
number of degrees.
‣ With a home made clinometer the slope angle is the number of degrees away from
90° line.
‣ Repeat 5 times and calculate the mean.
◦ Simple
◦ Quick
◦ Cheap
◦ Not that accurate
• Soil
◦ Determine soil texture
◦ Hand method
‣ Touch and identify soil texture
◦ Setting method
‣ Take a sample of soil and place it in a bottle.
‣ Add water and shake vigorously until all the soil is
broken down.
‣ Place the jar on a shelf and leave it to settle for a couple
of days.
‣ Measure the depth of the layers that appear. The coarser heaviest sediments will
settle first (sand and gravel) and the finer lightest elements will settle last (clay).
‣ Calculate the percentage of each particle size.
◦ Simple
◦ Cheap
◦ Quick hand identification
‣ Can be done in the field
◦ Neither method is accurate
◦ Subjective and opinions vary
 ◦ Settling method is slow

2.5.5 Biotic factors: identifying organisms

• Dichotomous key
◦ Use only observable characteristics, things that you can see.
◦ Give specific measurements if you are talking about size or weight. Is the insect longer
than 5 cm? Is the leaf longer than it is wide?
◦ Use very specific language, no vague statements like is it long? Long to one person is not
the same as long to another person.
◦ Beware of using color as some organisms change color during the year. The Arctic fox is
white in winter but brown in summer.
◦ You can use paired statements (as in the video) or yes/no questions
◦ Easy to use & construct
◦ Require prior knowledge
◦ Difference during stages of life
◦ Some parts may be damaged

2.5.6 Biotic factors: measuring biomass and energy

Method for small vegetation:

1. Decide on an appropriate sampling strategy for the area of study.
2. Identify five quadrats (size will depend on the vegetation but 1 × 1 meter is ideal).
3. Harvest all the vegetation in one quadrat.
4. Remove soil, insects and other non-plant material.
5. Wash the vegetation.
6. Place the sample in an oven to dry overnight.
7. Weigh the sample then return it to the oven.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 until the weight of the sample remains constant.
9. Repeat steps 3 to 8 for all five quadrats and calculate the mean dry weight biomass m-2.
10. Multiply by the study area to estimate the biomass for the whole area.

• Can be extrapolated
• Highly destructive
• Does not account for underground mass
• Not accurate for large vegetation
• Not possible to get accurate figures for animals

Measuring energy in trophic levels

• All the same vegetation.
• All the same size.
• Quadrat B is covered in black plastic sheeting – that
means that plants will not be able to
photosynthesize, only respire.
• Method
1. Harvest all the vegetation in quadrat A.
2. Remove soil, insects and other non-plant material.
3. Wash the vegetation.
4. Place the sample in an oven to dry overnight.
5. Weigh the sample then return it to the oven.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 until the weight of the sample remains constant.
7. Leave quadrat B and C for a month (or a week depending on how fast the vegetation grows).
8. After a month repeat steps 1 to 7 for quadrats B and C.
• Unlikely all three quadrats are identical in vegetation
• Only be done once

Measuring secondary productivity

• All measurement are inaccurate
• Ethical considerations
• Method
1. Keep the organism under study in a cage.
2. Weigh it at the beginning and end of the study (that gives NSP).
3. Weigh all the food it is given and all the feces is produces (that gives GSP).
• Extrapolate from a small sample
• Not very accurate
◦ Not dry weight
• Only used for small peaceful animals
• May affect their stress and change productivity

2.5.7 Biotic factors: investigating biodiversity

• Height of bars indicate number of species

found
• Bars disappear if a species is absent
• Can also be done with a bar graph

2.5.8 Motile organisms

Capturing animals
• Non-lethal methods
• Simple and require little equipment
• Can result in the death of organisms
• Can cause stress
• Only suitable for small, non aggressive animals
Traps & Nets
• Catch anything
• Birds
• Bats
• Fish
• Working the animal to avoid double counting
◦ Ring on the leg
◦ Patch of fur clipped
◦ Fin clipped
Aerial photography
• Study large areas
• Large animals
• Carnivores can be counted
• Animals may appear in two squares
• Expensive commission aerial photography
• Animals may be hidden by trees
• Young animals may be missed

2.5.9 Motile organisms: lincoln index

• Size of the population can be estimated

• Capture/mark/release/recapture
• Ethical issues on marking the animals
• Method
1. In a specific area capture as many of the study animals as possible
2. Mark the organisms in some way that doesn't harm them or makes them more/less prone to
predation
3. Record the number of organisms captured
4. Release animals back into the environment and give them time to integrate into the population
5. Resample the population and record the number of animals that are marked and those that
are unmarked
6. Use the formula to calculate the total population
N=(n1 x n2)/m2
N= total population
n1= number of animals in first capture
n2= number of animals recaptured
m2= number of animals marked in the recapture
• Evaluation
◦ Not enough time has gone by to allow marked and non-marked animals
◦ All animals should be just as easily caught
◦ Population is closed (no immigration or emigration)
◦ Capturing the animals may alter their behavior
◦ Mark may be toxic to some animals
◦ Marks may rub off
◦ Marks may cause animals to be more attractive
2.5.10 Applications and investigations

3 Biodiversity and conservation

3.1 AN INTRODUCTION TO BIODIVERSITY

3.1.1 What and where is biodiversity?

✦Biodiversity: Variety of life on Earth, including

genetic diversity, species diversity and habitat
diversity.
• Biodiversity is not constant
◦ changes over space and time
• Highest biodiversity at the tropics and lowest at
the poles.
◦ Higher biodiversity= less limiting factors
◦ Due to precipitation, high insolation, suitable temperatures.
◦ More vegetation= more habitats, food, water and shelter for animals
• Determinant factors for biodiversity:
◦ Age of the area: Older= more biodiversity. Time has let speciation occur.
◦ Environmental stability: environmental disturbances and or climactic disturbances which
destroy a lot of species.
◦ Range of habitats: allowing species to diversify by moving into more specialized habitats.
‣ Greater vertical range of vegetation.
‣ Altitudinal variation: mountain ranges as an example.
‣ Latitude: different organisms
‣ Variation in soil and rock types: abiotic environment which will affect the biotic
environment
• Benefits of biodiversity:
◦ Financial benefit for humans
‣ Natural capital
 ◦ Invaluable services:
‣ atmospheric gas regulation, water cycle, clean air, climate regulation and soil
formation.
◦ Natural areas as a break for city life
◦ Humans are part of biodiversity
‣ AN effect on biodiversity will directly impact humans

3.1.2 Species diversity

• There are 8.7 million species on Earth

• 3/4 species are on land
• 14% of land species have been logged, and 9% of
water species
• 50% to 90% of the plant and animal species are in
tropical rainforests
• More that half of the animal species are invertebrates
• ✦Species diversity: the number of different species in
a given area taking into account the richness and evenness of the species.
◦ Richness measures the amount of species in an area, more=richer
◦ No account on wether those species are rare or common.
◦ Evenness looks at the relative abundance of species.
‣ Considers the abundance or scarcity of each species, removing the problems of just
looking at the richness
◦ Measuring species diversity:
‣ Richness and evenness are combines in the Simpson Diversity Index
‣ D=N(N−1)/∑n(n−1)
• D= Simpson Diversity Index
• N= total number of organisms of all species found
• n= total number of species of a particular species
◦ Mathematical value on the diversity of a community
◦ Importance of species diversity:
‣ Balance
‣ Evolution
 ‣ Humans reliability
• medicine and pharmaceuticals

3.1.3 Genetic diversity

• Variation of genes within the genetic pool of a population

• Higher genetic diversity= higher probability that species will adapt to any changes in their
environment
• ✦Genetic diversity: variation of genes within the genetic pool of a population of a species
• In wild animal populations= critical for survival
◦ If one population is wiped out by a disaster then other populations will be unaffected
◦ Each population will have different strengths and adaptability
• Why is it important:
1. Better chance that some members will adapt and survive any disease, climate change or
pollution.
2. Low-genetic diversity causes inbreeding, making the genetic make-up more uniform. Flaws
and disabilities will be more common
3. Extinction is preceded by a drop in genetic diversity
4. When genetic diversity is lost it is hard to regain
5. Increases the chances of us finding alternatives to that are disease free

3.1.4 Habitat diversity

✦Habitat diversity: the range of different habitats in an area

- Terrestrial biomes
• Abiotic environment is crucial for plants
◦ Temperature, soil type, precipitation and light
• Plants act as habitats, so more plants= more species
• Type of vegetation
◦ Woodland vegetation has many layers creating a multi-storied apartment block for
animals
◦ Grasslands= less diversity of accommodation
- Marine habitats
• Determined by abiotic factors (not only their impacts on plants)
◦ dissolved gases, land run-off, marine topography, nutrients, ocean gyres, currents pH,
salinity, sunlight, temperature, latitude, and turbulence
THE LINKS
1. High habitat diversity gives more areas for populations to spread to. Increases genetic pool
variation
2. High habitat diversity also allows species to adapt into newer spaces, resulting in higher
species diversity
3. High genetic diversity increases the adaptability of species and can result in speciation,
therefore higher species diversity
4. High species diversity of plants results in higher habitat diversity

3.2 ORIGINS OF BIODIVERSITY

3.2.1 Evolution

• Charles Darwin
◦ 1859 - "On the origin of species"
• Causes of evolution:
1. Mutations
• A change in DNA
◦ Evolution could result from the accumulation of several mutations
• Totally random and can/could not manifest on an individual
• Could be beneficial, harmful or neutral
• Small or large-scale impacts.
2. Natural selection
• Gene variation has survival advantages
• "survival of the fittest"

- Evidence for evolution

1. Artificial selection
• Humans have evolved species to make specific characteristics suit our purposes
• Pet dogs and wheat
2. Convergent evolution
• Similar structures evolved independently without the presence of a common ancestor
3. Embryology
• Similarities of embryos from different species.
• Evidence for a common ancestor
4. Vestigial structures
• Parts of an animal that are not useful but serve as reminders of their originis
• Blind fish that still has eyes
5. Biogeographical distribution
• Adaptive radiation of animals in a similar geographical region
• Shows divergent evolution
6. Fossil record
• Changes in organisms over time, as the organisms' structure can be compared to present
species, allowing the construction of a tree of life.

3.2.2 Speciation and natural selection

✦Speciation: Formation of a new species through biological processes.

• Evolution drives speciation
• Isolation
◦ Geographic isolation
‣ Populations physically separated so they can't interbreed
◦ Temporal isolation
‣ Live their lives at different times so they do not meet
◦ Behavioral isolation
‣ Different mating rituals
• Natural selection
◦ Gradual evolutionary change that results from genetic variation in each generation
◦ Heritable characteristic will affect their rates of reproductive success
‣ More or less common in a population
◦ How?
‣ Variation
 • Genetic diversity
‣ Inheritance
‣ Comparative advantage
‣ Survive long enough to reproduce more successfully
• Variation
◦ Necessary for survival of species
◦ Physical or behavioral attributes
‣ Size
‣ Fur color
‣ Mating calls
‣ etc
◦ Some will benefit individuals and result in their survival
• Inheritance
◦ Traits must be heritable
◦ Give and advantage in the competition for resources
• Survival of the fittest
◦ Survival and reproductive success
◦ Different across the world
◦ Longevity
‣ Not necessarily useful
‣ Must only reach sexual maturity and reproduce
‣ Production of fertile offspring
◦ Weaknesses
‣ Must be bad in some aspect or just be beneficial given the characteristic
‣ Sickle cell anemia
• If one recessive gene is contained it gives immunity to malaria
• Beneficial
◦ Changing advantage
‣ Peppered colored moths
• Change in advantage
◦ From light to dark

3.2.3 Plate tectonics

• Lithosphere is broken into seven/eight major plates
• Impact on evolution
• Creates opportunities for an increase in biodiversity
• New islands and moves continents into different climactic
zones
◦ Forcing evolutionary change
• Four types of plate boundaries associated with different types of activity and impacts on
biodiversity
• Hotspots and other volcanic activity create new land
• Movement of landmasses
◦ Early land distribution
‣ Pangea
‣ Extremely dry climate
‣ Slow movement
• Time for evolution
‣ New marine biodiversity
◦ Early departures
‣ Madagascar
‣ Australia
• Large land
• Diversification
‣ Lots of endemic species
• ✦Endemic species: Unique to a particular location and not found elsewhere
‣ Separated early on
◦ New positions
‣ Higher biodiversity

3.2.4 Plate boundaries and volcanic activity

• Action
◦ Divergent and convergent plates
‣ Significant impacts on biodiversity
 ◦ Destructive boundary
‣ Limited impact on biodiversity
• Divergent plate margins
◦ Move apart
◦ Create huge underwater mountain chains
‣ Hydrothermal activity
◦ Shallow sections
‣ Surface
• Convergent plate margins
◦ Create mountains, volcanoes and ocean trenches
◦ Huge mountain range
‣ Himalaya
‣ Impact on biodiversityProtect from extreme weather
• Volcanic activity
◦ New habitats and niches
◦ Land is subjected to succession
◦ New islands underwater and over as well

3.2.5 Mass extinctions

• Mass extinction: sudden global decrease in the number of species over a relatively short
period of time.
• Background or normal extinction: standard rate at which species go extinct.
• THE BIG FIVE
◦ Five mass extinctions
◦ Named after geological eras

1. Ordovician-Silurian mass extinction

• 440 million years ago
• Majority of life was in the oceans
• event lasted 4 my
• 80% of species wiped out
• Atmospheric dip in carbon dioxide levels
 ◦ two peaks: beginning and end of sever glaciation
2. Late Devonian mass extinction
• 375-360 mya
• from 500,000 to 25 million years
• No clear causes
• Environmental change
• 3/4 of species wiped out
• Coral reef biodiversity took 100 my to recover

3. Permian mass extinction

• 250 mya
• "The Great Dying"
• Destroyed around 96% of all species
• Meteor impacts
• large-scale volcanisms or sudden release of methane in the sea floor or even sea-level changes
and decreased oxygen levels

4. Triassic-Jurassic mass extinction

• 200 mya
• 50% species extinct
• Gradual climate change , sea level fluctuations and asteroid impacts

5. Cretaceous-tertiary mass extinction

• 65 mya
• Asteroid hit the Yucatan peninsula in Mexio
• Wiped out dinosaurs and 80% of species
• Mammals and birds survived

6. Holocene mass extinction

• Right now
• Human-caused
• Killing of species and climate change
3.3 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

3.3.1 How many species are there on Earth?

3.3.2 How do humans influence biodiversity?

3.3.3 the role of the ICUN Red List

• The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List
◦ Aims: “to provide information and analysis on the status, trends and threats to species in
order to inform and catalyse action for biodiversity conservation.”
• Criteria to objectively evaluate the status of a species
- Criteria used:
• Population Size
◦ Number of mature individuals of a species
‣ Those able to reproduce
◦ Smaller population= lower success rate for breeding
• Population size reduction
◦ Period of 10 years or three generations of the species
• Geographical range
◦ Area of occupancy where the species can be found
◦ Extent of occurrence includes the area of occupancy and also the habitats within the
boundary not used by the species
• Number of locations
◦ Number of locations where the species may be found
• Extent of habitat fragmentation
◦ Fragmentation of habitats can be caused by human activities
◦ Leads to isolation preventing breeding
• Quality of habitat
◦ Survival success rate of a species
◦ Food and water availability
• Probability of extinction
◦ This is the predicted likelihood of all the populations of the species in the wild dying out in
the future.
• Additional factors contributing to species vulnerability
◦ Degree of specialization: species with a restricted diet.
◦ Trophic level: Exposition to pollution due to bio-magnification and bio-accumulation

3.3.4 Case study - extinct species

3.3.5 Case study - critically endangered species

3.3.6 Case study - improved conservation status

3.3.7 Biological 'hotspots'

3.4 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

3.4.1 Why conserve biodiversity?

The role of Environmental Value Systems:
• The reasons will depend on EVS

Reasons to conserve biodiversity:

• Utilitarian values
Economic value associated with the use of resources
1. Direct use, Divided into:
a. Consumptive use:
- goods that are harvested (food, timber, medicines)
b. Non-consumptive use:
- Aesthetic, recreational and educational use
2. Ecological services like carbon sink, oxygen production waste assimilation, etc.
-Estimated use: U$S16-54 per year
3. Option value
- Potential value in the future (discoveries)
4. Bequest value:
- Passing benefits to future generations
• Non-utilitarian values
1. Intrinsic value:
- The right of a species to exist
2. Existence value:
- Knowing that the species exist
• Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
1. Provision value e.g. food, freshwater, wood, fuel.
2. Regulating value e.g. climate change, flood regulation, water purification.
3. Supporting value e.g. nutrient cycling, soil formation, primary production.
4. Cultural value e.g. aesthetic, spiritual, educational and recreational uses.

3.4.2 Whose responsibility is it?

Effective initiatives need to involve action at the local level and also be supported by policies,
legislation, and resources.
- Decisions made at international level or national ad then applied locally.
- Importance of international agreements:
~ Biodiversity doesn't respect human created borders and species migrate
~ Human activities have impact beyond countries' borders
NGO's and Intergovernmental organizations:

• NGO'S:
- Non-profit, voluntary organizations funded by charitable donations and membership fees.
- Focus varies, can work specifically with one issue in one area to international concerns and
reach.
- Lobby governments to change the law (through petitions, boycotts and protest marches)
- Use the media to bring the issue to attention.
- Direct action to combat ecological damage. Human blockade and confronting ships, etc. Some
are illegal but they bring a lot of media attention.

- Education to bring media understanding, in order to change behaviors and influence future
policies.
- Through research assess the situation, identify threats and potential solutions
- Purchase and manage threatened habitat areas and protect biodiversity for future
generations.
- Work with governments, businesses and local communities as to reduce degradation and
improve habitat and species.
- Serve as watchdogs, monitoring activity to ensure laws are not broken and government
agencies are enforcing legislation. When laws are broken some NGOs sue businesses that are
carrying out illegal activity and also government agencies for not fulfilling their role.

• Intergovernmental organizations:
- IGO's
• United Nations
◦ Founded their own organizations:
‣ The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
‣ Food and Agricultural Organizations (FAO)
‣ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
• International Union for Conservation for Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
◦ Countries + NGO's
• Key features:
◦ Decisions @ international level
‣ Provide guidelines
‣ International treaties
• Enforcement of agreements through legislation
◦ Information provided to the public (reliable)
‣ Latest reviews, reports and scientific papers
‣ National and global trends
◦ Direct communication w/media
‣ Informing of changes in policies and legislation
‣ Covered by world press generally
◦ Long and lengthy decision making process.
‣ Needs consensus from many countries
‣ Slower response than NGOs
◦ Bad reputation in regards to the understanding and connection to local communities
affected by environmental damage.

3.4.3 International conventions on biodiversity

International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) 1952
• More than 180 nations
• Prevent introduction and spread of disease which could damage:
◦ Food security (cultivated crops and farmers)
◦ Native/wild species
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar)
1971
• More than 160 nations
• Conservation and sustainable use of wetlands
• Wetlands as international importance
• Promotes cooperation between member states
Convention concerning protection of the world cultural and natural heritage (World Heritage
Convention) 1972
• More than 190 nations
• protects sites of cultural and natural heritage
• Promotes international cooperation for the preservation of those sites
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 1973
• More than 180 nations
• Ensure international trade doesn't affect native species
• Three lists of controlled fauna and flora:
◦ Appendix I
‣ Species threatened with extinction
◦ Appendix II
‣ Species at potential risk from international trade
◦ Appendix III
‣ Species protected in one or more countries but not under global threat
Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn) 1979
• 120 nations
• Conservation of migratory animals
• Coordination of conservation measures between nations
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992
• Over 160 nations
• Conserve biodiversity
• Sustainable development and use of biodiversity
• Fair and equitable distribution of resources
International Treaty on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture 2004
• Focused on food security with 130 nations as members.
• Facilitates access by farmers and scientist to plant genetic materials through establishment of
a global system.
• Aims to ensure benefits gained from use of these genetic materials are shared with the country
from which they originate.
• Protects traditional knowledge of farmers and aims to increase their contribution to national
policies and legislation processes.
• Promotes development and use of a diverse range of crops and farming systems
Collaboration between nations
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):
• Consortium of Scientific Partners
◦ 2006
◦ 6 leading scientific institutions
◦ help develop education in LEDCs
• South-south cooperation & Triangular cooperation
◦ 2011-2020
◦ Cooperation between LEDCs and other organizations, or MEDC with knowledge and
resources
◦ South= LEDCs
◦ North= MEDCs

3.4.4 Species conservation

Species in conservation biodiversity include:

1. Flagship species:
• Symbols of conservation
• Charismatic and large animals
• Action taken to improve the survival of flagship species can also benefit the whole ecosystem
2. Umbrella species:
• Large species that require large habitats
• Protecting their habitat also means protection to other specie's habitats
• Giant panda = both
3. Keystone species:
• Species interact through the food web with other species in the community and if lost could
lead to the demise of other species
Approaches taken for conservation:
1. In-situ conservation
• Protection of species in their habitat
• CITES
◦ Strengths of CITES:

‣ Restricts trade which

threatens species becoming
extinct.
‣ Encourages education about
endangered species.
‣ Increases awareness of endangered species and changes perception about their use
e.g. as pets or ornaments.
‣ Can stimulate funding into research and conservation activities.
◦ Weaknesses of CITES:
‣ Participation is voluntary, not mandatory.
‣ Focuses on preservation of species and not sustainable use. If people are allowed to
benefit from the wildlife (for example, through tourism revenue or trade of natural
income), they have an incentive to
protect them.
‣ Focuses on species conservation,
whereas the main threat to
biodiversity is habitat loss.
‣ Effective enforcement can be
difficult.
‣ Trade is often driven underground
(illegal/black market).
 ‣ Many countries with limited resources have other national priorities.
Species in conservation biodiversity include:
1. Flagship species:
• Symbols of conservation
• Charismatic and large animals
• Action taken to improve the survival of flagship species can also benefit the whole ecosystem
2. Umbrella species:
• Large species that require large habitats
• Protecting their habitat also means protection to other specie's habitats
• Giant panda = both
3. Keystone species:
• Species interact through the food web with other species in the community and if lost could
lead to the demise of other species
Approaches taken for conservation:
1. In-situ conservation
• Protection of species in their habitat
• CITES
◦ Strengths of CITES:
‣ Restricts trade which threatens species becoming extinct.
‣ Encourages education about endangered species.
‣ Increases awareness of endangered species and changes perception about their use
e.g. as pets or ornaments.
‣ Can stimulate funding into research and conservation activities.
◦ Weaknesses of CITES:
‣ Participation is voluntary, not mandatory.
‣ Focuses on preservation of species and not sustainable use. If people are allowed to
benefit from the wildlife (for example, through tourism revenue or trade of natural
income), they have an incentive to protect them.
‣ Focuses on species conservation, whereas the main threat to biodiversity is habitat
loss.
‣ Effective enforcement can be difficult.
‣ Trade is often driven underground (illegal/black market).
‣ Many countries with limited resources have other national priorities.
• Advantages:
◦ Increase numbers and decrease risk of extinction
◦ Learn more about species
◦ Using zoos, aquariums and botanical gardens as a means to educate the public but also
gain financial support
◦ Enhancement of the genetic pool
◦ Temporary safe place
• Disadvantages:
◦ Requires a varied amount of resources

◦ Doesn't address causes of habitat loss

◦ Genetic pool may be small and result in inbreeding issues
◦ Species may not survive when re-introduced
‣ Need to develop hunting skills
◦ Captivity can affect their health
◦ Animals can be infected due to small spaces of captivity
◦ Breeding in captivity may be difficult for certain species
◦ Ethical concerns about keeping animals in captivity

3.4.5 Protected areas

ICUN definition: ‘… a clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed,
through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long term conservation of nature with
associated ecosystem services and cultural values’.

Different types of protected areas include:

1. National Parks
2. Nature reserves
3. Wilderness areas

• 2014: 2014 <32 million km2

• More than 15% of Earth's land surface
• 3% of ocean area
REASONS FOR DESIGNATING A PROTECTED AREA:
1. Level of biodiversity
2. Prescence of endemic species
3. Rarity of habitat type
4. Geological features
5. Aesthetic (intrinsic) value
6. Amenity value
7. Cultural and religious value
8. Educational value
9. Scientific value

Marine protected areas:

- Two of the biggest sites are the Chagos Marine Protected Area south of the Maldives and
Northeast Greenland National Park
– Design of protected areas –
Key features:
• Reducing edge effect
• Selecting optimal shape and size
• Single large reserve rather than many small ones
• Close proximity to reserves
• Connections between reserves

EDGE EFFECT
- A dramatic change in the composition of the vegetation at the boundary, creating an abrupt
edge due to fences and boundaries
- This clearance of land causes:
‣ Increased sunlight at lower forest levels
‣ Higher temperature
‣ Lower humidity
‣ Increase in air movement
- UNESCO Man and Biosphere Programme created three distinct zones to design protected
areas:
• Core area:
 * Pristine natural environment under protection
• Buffer zone:
* In the middle of the other two zones
* Use is limited to minimize harm to the area
* Barrier to protect the core from human activities
• Transition zone:
* Sustainable use of resources
* Can be affected by human activities like farming
- Optimal shape: circle.
- Lowest perimeter therefore lowest edge effect
- Ideal size:
- Larger the better, support more ecosystems
- Animals need bigger areas to be supported by the resources
- Single large or several small?
- Depends on the species
- Larger species require large reserves and smaller species require smaller ones
- Smaller reserves will created a greater edge effect
- Connecting reserves
• Wildlife corridors are used for animals to move
• Advantages:
◦ Migration reduces isolation
◦ Increases in gene pools
◦ Seasonal migration
• Disadvantages:
◦ Can spread diseases
◦ Threats from invasive species
◦ Threats from predators and hunters

- Proximity to human influence

• Affect nearby species
• Through: noise, light pollution @ night, atmospheric and aquatic pollution of a shared water
source
• Large animals may attack people if they exit the reserve
- Difficulties of creating a protected area:
• Financially expensive
◦ Land to management
• Implies removal of people and communities
◦ Some people have been left homeless or without sources of income (like farmers)
• Heritage and culture may be linked to the area
• Plans have changed as to remove hardships from people rather that create complitaions, using
them as partners
- Features of a successful protected area:
• Community support
• Understanding through research
• Funding
• Education
• Legislation and EFFECTIVE ENFORCEMENT
• Effective management
• Legal status as protected areas
• Biodiversity

✰ CASE STUDY - Kristianstads Vattenrike Biosphere Reserve

- Sweden
- Community participation:
- Enhance activities
- Study of the area
- Sources of funding:
- Swedish government
- Activities educating:
- UN millennium
- Educations at all levels (from school to university)
- Pedagogic activities
- Actions:
- Municipal activities
- Sustainable structures
 - Creating wetlands
- Grazing animals
- Wildflower strips to enhance bees and other insects

4 Water and aquatic food production systems and societies

4.1 INTRODUCTION TO WATER SYSTEMS

4.1.1 The hydrological cycle

• 2.5% is freshwater
• only 0.76% available in rivers, lakes and
aquifers
• Storages
◦ Oceans
◦ Surface waters
◦ Ice caps and glaciers
◦ Soil moisture
◦ Water vapor and clouds within the atmosphere
◦ Groundwater within aquifers
◦ Organisms such as plants and animals
• Flows
• Flow of water between storages
◦ Into the atmosphere
‣ Evotranspiration
‣ Water vapour
◦ Out of the atmosphere
‣ Water as precipoitation
‣ Deposition as well
◦ On land
‣ Dependent on topography,
geography, soil, vegetation, etc.
‣ Could become frozen
 ‣ Can be absorbed
‣ Can be filtrated underground
◦ Into groundwater
‣ Through permeable surface
‣ Gravity+percolation
◦ Out of groundwater
‣ Directly into the sea
‣ Human activity
◦ Into surface water
‣ Precipitation run off
◦ Out of surface water
‣ Into the sea, rivers and lakes
‣ Evaporation into the atmosphere
‣ Flooding in-land

4.1.2 Ocean circulation systems

The global conveyor belt

• Thermohaline circulation
◦ Thermo, temperature
‣ Colder=more dense
◦ Haline, salinity
‣ Greater salinity=more dense
• Cold air at the poles cools the water, which becomes denser and sinks
• Towards the equator the water warms and becomes less dense (rises to surface)
• Warmer water moves towards the poles and warms the air, the cycle beginning again
• Influence on weather and climate
◦ Water
‣ High specific heat capacity
‣ Oceans warm and cool very slowly
◦ Heavily impacted by global warming, if temperatures are not low enough the belt could
collapse
◦ Positive feedback can exacerbate global warming
4.1.3 Impact of human activity

• Changes in land use

◦ Deforestation
‣ Flooding downstream
‣ Infiltration and percolation reduced
‣ More runoff and soil erosion
‣ Desertification
◦ Urbanization
‣ Polluted run-off
‣ Stops percolation
◦ Agriculture
‣ Great use of water
‣ Depletion of water reserves
‣ Cause eutrophication
‣ Lower oxygen levels (organic material)
‣ The amount of water used in agriculture could be reduced by:
• Changing to crop varieties that require less water.
• Changing watering methods to be more efficient and effective and reduce water
lost e.g. through drip irrigation systems.
• Increase soil moisture retention and reduction in soil erosion through practices
such as use of bunds, terracing, contour ploughing and use of winter cover
crops.
‣ Strategies to reduce water pollution from farming activity include:
• Avoid application of fertilizers, pesticides or manure near watercourses or near
groundwater abstraction points.
• Avoid application of fertilizers, pesticides or manure during or just prior to
rainfall periods.
• Limit application of nitrogen fertilizers to match rates of uptake by the crops.
• Collect and manage animal waste (slurry and manure) to prevent pollution run-
off.
• Reduce the use of pesticides by using alternative methods such as integrated pest
 control (IPM) which includes the use of natural pest predators, such as spiders,
ladybirds and parasitic wasps and changing farming techniques, such as
introducing rotation.

4.2 ACCESS TO FRESH WATER

4.2.1 Distribution of water

• Access to water issues

◦ 750 million people don't have access to freshwater
◦ Blame:
‣ Lack of knowledge & skills
‣ Lack of financesLack of political will to prioritize it
◦ Inequalities
‣ Urban vs rural areas
• Urban areas are more likely to have piped water
‣ Rich vs poor
• Wealthy=reliable water supply
• Shanty towns have poor/no water access
‣ Social groups
• marginalized by society due to ethnicity, language or religion.
• Climate change
◦ Decrease in precipitation for mid latitudes
◦ Higher precipitation for high and equatorial pacific
◦ Extreme weather patterns
◦ Increased risk of flooding
◦ Water stress in more regions

4.2.2 Increase demand for water

• Expected to continue rising

◦ Growth in population
◦ Increase in affluence and standard of living
 ◦ Change to a more meat-based diet
◦ Increase in urbanization
• Water stress and scarcity
◦ ✦Water stress is when demand exceeds
the available supply over a certain time
period or when the quality of water
restricts its use
◦ Less than 1700 cubic meters per person
per year
◦ Water scarcity= below 1000
◦ Affects economic development and health
◦ Contributing
‣ Over-abstraction of water
‣ Pollution
‣ Inefficient water use
‣ Climate change
• Rivers without borders
◦ Countries upstream control the flow to
downstream neighbors
◦ Historical disputes
◦ Ethiopian Grand Renaissance Dam
‣ River Nile provides Egypt with water
‣ Negotiation due to the disruption of
the flow
‣

4.2.3 Managing water resources I

• Reservoirs
◦ Damming rivers
◦ Flooding valleys
◦ Benefits
‣ Generation of hydropower
 ‣ Flood control
‣ Navigation
‣ Fisheries
‣ Recreational, aesthetic and scenic value
‣ Control of water quality
◦ Impacts
‣ Change of habitat
‣ Relocation of people
‣ Changing the flow of the water
‣ Loss of fish and migratory routes
‣ Sedimentation in the reservoir and loss of capacity
• Artificial recharge
◦ Methods
‣ Ditch/trench above aquifer to intercept and collect runoff
• Water gradually seeps into the ground
• Can be expensive
‣ Pump directly
• Can be clogged due to sediment
• Using reservoirs can be useful
• Rainfall harvesting schemes
◦ Collecting precipitation in the roofs of buildings
◦ Stored in tanks
◦ Used for domestic purposes
◦ Reduces risk of flooding and soil erosion

4.2.4 Managing water resources II

• Desalination
◦ Energy intensive process
◦ Used in regions where there's cheap energy
◦ Method
‣ Reverse osmosis
• Seawater under pressure forcing water through a membrane and leaving salt
 behind
• Water redistribution:
◦ Taken from surplus to where there's a deficit
◦ grand, expensive projects
◦ Adverse effects on donor:
‣ Lower water levels affecting habitats and associated species
‣ Disruption of flow can affect biota
‣ Water may not be sufficient to meet the needs of local people
• Use of greywater
◦ Used water that is clean enough to be used again
◦ Household water
‣ Not discharge from toilets
◦ Used for toilet flushing and gardening
◦ Physical treatment
‣ Filtration to remove large particles
and disinfection to kill pathogens
◦ Biological treatment
‣ Bacteria or wetland systems to utilize
nutrients and filter particles from the
water
• Reducing demand
◦ Increased water efficiency
‣ Agriculture efficient water irrigation
‣ Reusing water in the industry
‣ Aeration traps, low flush toilets, efficient washing machines and greywater recycling
◦ Public awareness
‣ Shower instead of baths
‣ Water efficient machines
‣ Avoid unnecessary use of water
‣ Use of rainwater
◦ Education in schools
◦ Economic incentives
‣ Increased cost of water
 ‣ Installation of water meters
‣ Fines for wasting water
◦ Legislation and policies
‣ All new buildings using efficient supplies
◦ Changing to crops that require less water to produce
◦ Reducing meat based diets
◦ Detecting and repairing leaks

4.3 AQUATIC FOOD PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

4.3.1 Aquatic ecosystems - marine

• 70% if the Earth's surface

• Oceanic zones
◦ Epipelagic zone
‣ 0 to 200 m
‣ Light penetrates
‣ Primary producers
‣ Most productive zone
◦ Mesopelagic zone
‣ 200 to 1000m
‣ Insufficient light penetration for plant growth
‣ Diverse range of organisms
◦ Bathypelagic zone
‣ 1000 to 4000m
‣ Absence of light
‣ Bioluminescent organisms
◦ Abyssapelagic zone
‣ 4000 to 6000 m
‣ Temperature just above freezing
‣ Few organisms can withstand the high pressure
◦ Hadapelagic zone
‣ More than 6000m
 ‣ Trenches and canyons
‣ Very cold
‣ Few organisms adapted to extremely high pressure
• Marine trophic levels
◦ Primary producers
‣ Phytoplankton and seaweeds
‣ Need of sufficient light penetration
◦ Primary consumers
‣ Zooplankton and small floating animals
‣ Diverse range of organisms
◦ Secondary consumers
‣ Small predators
◦ Tertiary consumers
‣ Top predators
‣ Like large fish, marine mammals and birds
• Levels of productivity
◦ Diverse range of food webs
◦ Thermal stratification
‣ Sunlight heats the upper layer of the water
‣ Temperature variation from top to bottom
‣ Prevents water from mixing
‣ Can be mixed due to strong winds
◦ Coastal waters and shallow seas tend to be
productive
‣ Shallow
• Nutrients that precipitate are re-suspended by wind and currents
‣ River input brings in more nutrients
‣ Sunlight penetrates down the sea floor

4.3.2 Aquatic ecosystems - freshwater

• Lake zones
◦ Littoral zone
 ‣ Shallow are that goes up to the shore
‣ Macrophytes occur
◦ Limnetic zone
‣ Open water where there is enough light for phytoplankton to photosynthesize
◦ Euphotic zone
‣ Littoral and limnetic zone
‣ Photosynthesis
◦ Profundal zone
‣ Deep water
‣ No light penetration
◦ Benthic zone
‣ Organisms live within the sediments
• Freshwater trophic levels
◦ Primary producers
‣ Phytoplankton and macrophytes
◦ Primary consumers
‣ Zooplankton and water snails
◦ Secondary consumers
‣ Fish, birds, and frogs
◦ Tertiary consumers
‣ Large fish, large birds ,and mammals

4.3.3 Food products from aquatic ecosystems

• Algae
◦ Used by the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries
◦ Animal feed, fertilizer, and to produce fuel
• Fish
◦ Used:
‣ Pet food
‣ Feed for livestock
‣ Aquaculture feed
‣ Fish oil
 ‣ Gelatin
‣ Fertilizers
◦ Factors contributing to increase in demand
‣ Growth in human population
‣ Promotion of health benefits of consuming fish
• Protein and nutrient
• Essential fatty acids
• Low in saturated fats
• Shellfish and other groups of animals
◦ Molluscs
◦ Crustaceans
◦ Echinoderms
◦ Reptiles
◦ Amphibians
◦ Aquatic mammals
• Hunting of seals
◦ Inuit communities
◦ Hunted
◦ Controversy:
‣ Concerns over species becoming threatened
‣ Methods are inhumane
‣ Only pelts are used
‣ Seals have been blamed for the collapse of the cod fishery in Newfoundland
‣ Melting of ice as a result of global warming reducing the habitat and threatening
populations
◦ Regulations
‣ Use of quotas
‣ Open and closed season for hunting
‣ Limited number of catches a day
‣ Number of boats allowed to hunt
‣ Banning hunting of young seals
• Energy efficiency of aquatic food systems
◦ Less efficient than terrestrial food systems
4.3.4 Capture fisheries

• 90 million tonnes of fish annually

• Growth in marine capture fisheries
◦ Growth in demand of fish
◦ Growth in size of fishing fleets
◦ Improvements in shipping vessels for higher efficiency
◦ Longer periods at sea= more fish
◦ Efficiency in harvest
‣ Sonar, radar and satellite technology to detects and track schools of fish
‣ Process preserve, and freeze aquatic produce whilst out at sea
‣ Changes in fishing gear
◦ Use of nets
‣ Bycatch is caught by the use of nets
• Non-targeted organisms
‣ Animals can also be tangled with nets lost at sea
‣ Types of nets:
◦ Trawler nets
‣ Catch demersal fish
‣ Dragging a funnel shaped net along the
seabed
‣ Damages the sea bed and can kill organisms
◦ Purse-seine nets
‣ Schools of pelagic species
‣ Fish are surrounded by the net
‣ Closed like a drawstring purse
‣ Species that reside within schools
of fish become bycatch
◦ Drift nets
‣ Hung vertically to catch pelagic schools of
fish
‣ Bycatch include a wide rang of species
 ‣ Catch fish by the gills
◦ Why did they not expand
‣ Overfishing
‣ Habitat degradation
◦ Fish yield and maximum sustainable yield
‣ Stocks are renewable if the removal doesn't exceed their growth rate
‣ MSY (Maximum Sustainable Yield)
• Optimum harvest that can be obtained annually without affecting the standing
stock and its ability to replenish itself
• Can still lead to over-exploitation of fish due to it being overestimated
◦ Why is overfishing common
‣ Property rights
• No one owns the fish
• People don't want to spend money on conservation when others will harvest them
‣ Zero sum game
• Someone gains at the expense of others
• Long term gain needs to be lucrative and low risk

4.3.5 Managing fishing stocks

• Use of quotas
◦ Total Allowable Catches
‣ Set by authorities
• Reduction in fishing effort
◦ Reducing number of boats
◦ Restricting boat size
◦ Restricting type of gear used
◦ Limits on the minimum size of fish
◦ Restricting fishing times
• Use of exclusion zones and Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
◦ Fishing is banned
◦ Protects habitats to threatened species
◦ Exclusion zones act as breeding grounds
 ◦ Lead to the recovery of fish stocks
• Two Contrasting cases
◦ Newfoundland
‣ Cod fisheries
‣ Canada
‣ 1950's
• Large shipping fleets
• Factory fishing boats with the ability to process and freeze fish on board
• More efficient methods to find fish
‣ Peak in catches in 1968
‣ Over-fishing
‣ Closing of the fishery
‣ In 2011 fishing stocks were beginning to recover, though not completely
◦ Iceland
‣ Cod fishery
‣ Action to allow fishing but at a sustainable rate
‣ Protection of territorial water from fishermen from other countries
‣ Restrictions on fishing gear and fleet sizes
‣ Strict quotas
‣ Banning the disposal of any bycatch including undersize cod
‣ Diversification of target species
‣ Use of exclusion zone
• Permanent closure of nursery areas
• Seasonal closures
• Temporary closures
‣ High level of enforcement

4.3.6 Aquaculture

• Vital protein source efficiently

• Jobs for many people
• Open Aquaculture systems
◦ Most popular
 ◦ Farming the organisms within a natural aquatic ecosystem
◦ Fish cages, clam beds, oyster rafts submerged in the water
◦ Little control over environmental factors
◦ Potential issues from predation and poachers
• Semi-closed aquaculture systems
◦ Abstraction of water from the sea or lakes to place in tanks on land
◦ Greater control over environmental conditions
◦ More expensive
◦ The water can be filtered to remove pathogens and predators
• Tilapia
◦ Popular fish for aquaculture
• Environmental impacts
◦ Loss of habitats
◦ Clearing of land for semi-closed systems
◦ Mangrove affected by shrimp ponds
◦ Loss of aquatic habitats
◦ Retention of water
◦ Increase in organic sediments
‣ Uneaten fish food
‣ Faeces
‣ Medicined
‣ Accumulation
‣ Can smother organisms on the sea bed
‣ Over production of aerobic bacteria can cause anoxic conditions
◦ Increase in available nutrients
‣ Increase primary production
‣ Algal blooms can kill fish
◦ Use of medicines and hormones
‣ Contaminate the water
‣ Affect other aquatic life
◦ Use of antifouling agents
‣ TBT
‣ Prevent growth of algae
 ‣ Toxic to larvae and molluscs
◦ Spread of disease
‣ Closed areas=rapid spread of disease
◦ Escaped fish
‣ Compete with wild species
‣ Exacerbated if farmed fish are genetically modified
◦ Attracted predators
‣ Can be caught in the cages
• Managing environmental impacts
◦ No overfeeding
◦ More effective application of medicines
◦ Removal of dead fish
◦ Moving cages to reduce organic sediments
◦ Ensure sufficient water movement
◦ Aerate to prevent anoxic conditions
◦ Removing depositing waste
◦ Using predator resistant netting material for cages

4.3.7 Shrimp aquaculture in Thailand

4.4 WATER POLLUTION

4.4.1 Sources of water pollution I

Inland and coastal pollution

• Domestic sewage
◦ organic
◦ Effluent
◦ Source of pathogens
• Industrial discharge
◦ Water and wastewater with organic matter, nutrients, sodium hyroxide, sodium
carbonate, and organochlorine compounds
◦ Lead, chromium salts, lime, sodium chloride
• Agricultural run-off
◦ Pesticides
◦ Fertilizers
◦ Manure
◦ Slurry
◦ Silage
◦ Eutrophication
• Urban run-off
◦ Pollutants
◦ Suspended solids
◦ Oils
◦ Toxic metals
◦ Organic waste
• Land development
◦ Forest clearance
◦ Soil erosion
◦ Suspended sediment/solid increase
• Landfill sites
◦ Leachates entering groundwater reserves
• Accidental discharges
◦ Hazardous materials
• Acid mine drainage
◦ Dissolved metals
• Atmospheric input
◦ Industrial flues, vehicle exhaust, evaporation, spraying of chemicals
◦ Toxic metals
◦ Synthetic compounds
◦ PCBS
◦ DDT

4.4.2 Sources of water pollution II

Marine based sources

• Outfall pipes
◦ Direct discharge from land to sea
• Materials dumped at sea
◦ Sewage sludge from sewage treatment plants
◦ Radioactive waste
◦ Military waste such as ammunition and other chemicals
◦ Disused platforms
◦ Fly ash
◦ Dredging spoils from widening shipping chemicals
• Shipping activities
◦ Disposal of litter and other waste at sea
◦ Accidental discharges
◦ Discharge of ballast waters that contain oil residues and invasive species
• Exploitation of resources
◦ Extraction of material beneath the sea bed

4.4.3 Effects of water pollution I

• Organic pollution
◦ Turbulence in the water
◦ Affecting oxygen levels
◦ Production of ammonia and hydrogen sulphide due to anoxic conditions
‣ Fish kills
• Inorganic plant nutrients
◦ Nitrates and phosphates
◦ Eutrophication
◦ Block light penetration
◦ Water becomes unsuitable for drinking
◦ Reduced recreation use of water
◦ Reduced commercial value of the ecosystem
◦ Increase in water related diseases
• Toxic metals
◦ Toxic
 ◦ Interfere with cellular processes
◦ Bioaccumulation/biomagnification

4.4.4 Effects of water pollution II

• Synthetic compounds
◦ Non-biodiegradable
◦ Organochloride compounds
◦ Bioaccumulated
◦ PCBs and DDT
◦ Effects:
◦ Inhibition of phytoplankton growth
◦ Inhibition of oyster shell growth
◦ Effects on fish reproduction
◦ Bird's immune system repressed
◦ Reproductive failure in mammas as a result of its effect on the endocrine system
◦ Yusho illness
• Inert suspended solids
◦ Suppress light penetration
◦ Clog feeding and respiratory structures of benthic organisms
• Hot water
◦ Elevate local temperatures
◦ Sub-tropical species can outcompete native ones
◦ Lower oxygen concentration
• Oil
◦ Prevents gaseous exchange
‣ Oxygen depletion
◦ Prevents photosynthesis
◦ Loss of phytoplankton
◦ Death of organisms due to sedimentation
◦ Birds/mammals
‣ Die from drowning or hyperthermia
‣ Due to the toxic effect of oil
• Pathogens
◦ Concern for humans
◦ Concern for animals which may be infected
• Plastic debris
◦ Entanglement with animals
◦ Ingestion
‣ Internal injury and death
‣ Altering of hormone levels
• Light pollution
◦ Effects on sea turtle populations
• Noise pollution
◦ Beaching of whales and dolphins
• Invasive species
◦ Competition with endemic species

4.4.5 Assessing water quality I

• Physical and chemical parameters

◦ pH
‣ Extreme values have an impact on biodiversity
◦ Temperature
‣ Affects the amount of dissolved oxygen
◦ Suspended solids
‣ Block sunlight
‣ Block feeding and respiratory tracts
‣ Method:
• Filtering a known volume of water with a pre-weighted filter paper
• Drying out the paper
• Weighing the filtered paper and residue
• Calculate the weight of the dried residue= final-initial
◦ Total dissolved solids and conductivity
‣ Indication of salts present
‣ Using a conductivity meter
 ◦ Dissolved oxygen
‣ Using an oxygen meter
‣ Wrinkler method
• Filling a bottle completely with water
• Adding reagents to make it acidic
• Titrating the sample
• Amount of reagent used helps calculate the amount of dissolved oxygen levels
◦ Biochemical oxygen demand
‣ Dissolved oxygen reading of the sample
‣ Litre is filled with sample and sealed
‣ Incubated in the dark for five days
‣ Dissolved oxygen levels are measured again
‣ Difference is the BOD5
• 2mg/l or less= pristine
• 20 mg/l or more= badly polluted
◦ Nutrients
‣ Measured in the lab
◦ Metals
‣ Measured in labs
◦ Limitations!!
‣ Only provides a small period of time
‣ Chemical pollution can be quickly washed away

4.4.6 Assessing water quality II

• Biological monitoring
◦ Use of indicator species
‣ Macro-invertebrates for indication
• Stationary
• Long life history
• Abundant
• Easy to sample
• Diverse groups of organism which increases the chances of at least one group to
 react
• Removed from shallow waters
‣ Disadvantages:
• Potential organisms drifting into the area and being accidentally sampled
• Difficulty identifying some species
• Absence of some species
◦ Biotic index
‣ Determine water quality using aquatic
organism
‣ Little pollution
• Presence of a wide range of
species
• Presence of sensitive species
(indicators)
‣ Categories for macro-organisms
• Highly sensitive to oxygen
depletion
◦ mussels
• Moderately sensitive species to oxygen depletion
◦ Shrimp
◦ Snails
• Little sensitivity to oxygen depletion
◦ Maggots and mosquito
◦ Microbial test
‣ Testing pathogens of faecal origin
‣ Indicator species
• E. coli and F. streptococci
◦ Occur when pathogens are present
◦ Great numbers
◦ Easy to isolate and identify using conventional methods
◦ Disadvantages:
‣ Expensive
‣ Sterile lab necessary
 ‣ Time delay for incubation

4.4.7 Water pollution management I

• Stopping human activities that are polluting

• Control of pollutant used and released
• Removal of pollutants from ecosystems for them to be restored
• Domestic sewage fluent
◦ Routed away from sensitive areas
◦ Treatments to break down organic material
‣ Reducing BOD and suspended solids
◦ Reduction of nutrients and pathogens
◦ Variations dependent on:
‣ Money and resources
‣ Legislation
‣ Population size
‣ Amount of dilution and dispersion within waters
◦ Levels of treatment:
‣ Preliminary treatment
• Screens to remove large objects
• Grit removal to prevent abrasion
‣ Primary treatment
• Piped sewage settles with primary
sedimentation
• Settleable solids are removed
‣ Secondary treatment
• Biological process
• Micro-organisms use unsettled organic waste as food
• Mixture is constantly aerated
• Encourage decomposition of organic matter
‣ Tertiary treatment
• Nitrate removal
• Phosphate removal
 • Macrophyte beds to treat effluent from primary of secondary treatment
• Disinfection to kill pathogens
◦ UV light
• Industrial discharge
◦ Replacing chemical with another
◦ PCBs replaced with silicone and mineral oils
◦ Controlled through legislation
◦ Consent licenses to release effluent into water required
◦ Extraction of materials for their re-use and recycling
◦ Factories should pay for their associated clean up if they pollute

4.4.8 Water pollution management II

• Agricultural run-off
◦ Pesticides
‣ Use alternative approaches (biological control)
‣ Applying them only when necessary rather than regularly
‣ Biodegradable pesticides
‣ Target specific pesticides
‣ Storing pesticides in safe place
◦ Fertilizers
‣ Replace nitrate fertilizers with ammonium fertilizers
‣ Organic fertilizers
‣ Application only when required and at a necessary rate
‣ During dry weather only to avoid run-off
‣ Avoid near aquatic systems
◦ Organic waste
‣ Avoid spreading near water courses
‣ Only applying during dry weather
‣ Ensuring everything is collected before discharging it into the water body
◦ Run-off
‣ Reducing water used for irrigation
‣ Use of contours and terraces
 ‣ Planting crops
‣ Using buffer zones
◦ Management of eutrophication
‣ Macrophyte channels to absorb nutrient from the water
‣ Mix water to aerate it
‣ Dredge the bottom to remove sediments
‣ Mechanically remove macrophytes to use as fertilizer on-land
‣ use biological control
‣ Reintroduction of native species

5 Soil systems and terrestrial food production systems and societies

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO SOIL SYSTEMS

5.1.1 What is soil?

Four basic parts:

1. Minerals
2. Organic matter
3. Air
4. Water

Four primary functions:

1. Medium for plant growth
2. Major water storage and purification system
3. Habitat for over 25% of living species
A. Modify the soil
4. Modifies the atmosphere through respiration
of organisms

• Pedosphere (soil)
◦ Interacts with
‣ lithosphere (rocks)
 ‣ Hydrosphere (water)
‣ Atmosphere (air)
‣ Biosphere (living)
• Factors affecting soil characteristics
◦ Climate
‣ Precipitation/evaporation
◦ Organisms
‣ Breaking down of organic matter and mix it into the upper layers of the soil
◦ Relief
‣ Elevation of the land
‣ Aspect of the slope
‣ Angle of the slope
◦ Parent material
‣ Original material the soil develops from
◦ Time
‣ Amount of time developed
• Soil as an ecosystem
◦ Micro-organisms
‣ Bacteria, algae and fungi
◦ Macro-organisms
‣ Earthworms, insects, mammals (e.g:
moles)
◦ Organic debris accumulates in the upper
layer and it is broken down by
decomposers
◦ Breaking down of DOM (dead organic matter)

5.1.2 Soil as a system

• Soil changes all the time

• Processes occur=system
• Inputs
◦ Minerals
 ‣ From weathering of parent material
◦ Organic matter
‣ Living organisms that are on and in the soil
◦ Gases
‣ Inputs from plants
‣ Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen
◦ Water
‣ Dependent on slope, and location within
‣ Received of precipitation
• Stores
◦ Organic matter
‣ Dead organic matter
‣ Comes from biotic elements
‣ Store of nutrients that are taken up by plants for growth
◦ Organisms
‣ Millions of organisms
‣ Add nutrients to the soil
‣ Remove oxygen
‣ Add carbon dioxide to break down DOM
◦ Minerals
‣ Parent material
◦ Air
‣ Variable
‣ Dependent on weather
• Precipitation, temperature, and wind
‣ Soil textures have different quantities
◦ Water
‣ Dependent on weather and soil texture
◦ Nutrients
‣ Stored in organic matter
‣ Free in the soil
• Outputs
◦ Wind, water, and plants/animals
 ◦ End product=soil profile
• Processes, transfers and transformations
◦ Leaching and evaporation
‣ Precipitation/evaporation balance
‣ Water moves down soil layers
‣ Can dissolve nutrients
‣ Dry climates
• High evaporation
• Water evaporates at the surface and leaves salts behind
◦ Can lead to salinization
‣ Heavy rainfall, leaching
• Water moves downwards into aquifers
◦ Decomposition
‣ Breaking down of DOM
‣ Increases soil fertility
◦ Weathering
‣ Breaking down of parent material
‣ Rate dependent on climate and type
of rock
‣ Chemical or physical weathering
• Soil profile
◦ Four main horizons
◦ Organic horizon (O horizon)
‣ Top of the soil
‣ Includes DOM
◦ A horizon
‣ Top soil
‣ Dark in color
‣ Highest biological activity
‣ Clay has been washed out
◦ B horizon
‣ Sub-soil
‣ Zone of illuviation/accumulation
 ‣ Minerals washed into it
‣ Little humus
‣ Plant roots found
◦ C horizon
‣ Decomposed parent material
‣ Weathered
‣ Lumps of parent material

5.1.3 Soil structure and texture

• Soil properties
◦ Sandy soil
‣ Feels gritty
‣ Big particles
‣ Well drained soils
• Rarely water logged
‣ Subject to droughts
‣ Warm up quickly in the summer
◦ Clay
‣ Smallest
‣ Sticky feel
‣ Small pore spaces
‣ Poorly drained soils
‣ Prone to water logging
‣ Long time to dry after rainfall
‣ Warm up slowly in summer
◦ Silt
‣ Smooth feel
‣ Small particles
‣ Small pore spaces
• Properties between sand and clay
• Soil texture
◦ Affected by organic matter and organisms
 ◦ Good soils
‣ Crumble easily

5.2 TERRESTRIAL FOOD PRODUCTION SYSTEMS AND FOOD CHOICES

5.2.1 Farming systems I

• Arable farms
◦ Crops
• Pastoral farms
◦ Rearing animals
• Type of farming and level of production depend on:
◦ Environmental conditions
◦ Topography and soil conditions
◦ Access to vehicles and technology
◦ Financial inputs
‣ Land
‣ Seeds
‣ Fertilizers
‣ Pesticides
‣ Equipment
‣ Labour
◦ Cultural and environmental value systems
◦ Government and political initiatives
• Intensive commercial farming
◦ Crop production
‣ Large-scale
‣ Single crop
• Monoculture
‣ High yield
‣ Low production cost
‣ More accessible food source
‣ Use of:
 • GMOs
• Fertilizers
• Herbicides
• Insecticides
• Water (irrigation)
• Automated techniques
• Frequent sowing
◦ Environmental impacts
‣ Pesticides kill non-target organisms
‣ Fertilizers can result in nutrient run-off
• Eutrophication
‣ Monoculture increases risk of disease
‣ Use of fossil fuels for mechanical equipment
• Emission of greenhouse gases
‣ Soil degradation
• Nutrient depletion
‣ Loss of natural habitats
• Clearing of land
‣ Loss of pollinators
• Vital for fertilization
◦ Animal production
‣ Maximum and cheapest output
‣ Battery farming
• Animals kept indoors in limited spaces to reduce movement
‣ Concerns
• Rapid spread of disease
• Ethical concerns
• Use of growth hormones to enhance production
• Antibiotics to prevent diseases
◦ Resistance
• Pollution due to high concentration of organic matter

5.2.2 Farming systems II

• Organic farming
◦ Prohibits use of:
‣ GMOs
‣ Chemical fertilizers
‣ Chemical pesticides
◦ Techniques used:
‣ Hand removal of weeds and pests
‣ Biological predators to reduce pests
‣ Manure, compost, and green manure to fertilize soil
‣ Crop rotation
‣ Feeding livestock with organic feed
◦ More labour intensive
◦ Produces less yields
◦ Higher cost
◦ Driven by consumers with
‣ Health concerns
‣ Ethics
‣ Increase awareness
‣ Increase income and standard of living
• Subsistence faming systems
◦ Intention of meeting the demands of a family
◦ Shifting agriculture
‣ Clearing land by slash and burn
‣ Every few years moving to a new area
‣ Low labour and technology
◦ Nomadic herding
‣ Moving with animals searching suitable grazing areas
‣ Inputs and outputs are low
◦ Intensive subsistence farming
‣ Feed their family + surplus to sell
‣ Traditional farming methods
• Labour intensive
 • Animal waste to fertilize crops

5.2.3 Food availability and choice

• Unequal food production around the world

• Food availability
◦ FAO has calculated there's enough food to
feed the world
◦ Reasons for hunger
‣ Poverty
‣ Poor infrastructure
‣ Extreme weather events
‣ Water associated displacement of
people
‣ Food waste
• A third of food produced is
thrown out eat year
◦ Food waste
‣ Losses at each stage of production
‣ Within LEDCs
• Pests
• Bad transport infrastructure
• Lack of adequate refrigerators
‣ MEDCs
• Consumer behavior
• Display by dates
• Best before dates
‣ Reducing food waste:
• Attempting to change individual behavior
• Encouraging collaboration and coordination within food production
◦ Consumer choice
‣ Technology for distribution has:
• Increased the variety of food available
 • Food availability beyond season
‣ Great amount of emissions
‣ Slow food movement
• Local, regional, and national food
grown products
• Demand of organic produce
• Food miles
◦ Distance travelled
• Local economy support
• Farmers markets
◦ Demand for meat
‣ Population growth
‣ Affluence and ability to afford meat
‣ Urbanization
‣ Status of eating meat in some cultures
‣ Cheap meat production
‣ High protein content of meat

5.2.4 Food production and sustainability

• Factors:
◦ Political commitment
◦ Economic support to sustainable farming systems
◦ Change in social and individual behavior
• Sustainable farming strategies
◦ Legislation
‣ Restrict substances
‣ Set standards for food production
‣ Controlled used of drugs and growth hormones
‣ Regulation of environmental conditions
◦ Minimum space requires per animal
◦ Pollution management
‣ reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers
 ‣ Land management practices
‣ Remove pollutants from the environment
◦ Reduction of food waste
◦ Growing indigenous crops
‣ More resilient to drought and disease
‣ Adapted to grown in areas of low fertility and low rainfall
◦ Polyculture farming
‣ Growing multiple crops
‣ Use of inter-cropping
• Low growing crops between taller
ones
• Reduce soil erosion
• Reduce weed growth
‣ Use of companion planting
• Reduce pest attack
◦ Reduction of meat consumption
‣ More vegetarian based diet
‣ Less energy loss in the lower food chain
‣ Reduced ecological footprint
‣ Less resource use
‣ Les waste

5.3 SOIL DEGRADATION AND CONSERVATION

5.3.1 Fertile soil and succession

• Fertile soils
◦ Medium for plant growth
◦ Organic matter
‣ Sufficient soil moisture holding capacity
‣ Good soil structure
• Prevention of water logging
 ◦ Healthy soil community
‣ Break down organic matter
‣ Return nutrients back into the soil
◦ Essential nutrients and minerals
‣ Nutrients
• Nitrates
• Phosphates
• Potassium compounds
‣ Minerals
• Sulphur
• Calcium
• Magnesium
• Iron
• Manganese
• Boron
• Copper
• Zinc
◦ Suitable pH
‣ Between 5.5 to 7.5
‣ If too acidic it releases toxic aluminum ions
• Role of succession on fertility
◦ Biological activity contributes to mineralization of DOM
‣ Invertebrates
• Mix organic matter into the soil
• Feed off and digest some of the OM
‣ Fungi and bacteria
• Break the organic matter down
◦ Release nutrients into the soil
◦ Nitrogen fixation
• Non-renewable resource
◦ Soil formation takes around 1000 years to develop (5cm)
◦ Fastest under sunny, warm and wt conditions
‣ Medium for plant growth
 ◦ Current rate of degradation is occurring at a much faster rate
◦ Not replenishable within a human lifespan

5.3.2 Threats to soil: processes

• Processes involved in degradation:

◦ Water erosion
◦ Wind erosion
◦ Chemical degradation
◦ Physical degradation

Erosion
• Soil particles transported from one place to
another
• Removes fertile topsoil
• Can reduce water retention capacity
• Problems:
◦ Entering water courses
◦ Sediment clogging up ditches
‣ Increased risk of flooding
◦ Water pollution
‣ Pesticides and nutrients in the soil
• Water erosion
1. Detachment
A. Raindrops free the soil
B. Run-off detaches more as it flows
2. Transport
A. Flow of water carries the soil particles
3. Deposition
A. Soil particles are deposited when the water slows down
◦ Types of soil erosion
‣ Sheet erosion
 • Fairly thin layer of soil removed
‣ Rill erosion
• Scours channels into the soil
‣ Gully erosion
• Deep channels due to great force
• Wind erosion
◦ Dry regions
◦ Exposed soil surfaces
◦ Light and loose particles are more easily picked up
◦ Wind blown particles can damage plants in their path
◦ Reduction of visibility
• Chemical degradation
◦ Salinization
‣ Water evaporation
• Leaves salt behind
‣ Soil becomes saline
‣ Arid and heavily irrigated areas
• High levels of evaporation
◦ Acidification
‣ Increase in hydrogen concentration
‣ Lower pH
‣ Acid deposition
‣ Leaching
‣ Removal of nutrients
‣ Ammonium based fertilizers
◦ Nutrient depletion
‣ Over exploitation
‣ Reduced capacity of the soil
◦ Chemical pollution
‣ Accumulation of toxic metals
• Physical degradation
◦ Soil compaction
‣ Heavy machinery
 ‣ Animals
◦ Reduced soil porosity
◦ Easily waterlogged areas

5.3.3 Threats to soil: human activities

• Urbanization
◦ Growth of cities
◦ Loss of soil cover
◦ Compaction
◦ Soil pollution
◦ Water and wind pollution ca affect infrastructures
• Livestock overgrazing
◦ Excessive vegetation removal
◦ Leaves soil exposed to water and wind erosion
• Deforestation
◦ Trees removed
◦ Uncovered land
◦ Increase in water runoff
◦ Decreased percolation
• Farming
◦ Tillage
‣ Ploughing the land and clearing debris
◦ Monoculture
‣ Extraction of specific nutrients
◦ Multiple crops per year
‣ Remove nutrients at a faster rate
◦ Chemicals
‣ Damage soil and microbial community
◦ Cultivating on steep slopes
‣ Loss of topsoil to water and wind erosion
◦ Marginal areas
‣ Limited productivity
 ‣ Necessary use of fertilizers
‣ Poor filtration
• Desertification
◦ Arable land to desert
◦ Loss of food production

5.3.4 Soil conservation

• Reducing water erosion

◦ Vegetation cover
◦ Terracing
◦ Furrow diking
‣ Creating furrows with small ridges
‣ Capture water
◦ Contour tillage
‣ Ploughing down a slope along natural contours
‣ Strips reduce water flow
◦ Strip cropping
‣ Contour of the land down slope
‣ Alternating strip crops
◦ Buffer strips
‣ Permanent vegetation at the edge of a field
◦ Increasing infiltration of water
‣ Adding organic matter
‣ Mulching
• Cover soil surface
‣ Avoiding compaction
‣ Conservation tillage
• Residue from previous crop left on
soil surface
• Reduces wind erosion
• Reducing wind erosion
◦ Wind breaks
 ‣ Trees and large shrubs
‣ Shelter for animals
◦ Shelter bels
‣ Blocks planted at right angles to reduce wind velocity
◦ Conservation tillage
◦ Vegetation cover
◦ Buffer strips
• Reducing salinization
◦ Avoiding over watering
◦ Not watering at a certain time of the day
◦ Irrigation at night
◦ Good drainage
• Managing soil nutrient levels
◦ Addition of organic matter
◦ Growing green manure
◦ Synthetic fertilizers
◦ Limiting the addition of limestone and hydrated lime
◦ Crop rotation
• Control grazing
◦ Restricted number of animals
◦ Grassed waterways
◦ Wind breaks
5.3.5 Case studies

6 Atmospheric systems and societies

6.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE ATMOSPHERE

6.1.1 A changing atmosphere

• History of the earth's atmosphere

◦ Early volcanic earth
◦ Hydrogen and helium gases
 ◦ Atmosphere comprise of water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen
sulphide
◦ Absence of free oxygen
• Formation of oceans and early forms of life
◦ Archean era
‣ Prokaryotes as first life
• Anaerobic
• Evolved into capturing light energy
‣ Production of oxygen as a by-product
‣ Responsible for rising oxygen levels
‣ Reaction with other gases
◦ Proterozoic era
‣ CO2 levels decreased
‣ Formation of ozone
‣ Creation of eukaryotes
‣ Life restricted to oceans
• Until the ozone layer had developed
• Composition of the earth's atmosphere today
◦ Nitrogen and oxygen main components
◦ Smaller amounts of argon, neon, Co2,
water vapor and other elements

6.1.2 Structure and function I

• Maintained by gravitational forces
• Layers
◦ Troposphere
◦ Stratosphere
◦ Mesosphere
◦ Thermosphere

Troposphere
• Closest to earth's surface
• 10km above sea level
• Warmest near the surface
• Wind speeds increase with height
• Most of the atmospheric mass is found within
• Most weather occurs
• Humans have most interaction
• Greenhouse effect occurs
◦ Energy enters the earth's atmosphere as short wave radiation and some is absorbed by
the earth's surface
◦ Energy is radiated back into the atmosphere in long wave radiation
◦ Green house gases
‣ Absorb long wave radiation
‣ Their absence would result in a much lower global temperature
‣ Average temperatures of 15ºC
◦ Main GHGs and their sources
‣ Water vapor
• Most abundant
• Rise in temperature= more water vapor= positive feedback loop
‣ Carbon dioxide
• Increased by:
◦ Burning fossil fuels
◦ respiration
◦ Volcanic activity
 ◦ Deforestation
‣ Methane
• Livestock
• Anaerobic decomposition of waste
• Rice cultivation
• Fossil fuels
‣ Nitrous oxide
• Fertilizers
• Combustion
• Industrial processes
‣ Chlorofluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons (CFCs and HFCs)
• Liquid coolants
• Production of plastic foam
• Industrial solvents
‣ Perfluorocarbon
• Production of aluminum
‣ Sulphur hexa-fluoride
• Production of magnesium

6.1.3 Structure and function II

• Stratosphere
◦ 10 to 50km above sea level
◦ Stratospheric ozone absorbs uv radiation
◦ Ozone layer
◦ Dry air
◦ Increased winds with height
◦ Stratopause
‣ End of stratosphere
‣ Constant temperature
• Mesosphere
◦ 50 to 80km above sea level
◦ Coldest part of the atmosphere
 ◦ Strong winds
◦ Mesopause
‣ Temperature doesn't change
‣ End of the mesosphere
• Thermosphere
◦ 80km to 500-1000km
◦ Uv and X-radiation absorbed
‣ Breaking down molecules into atoms
◦ Temperature increases with height
◦ Can expand
‣ Causing depth variation
◦ Ionosphere
‣ Within the thermosphere
‣ Electrical charge to particles

6.2 STRATOSPHERIC OZONE

6.2.1 Stratospheric ozone and its effect

• Formation of ozone
◦ UV radiation
‣ Sufficient to drive the formation of
ozone
◦ Formed by sunlight energy breaking the
bonds within diatomic oxygen molecules to
form atomic oxygen
‣ Reacts with oxygen molecules to form
ozone (O3)
◦ @ the same time ozone molecules react with oxygen atoms to reform oxygen molecule
◦ Rate of ozone formation= rate of ozone destruction
‣ Constant level of ozone
‣ Without the presence of pollutants
• Effects of stratospheric ozone
 ◦ UV radiation
‣ UV-A
• Unable to absorb by ozone
‣ UV-B
• Most is absorbed
• Highly detrimental to humans
◦ Sunburn and premature skin
aging
◦ Skin cancer
◦ Cataracts
◦ Immune suppression
◦ Health problems in animals
◦ reproduction is crop production affected
◦ Reduced phytoplankton growth
◦ Reduction if forest productivity
‣ UV-C
• All is absorbed
• Measuring ozone levels
◦ Dobson units (DU)
‣ Depth the ozone molecules occupy at standard temperature and pressure
◦ When concentration falls ozone becomes more dispersed
‣ Ozone thinning
◦ Measured using lasers
‣ Intensity of certain wavelengths
‣ Normal levels range from 300 to 500 Dobson Units (that is the equivalent of 3mm to
5mm thickness of ozone)
‣

6.2.2 Threats to stratospheric ozone

• Ozone depleting substances
◦ ODS
◦ Contain chlorine or bromine
• Chlorofluorocarbons
 ◦ CFCS
◦ Stable compounds with long life times
◦ Initially considered non-problematic
◦ Used as:
‣ Coolants in refrigerators and conditioning systems
‣ Propellants in aerosol cants
‣ Cleaning agents for electrical parts
‣ Blowing agents in plastic foam
◦ Dissipate into the air
◦ Not soluble
◦ In the stratosphere, UV light breaks CFCs down producing chlorine atoms
‣ Unsettles the ozone equilibrium
‣ Depletes ozone
• Other ODS
◦ Methyl bromide
◦ Halons
◦ Hydrobromofluorocarbons
◦ Carbon tetrachloride
◦ Methyl chloroform
• Natural emissions of ODS
◦ Emissions from volcanoes

6.2.3 Changes in stratospheric ozone levels

• Example of historic ozone depletion

◦ 1980s to 1990s

• Seasonal loss of ozone over the Polar regions

◦ Seasonal changes in the Antarctic
◦ 1980s
◦ Creation of the polar vortex
‣ Swirling mass of air that prevents air
from other latitudes entering
 ‣ Creation of PSC (polar stratospheric clouds)
• React with CFCs and ODS to create chlorine and other ozone depleting
chemicals
‣ Sunlight gradually increases this

6.2.4 Management of stratospheric ozone I

• International Agreement
◦ Vienna convention in 1985
‣ UN
‣ Reduce ozone depletion
‣ Influential in creating the Montreal protocol
‣ First UN treaty to be ratified by all 197 nations
‣ Exchange of information and research
◦ Montreal protocol
‣ 1987
‣ Targets set of the production and consumption of ODS
‣ Legally binding
‣ Deadlines vary from LEDCs to MEDCs
‣ Financial assistance to LEDCs
‣ Targets
• 1987
◦ Reduce CFCs by 50%
◦ Freeze production of halons
• 1990
◦ Phase out production of ODS
• 1992
◦ Move deadlines to 1996
• 1999
◦ More stringent controls for HCFCs
◦ Additional ODs added to be phased out by 2004
◦ Challenges
• Long-life span of ODS
 • ODs present in discarded equipment
• Lack of alternatives
• Replacements are also ODS
◦ Like HCFCs as a replacement for CFCs
• Illegal trade
◦ Driven by:
‣ High cost of alternatives
‣ Costly to alter existing machinery
‣ Less effective replacements
• Lack of policing and enforcement
◦ Pollution management
‣ Altering human activity
• Campaigns for education
‣ Controlling release of pollutant
• International legislation
‣ Clean up and restoration
• Removal and destruction of existing ODS

6.2.5 Management of stratospheric ozone II

• Progress
◦ CFCs
‣ banned
◦ Methyl bromide
‣ Banned by 2015
◦ Halons
‣ Banned
‣ Concentration in the atmosphere is
increasing
◦ HBFCs
‣ Banned
◦ HCFCs
‣ Phase out deadline 2030
 ‣ Increasing atmospheric concentration
◦ Reduction overall in ODS emissions
◦ Slowed down rate of decline
• Value of Montreal protocol amendments
◦ Reduced levels of stratospheric ozone

The potential of international cooperation

• One of the most successful environmental international agreements
• Exemplar of successful international cooperation

6.3 PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG

6.3.1 Urban air pollution

• Combustion of fossil fuels

◦ Emissions containing GHG
‣ Form carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons
◦ Pollutants that react in the atmosphere
‣ Secondary pollutants
‣ Acid rain
• Nitrogen oxide and sulphur dioxide react with water
‣ Ozone
• Nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbons react in the presence of sunlight energy
‣ Nitrogen dioxide
• Primary or secondary pollutant
◦ Formed during combustion of fossil fuels=primary
◦ Formed from nitrogen oxide in the air reacting with oxygen= secondary
• Impacts of primary pollutants
◦ Carbon dioxide and water vapor
‣ GHG
‣ Increase in avg global temperatures
‣ Contribute to climate change
◦ Sulphur dioxide
 ‣ Combustion of fossil fuels
‣ Respiratory irritant
‣ Eye irritant
‣ Component of acid rain
◦ Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
‣ Nitrogen oxide and dioxide
‣ Combustion of fossil fuels
‣ NO2 is a yellow-brown gas
• Reduce visibility
• Haze over urban areas
‣ Respiratory irritants
‣ Components of acid rain
‣ Precursor of photochemical smog and formation of ozone
• Particulates
◦ Suspended particles such as smoke and soot
◦ Associated with:
‣ Cardiovascular disease
‣ Respiratory disease
‣ Cancer

6.3.2 Photochemical smog

• Formation of photochemical smog

◦ Sunlight activates reactions between nitrogen oxides and VOCs (volatile organic
compounds)
◦ Formation of Ozone and peroxyacyl
nitrates (PAN)
◦ VOCs are carbon based compounds
‣ Low boiling point
‣ Butane
‣ Propane
‣ Formaldehydes
◦ Series of complex reactions
• Factors influencing the production of photochemical smog
◦ High emissions of pollutants
‣ From combustion of fossil fuels
◦ High levels of sunlight
◦ Calm or light winds
‣ Reduce dispersion
‣ Accumulation at ground level
◦ Dry weather conditions
‣ Don't wash the pollutants out of
the air
◦ Topography allows pollutants to
accumulate
‣ Valleys
◦ Thermal inversion
‣ Cold air is trapped below a warm layer of air
• Impact of tropospheric ozone
◦ Highly reactive gas
◦ Causes inflammation of the lungs
◦ Reduces lung function
◦ Irritates the eyes and nose
◦ Damages cells in leaves
‣ Affecting photosynthesis
‣ Reducing plant growth
◦ Damages fabrics
◦ Economic loss

6.3.3 Urban air pollution management

• Policies to reduce air pollution

◦ Altering human activity
‣ Education and campaigns
‣ Economic support
‣ Use of alternative technologies
 ◦ Legislation to regulate the use of air pollutants
◦ Clean up and restoration of damaged systems
• Changing human behavior
◦ Educational campaigns
‣ Show damages caused by air pollution and how to take action to reduce these
emissions
◦ Adopting individual practices like:
‣ Use of more energy efficient devices
‣ Turning appliances off when not in use
‣ Home modifications to reduce loss of heat to the outside
‣ Decreased consumption of non-essential goods
‣ Reduce consumption of non-local goods
‣ Decrease individual car use
‣ Use hybrid cars
‣ Use renewable energy
• Economic instruments
◦ Charging pollution emitters
◦ Use of subsides to encourage new technologies & research
◦ Subsides or tax credits to promote renewable energy
◦ Subsidizing public transport
◦ Use of road tolls and parking charges to discourage use of cars
• Technological changes
◦ Catalytic converters
‣ Reducing NOx emissions
‣ Oxidizing CO to form CO2
‣ Oxidizing VOCs to CO2 and water
◦ Increased energy efficiency
◦ Alternative energy sources
‣ Renewable energy
◦ Continuing research
‣ Improve energy efficiency
‣ develop better renewable energy
‣ Develop low emission vehicles and fuels
6.3.4 Urban air pollution management II

• Legislation
◦ International agreements
◦ Setting emission standards
◦ Building regulations
‣ Improve energy efficiency of new homes and buildings
◦ Planning regulations
‣ Cycle paths
‣ Road lanes for public transport
‣ Vehicle free zones
• Clean-up measures and restoration
◦ Scrubbers
‣ Filtering emissions
‣ Reforestation

6.4 ACID DEPOSITION

6.4.1 Acid deposition

• pH of natural deposition is within a pH of 5 and 6

◦ Presence of CO2
‣ Forming carbonic acid
• Emissions lower the pH of any deposition
• Sulphur dioxides and nitrogen oxides reacting to form secondary pollutants
◦ Sulphuric acid and Nitric acid
• pH declining below 5
• Deposition
◦ Wet
‣ Rain or snow
‣ Pollutants incorporated into the clouds or falling raindrops
◦ Dry
 ‣ Pollutants removed by gravity or direct contract under dry conditions
• Ash from volcanoes
• Dispersion and distribution of acid deposition
◦ Transported by winds
◦ Dispersed over large areas
◦ Acute pollution
◦ Increased effect in mountainous areas

6.4.2 Impacts of acid deposition

• Aquatic ecosystems
◦ Enter directly as precipitation
◦ Indirectly as run-off
◦ It can lower the pH of the aquatic environment beyond the ability of organisms to survive
◦ Affect the food chain due to loss of species
◦ Unsuccessful hatching of eggs
◦ Leaching of aluminum ions
‣ Fish secrete excess mucus around the gills
• Prevention of oxygen uptake
• Death by asphyxiation
• Terrestrial ecosystems
◦ Leaching of nutrients and reducing nutrient availability
◦ Mobilization of:
‣ Aluminum ions that damage plant root systems
‣ Toxic metals contaminating water systems
‣ Damage cuticle wax of leaves
‣ Lower pest tolerance
‣ reduction of crop yields
‣ Loss of biodiversity
• Materials
◦ Stone erosion
‣ Buildings and statues made out of limestone = vulnerable
‣ Penetration beneath the pores cracking them
 ◦ Metal corrosion
‣ Increases corrosion
• Iron and steel

6.4.3 Management of acid deposition

• International and regional cooperation

◦ UN Geneva Convention
‣ Reducing air pollution
‣ Platform for knowledge and latest scientific
information
◦ Regional air quality agreement
‣ USA and Canada
‣ Working together
• Cap and trade system
• In-situ clean up and restoration
◦ Adding limestone to neutralize acidic conditions

7 Climate change and energy production

7.1 ENERGY CHOICES AND SECURITY

7.1.1 Fossil fuels

7.1.2 Nuclear power

7.1.3 Renewable energy I

7.1.4 Renewable energy II

7.1.5 Energy security

7.2 CLIMATE CHANGE - CAUSES AND IMPACTS

7.2.1 Climate and weather

7.2.2 Causes of climate change

7.2.3 Climate feedback

7.2.4 Impacts of climate change I

7.2.5 Impacts of climate change II

7.2.6 Climate change debate

7.3 CLIMATE CHANGE - MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION

7.3.1 Mitigation

7.3.2 Geo-engineering

7.3.3 Adaptation

7.3.4 Implementing change - barriers

7.3.5 Implementing change - international collaboration

8 Human systems and resource use

8.1 HUMAN POPULATION DYNAMICS

8.1.1 Fertility

✦Crude birth rate: Number of births/1000/year

◦ Mean: 18.7/1000/year
 ◦ CBR= number of births/total population × 1000
✦Total fertility rate (TFR): Number a woman is expected to have in her lifetime
• Critical value= 2.2
◦ Replacement rate
• Factors affecting birth rates and fertility rates
◦ Role of children in the labour force or education
◦ Rates of urban living
◦ Women's status
◦ Life style choices and cultural norms
◦ Infant mortality rate (IMR) and pensions
◦ Family planning and abortions
◦ Religious beliefs and traditions
◦ Government policies

8.1.2 Mortality

✦Crude death rate (CDR): Number of death/1000/year

• Around 7.89/1000/year
• Factors affecting death rates
◦ Income
◦ Literacy/education
◦ Access to food
◦ Availability of health care
◦ Water supply and sanitation
◦ Access to shelter
• Doubling time (DT) and natural increase rate (NIR)
◦ Fertility> Mortality = NIR>0
◦ Fertility< Mortality = NIR<0
◦ NIR= (CBR-CDR)/10
◦ NIR is used to calculate doubling time
◦ ✦DT: how long it takes a population to double in size
‣ DT=70/NIR
8.1.3 Population growth

• Balance between fertility and mortality

• Agriculture emerged
◦ Population started to rise
• Wild fluctuations during the 1800s
◦ Plagues
◦ WAR
◦ Famine
◦ Invasions
◦ Europe's pop: decreased by 50%
◦ Black death
◦ Mongol invasion
◦ Smallpox and the flue wiped out Native American populations
• Agricultural and industrial revolution
◦ Death rates fell
◦ Improvements in health care
◦ Vaccines
◦ Better sanitation
◦ Exponental growth in the human population
• 20th Century
◦ Economic development in LEDCs
◦ Improved public health care reduced mortality
◦ Rapid increase
• Future
◦ Expect a decline due to changes in death rates

8.1.4 Population growth: The consequences

• Malthusian and neo-Malthusian theories

◦ Thomas Malthus
‣ Exponential growth
‣ Arithmetic food production
 ‣ Disaster when humans exceed carrying capacity
‣ Resolution through famine and war
‣ Reaffirmed by Ehrlich
• Anti-Malthusian theories
◦ Green revolution: advances in agriculture
◦ Technocentric view
• Overpopulation and the environment
◦ Grain prices increase
‣ Biofuel production
◦ Climate change
◦ Agricultural land lost to residential and industrial developments
◦ Food riots
◦ Increasing nº of malnourished people
◦ Loss of water supply
◦ Stratospheric ozone depletion
◦ Destruction of ecosystems for extraction of resources
◦ Deforestation
◦ Depletion of fish stocks
◦ Topsoil depletion

8.1.5 Predicting population change - population

pyramids

• Population pyramids
◦ Age-sex
• MEDCs
◦ Narrower base
◦ Increased age of survival
• LEDCs
◦ Wider base
◦ Great IMR
◦ Lower age of survival
8.1.6 Predicting population change -
demographic transition models

• DTM
• Developed in the 1920s
• Assumption LEDCs and MEDCs will go
through the same stages
• Stages
◦ CBR
◦ CDR
◦ NIR
◦ STAGE 1: Pre industrial society
‣ High fluctuating CBR and CDR
‣ Cancel each other
• Very low to zero NIR
‣ Lack of awareness in family planning
◦ STAGE2: Urbanizing/industrializing
‣ CBR remains high
‣ CDR drops
‣ Significant increase in NIR
‣ Improved food production & storage
‣ Better sanitation and medical assistance
‣ Discovery of penicillin
‣ Health care and education
◦ STAGE 3: Industrial
‣ Highest NIR
‣ Large gap between CBR and CDR
‣ Fall in birth rates
• Contraception
• Ban on child labour
◦ STAGE 4: Post industrial
‣ CBR, CDR and NIR are all low
‣ High growth
 ◦ STAGE 5: Post industrial
‣ Death rates exceed birth rates
‣ Lifestyle diseases
◦ Criticisms of the DTM
‣ MEDCs at the end of the model are being observed to
further develop it
‣ LEDCS may not follow some patterns
• MEDC based model
• Some LEDCs are going through the stages at a much faster rate
• Doesn't factor migration
• Cultural and religious factors not taken into account
• Doesn't consider government policies

8.1.7 Development policies

• Indirect impacts on human population change

◦ Millennium Development Goals
• Direct policies
◦ Anti-natalist strategies
‣ Tax disincentives
• Increase taxes for families that have more than a set number of children.
• Charge for education and health care for extra children.
• Remove child-care facilities for families with too many children.
‣ Raise awareness
• Educate the population about the impacts of high birth rates and the benefits of
small families.
• Campaigns and education programmes about family planning and the use of
contraception.
• Provision of family planning services with free contraceptives, abortions or
sterilization.
‣ Emancipation of women
• Once women realize they are able to control their own fertility the birth rate
drops.
 • Once women are educated and move into the workplace, marriage and childbirth
is usually delayed leaving less time to have children.
• Once a couple benefits from two wages it is hard to give up the luxuries that
brings.
◦ Pro-natalist strategies
‣ Tax and welfare incentives
• Give tax breaks to families that have more children.
• Make education and health care free for all children.
• Give free housing or upgrade existing housing for larger families – this strategy
is used in Sweden.
• Give parents a child allowance – a set amount of money for every child.
• Increase maternity and paternity leave.
• Provide free public transport (France).

8.2 RESOURCE USE IN SOCIETY

8.2.1 Natural capital I

• Economic capital
◦ Goods and services
◦ Economic value
◦ Changes in value
‣ Oil and petrol
• Aesthetic and intrinsic capital
◦ Appreciation of the beauty of nature
◦ Inherent nature of it being there
◦ Status changes over time and space

8.2.2 Natural capital II

• Cultural and spiritual capital

◦ Cultural heritage
◦ Spiritual capital
 ◦ Hard to say that value changes over time
• Environmental capital
◦ Depends on EVS
• Natural capital & technological
◦ Useless things in little time
◦ Rapid change in value

8.2.3 Non-renewable natural capital

• Renewable
◦ Can be replaced as fast as it is being used
• Non-renewable natural capital
◦ Geological time scales to form
◦ Irreplaceable in our lifetimes
◦ Finite
◦ Find substitutes

8.2.4 Renewable: use with care

• Living
◦ Living species
◦ Must be managed and used sustainably
‣ We could deplete that resource
• Non-living
◦ Renewable energy
◦ Water
◦ Ozone
◦ Cannot be un-sustainably used
‣ Not depleted through use
◦ Mismanaged if their cycle is affected
‣ i.e Hydrological cycle

8.3 SOLID DOMESTIC WASTE

8.3.1 Solid domestic waste introduction

• Methods
◦ Landfills
◦ Incineration
◦ Recycling
◦ Composting
• Types of SDW
◦ Organic material
‣ Garden waste
‣ Food/kitchen waste
‣ Wood
‣ Corks
◦ Paper
◦ Plastics
◦ Glass
◦ Metals
◦ Hazardous
‣ Paint
‣ Dry cell batteries
‣ Car batteries
‣ Fluorescent light bulbs
◦ Others
‣ Ceramics
‣ Rock
‣ Ash
‣ Soil
• Linear vs Circular
◦ Linear economy
‣ Use and discard
◦ Circular economy
‣ Restorative
 ‣ Material re-enters the system naturally
‣ Biological nutrients and Technical nutrients
• Non-biodegradable waste
◦ Anything that will not break down
◦ Plastic
‣ Made up of crude oil
‣ Finite source
‣ Not all can be recycled
◦ Batteries
◦ E-waste
‣ Electrical
‣ Electronic devices

8.3.2 Dealing with SDW: Landfills

• Oldest and most common organized

method of waste disposal
• Specifications to be met:
◦ Lining with clay or synthetic flexible
membrane
‣ Avoid leachate
◦ As small as possible
◦ Regular compaction to reduce
volume
◦ Daily coverage with soil
‣ Contains smell
‣ Prevent waste being blown
around
◦ Weighing and inspection of waste
• Lifespan depends on:
◦ Compressibility of the waste
◦ Thickness of the layers
◦ How often waste is compacted
 ◦ Amount of waste added every day
• Waste to energy from landfill gas
◦ Production of gas during decomposition
‣ Methane
◦ Necessary for it to be collected and disposed of
◦ Collected and burnt off to produce electricity

8.3.3 Dealing with SDW: Incineration

• Waste material combusted into:

◦ Ash
‣ What's left after the burn
◦ Flue gas
‣ Contains particulate mater
‣ Pollutants
‣ Scrubbed before entering the
atmosphere
◦ Heat
‣ Used to generate electricity

8.3.4 Dealing with SDW: Recycling

• Reduce
◦ Most important strategy
◦ Altering the human activity that produces the waste
◦ Use re-usable products
◦ Avoid single-use plastics
• Reuse
◦ Reusing for the same purpose or for another thing
◦ Re-using old items
◦ Make materials long lasting
• Recycle
◦ Prevents the loss of useful raw materials
 ◦ Reduces the consumption of new raw materials.
◦ Reduces energy usage in some areas (though
collection and processing does use energy).
◦ Reduces pollution at the extraction phase of
the process - getting the raw materials out of
the ground.
◦ Lowers the release of greenhouse gases.
◦ Tax incentives to entice recycling
◦ Difficult to start recycling programmes
◦ Curbside recycling and recycling centers

8.3.5 Dealing with SDW: Composting

• Piling up organic material and leaving it to decompose

• More effective process
◦ Reducing size of compost
◦ Controlling carbon-to-nitrogen ratio
◦ Monitoring and controlling moisture levels
• Combines the three R's

8.3.6 Dealing with waste pollution

• Educate
◦ Lowest cost financially
◦ Culture of reduce, reuse, recycle
◦ Changes in LEDCs to MEDCs
◦ LEDCs are more sustainable
‣ Second hand shops are cheaper
‣ No food waste because of economic pressures
‣ Maximize use of products
• Legislate
◦ Economic incentives for recycling
◦ Taxes/fines on excessive waste
• Remediate
◦ Reclaiming landfill sites

8.4 HUMAN POPULATION CARRYING CAPACITY

8.4.1 Human carrying capacity

✦Carrying capacity: Assessment of wether a population is living sustainably in an area,

considering the environment to sustain all necessities and assimilate their waste
• What determines human carrying capacity
◦ Waste assimilation
‣ Production of non-biodegradable waste
◦ Range of resources
‣ Range of resources
‣ Luxuries vs necessities
◦ Imports
‣ Move good around the world
‣ Move waste
• Sweden imports waste to produce energy
• MEDCs move waste to LEDCs
◦ Technology
‣ Some increase CC
‣ Some decrease CC
◦ Local or global?
‣ DEBATABLE
‣ Constant interchange of resources and waste
• What is the Earth's carrying capacity?
◦ Around 10 billion people
◦ Although those estimates are dropping
◦ Depend on human's attitude

8.4.2 Ecological footprint

✦EF: Model to estimate the demands that a human population places on the environment
• Opposite to carrying capacity
• Measures the amount of land necessary to support that population
• Aspects considered
◦ Biocapacity
‣ ✦Biological capacity of an area to generate the resources and absorb the waste of a
given population
◦ Demand
‣ Amount of bioproductive land we need to provide our resources and space for
infrastructure and absorb the waste
• The amount of productive land available on earth (biocapacity) is only 1.7 gha/person.
• Aspects to the EF
◦ Energy, travel and goods
‣ Energy sources used
‣ Travel
• Public vs private
• Type of fuel
• Air travel
‣ Goods
• Gadgets people have
• How often they are replaced
◦ Settlement and infrastructure
‣ The space taken up by infrastructure and settlements means less space for:

• Natural ecosystems and that can impact biodiversity negatively.

• Crops, pasture and forests – less food can be grown, also less biofuel and other
useful crops such as cotton and flax.
• The natural environment to deal with waste products. Forests and other green
plants remove carbon from the air during photosynthesis thus countering some of
the carbon emissions by the combustion of fossil fuels.
◦ Food and fiber
‣ Cropland is used for non-food items
◦ Seafood
 ‣ Wild catch vs farmed fish
◦ Different footprints
‣ Carbon
• Total amount of GHG caused by an individual
‣ Water
• Amount of water in your EF
‣ Food
• Food intake

8.4.3 Ecological footprint compared

• If the EF is larger than the biocapacity that

population is living unsustainably
• EF and EVSs
◦ How people view the environment affects
their choices

8.4.4 Do we have a problem?

• We are using ecosystems un-sustainably.

• We are pushing ecosystems so hard that they are going past the point where we can predict
what will happen next (tipping point).
• The poor countries are hardest hit.
• Earth Overshoot Day is the day each year when humans have used all the resources for that
year. It is calculated thus:
◦ (Global biocapacity/world EF) × 36
• AGENDA 21
◦ Section I: Social and economic dimensions to deal with poverty, consumption patterns and
health promotion.
◦ Section II: Conservation and management of resources for development – control of
pollution and deforestation, protection of fragile environments, and biodiversity and
managing biotechnology and radioactive wastes.
◦ Section III: Strengthening the role of major group including children, women, NGO’s local
 authorities and indigenous people and their communities.
◦ Section IV: Means of implementation – how goods gets done through science technology,
education and international institutions.