THE FOUNDATIONS

OF CHEMISTRY

Dr: Mohammad Mansour

• Chemists were wondering whether the matter was continuous
and could be forever divided into smaller and smaller pieces or
whether the mater was ultimately composed of indivisible
particles.
• From these reflections the concept of atoms was formed.
• The earth is a huge chemical system, including innumerable
reactions taking place constantly, with some energy input from
sunlight.
• The earth serves as the source of raw materials for all human
activities as well as the depository for the products of these
activities.
• Maintaining life on the planet requires understanding and
intelligent use of these resources.
• Scientists can provide important information about the processes,
but each of us must share in the responsibility for our
environment.
 Why is Chemistry Important?

• In Our Daily Lives

– New Materials
– New Pharmaceuticals
– New Energy Sources
– Food Supplies
– Can you think of others?

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 Why Study Chemistry?
1. To better understand the world: what it is made of and how it
works.
2. Because it is the most practical and relevant of the sciences -
chemistry is the study of EVERYTHING!
3. It is the “Central Science” - All other sciences intersect at and depend
on chemistry.
4. It is essential to the national and local economies.
(Houston is at the center of the world’s largest petrochemical
complex)
5. It is required for virtually every major involving science,
mathematics, or engineering.
6. An awareness of the principles of chemistry is essential to being an
informed and responsible citizen in a highly technical society.
7. It is incredibly fascinating and a lot of fun!
Does chemistry important? For whom its important ?why its
important? What is the importance of chemistry??
• Chemistry is important for any one studying the science.
• Much of the quality of life that we and others in the world enjoy
today can be traced to the successes of science, and in particular to
chemistry.
• Almost every thing we
 Touch
 Wear
 Eat
 Drink
 Take into our bodies for nutrition or to cure illness
Bears the marks of chemical research.
• To improve the natural products and get stronger and better quality
of materials
• To prevent food spoilage.
• To enhance taste , improve color, drug development,…etc.
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• Thousands of practical questions are studied by chemists. A few of
them are:
• How can we modify a useful drug so as to improve its effectiveness
while minimizing any harmful or unpleasant side effects?
• How can we develop better materials to be used as synthetic bone
for replacement surgery?
• Which substances could help to avoid rejection of foreign tissue in
organ transplants?
• What improvements in fertilizers or pesticides can increase
agricultural yields? How can this be done with minimal
environmental danger?
• How can we get the maximum work from a fuel while producing the
least harmful emissions possible?
• Which really poses the greater environmental threat—the burning of
fossil fuels and its contribution to the greenhouse effect and climatic
change, or the use of nuclear power and the related radiation and
disposal problems?
• How can we develop suitable materials for the semiconductor and
microelectronics industry?
• Can we develop a battery that is cheaper, lighter, and more
powerful?
• What relationship is there between the substances we eat, drink,
or breathe and the possibility of developing cancer? How can we
develop substances that are effective in killing cancer cells
preferentially over normal cells?
• Can we economically produce fresh water from sea water for
irrigation or consumption?
• How can we slow down unfavorable reactions, such as the
corrosion of metals, while speeding up favorable ones, such as the
growth of foodstuffs?
• Chemistry touches almost every aspect of our lives, our culture,
and our environment.
• Its scope encompasses the air we breathe, the food we eat, the
fluids we drink, our clothing, dwellings, transportation and fuel
supplies, and our fellow creatures.
 The Study of Chemistry
What is Chemistry?
• Chemistry, is ascience that studies the composition,
structure, properties, and behavior and change of matter, the
changes it undergoes, and the energy changes that
accompany those processes.
• Chemistry is sometimes called “ the central science"
• because it bridges other natural science like physics,
geology, and biology with each other.
• To understand living systems fully, we must first understand
the chemical reactions and chemical influences that operate
within them.
• The chemicals of our bodies profoundly affect even the
personal world of our thoughts and emotions.
• Matter – anything that occupies space and has
mass.
• Matter includes everything that is tangible, from
our bodies and the stuff of our everyday lives to
the grandest objects in the universe.
• Some call chemistry the central science. It rests on
the foundation of mathematics and physics and in
turn underlies the life sciences, biology and
medicine.
• To understand living systems fully, we must first
understand the chemical reactions and chemical
influences that operate within them.
• The chemicals of our bodies profoundly affect
even the personal world of our thoughts and
emotions.
• No one can be expert in all aspects of such a
broad science as chemistry.
• Sometimes we arbitrarily divide the study of
chemistry into various branches. Carbon is very
versatile in its bonding and behavior and is a key
element in many substances that are essential to
life.
• All living matter contains carbon combined with
hydrogen.
• The chemistry of compounds of carbon and hydrogen is
called organic chemistry.
• (In the early days of chemistry, living matter and inanimate
matter were believed to be entirely different. We now
know that many of the compounds found in living matter
can be made from nonliving, or “inorganic,” sources. Thus,
the terms “organic” and “inorganic” have different
meanings than they did originally.)
• The study of substances that do not contain carbon
combined with hydrogen is called inorganic chemistry.
• The branch of chemistry that is concerned with the
detection or identification of substances present in a
sample (qualitative analysis) or with the amount of each
that is present (quantitative analysis) is called analytical
chemistry.
• Physical chemistry applies the mathematical
theories and methods of physics to the properties
of matter and to the study of chemical processes
and the accompanying energy changes.
• As its name suggests, biochemistry is the study of
the chemistry of processes in living organisms.
Such divisions are arbitrary, and most chemical
studies involve more than one of these traditional
areas of chemistry.
• The principles you will learn in a general chemistry
course are the foundation of all branches of
chemistry.
 The Language of Chemistry
• Alphabet - Chemical Symbols of the Elements (Memorize the first
112 names and symbols)
H Mg Sc Zr Ta Unh Nd NpUuu Re
• Words - Chemical Formulas of Compounds
H2 O HNO3 NaCl C12H22O11 NH4ClO4
• Sentences - Chemical Equations
2 Na (s) + Cl2 (g) -----> 2 NaCl (s) + energy
• Paragraphs - Reaction Mechanisms

• Using the Language to Express Ideas -

Definitions, concepts, mathematical skills, etc.
Master the Language and
You Master the Subject!
 MATTER AND ENERGY
• Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
• Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in a sample of any
material.
• The more massive an object is, the more force is required to put it in
motion.
• All bodies consist of matter. Our senses of sight and touch usually
tell us that an object occupies space. In the case of colorless,
odorless, tasteless gases (such as air), our senses may fail us.
• Energy is defined as the capacity to do work or to transfer heat. We
are familiar with many forms of energy, including mechanical
energy, light energy, electrical energy, and heat energy.
• Light energy from the sun is used by plants as they grow, electrical
energy allows us to light a room by flicking a switch, and heat
energy cooks our food and warms our homes.
• Energy can be classified into two principal types: kinetic energy and
potential energy.
• A body in motion, such as a rolling boulder, possesses
energy because of its motion.
• Such energy is called kinetic energy. Kinetic energy
represents the capacity for doing work directly, It is easily
transferred between objects.
• Potential energy is the energy an object possesses because
of its position, condition, or composition.
• Coal, for example, possesses chemical energy, a form of
potential energy, because of its composition.
• Many electrical generating plants burn coal, producing heat,
which is converted to electrical energy.
• A boulder located atop a mountain possesses potential
energy because of its height.
• It can roll down the mountainside and convert its potential
energy into kinetic energy.
• We discuss energy because all chemical processes are
accompanied by energy changes. As some processes occur,
energy is released to the surroundings, usually as heat
energy.
• We call such processes exothermic. Any combustion
(burning) reaction is exothermic.
• Some chemical reactions and physical changes, however,
are endothermic; that is, they absorb energy from their
surroundings.
• An example of a physical change that is endothermic is the
melting of ice.
The Law of Conservation of Matter
- Matter is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical
reaction or a physical change.

ENERGY:
Energy is the ability to do work or generate thermal energy.

The Law of Conservation of Energy-

Energy is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical
reaction or a physical change.
It can only be changed from one form into another.

The Law of Conservation of Matter-Energy

- The combined amount of matter and energy in the universe
is constant.
E = mc2
 Law of Conservation of Mass

• 1775 - Lavoisier
• “Father of Modern Chemistry”

In every chemical operation an

equal amount of matter exists
before and after the operation.

Mass is conserved, the total mass

after the chemical operation must
be the same as that before.
• Problem:

• Potassium chlorate (KClO3) decomposes to potassium

chloride (KCl) and oxygen (O2) when heated. In one
experiment 100.0 g of KClO3 generated 36.9g of O2 and
57.3 g of KCl. What mass of KClO3 remained unreacted?

• Mass of KClO3 before reaction = mass of KCl + mass of O2

+ mass of unreacted KClO3
• 100.0 g of KClO3 = 57.3 g KCl + 36.9g O2 + g unreacted
KClO3

• g unreacted KClO3 = 100.0 g - 57.3 g - 36.9 g

• = 5.8 g
 Law of Definite Proportions

• Joseph Proust

In a given chemical compound, the proportions by mass

of the elements that compose it are fixed, regardless of
the source of the compound.

The ratio of elements in a compound is fixed regardless

of the source of the compound.

Water is made up of 11.1% by mass of hydrogen and

88.9% oxygen.
 Classification of Matter
What Are the States of Matter?
A. Plasma

Temperature
B. Gases
C. Liquids
D. Solids

• The basic difference between these states is the distance between

the “bodies.”
• Gas – bodies are far apart and in rapid motion.
• Liquid – bodies closer together, but still able to move past each
other.
• Solid – bodies are closer still and are now held in place in a definite
arrangement.
 Atomic and Molecular Concepts

Plasma
Nuclei Electrons

Gas

Temperature
Atoms or Molecules

Liquid

Atoms or Molecules

Crystalline Solid
 Atomic and Molecular Concepts

2. Classification of Matter

• Substance –
A distinct type of matter. All samples of a substance have the
same properties. Elements and compounds are substances.

• Mixture –
A sample of matter consisting of two or more substances which
are NOT chemically combined.
Classification of Matter
 Classification of Matter (Substances)

Substances -

• Element - A substance that cannot be broken down

(decomposed) into simpler substances by chemical
reactions.

• Compound - A substance composed of two or more

elements chemically combined in fixed ratios by mass.
Water - H2O Carbon dioxide - CO2
Sodium Chloride - NaCl Iron(II) sulfide - FeS
 Classification of Matter (Mixtures)
Mixtures -
 Homogeneous - A mixture having only one phase;
it is uniform (the same) throughout and has the
same properties throughout. These are called
Solutions.
 Heterogeneous - A mixture with more than one
phase. It is non-uniform and does NOT have the
same properties throughout.
Separation of Mixtures
Mixtures can be separated by physical means.
– Filtration.
– Chromatography.
– Distillation.
 Matter and Change

Physical Change - A change in which

each substance involved in the change
retains its original identity and no new
elements or compounds are formed.
H2O (s) H2O (l)
Melting

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 Matter and Change
 Chemical Change - A change in which one or
more elements or compounds (substances)
are formed.

2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2 H2O (l)

“Reacting”
AgNO3 (aq) + HCl (aq) AgCl (s) + HNO3 (aq)

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 Properties of Matter

• To distinguish among samples of different kinds of

matter, we determine and compare their
properties.

• We recognize different kinds of matter by their

properties, which are broadly classified into
chemical properties and physical properties.
Physical changes that
occur among the three
states of matter.
 Properties of Matter
 Physical Properties –
 Physical Property – A property that can be measured without
changing the identity of the substance, (Properties that do NOT
involve substances changing into other substances).
Melting Point Boiling Point
Temperature Density
Mass Volume

 Chemical Properties –
 Properties that involve substances changing into other
substances.
Chemical Reactivity Reduction Potential
Flammability Oxidation Potential
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 Properties of Matter
 Extensive Properties - Properties that depend on
the amount of matter present in a sample.
Mass Volume Heat Capacity
 Intensive Properties - Properties that do NOT
depend on the amount of matter present in a
sample.
Color Temperature Density
Melting Point Specific Heat Boiling Point

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Atoms and
Elements
• The language we use to describe the forms of
matter and the changes in its composition is not
limited to use in chemistry courses; it appears
throughout the scientific world.
• Chemical symbols, formulas, and equations are
used in such diverse areas as agriculture, home
economics, engineering, geology, physics, biology,
medicine, and dentistry.
• The term “atom” comes from the Greek
language and means “not divided” or
“indivisible.”
 Atoms, Elements, Compounds, and Ions
• Atom
• basic building block of all matter
•Element
• Substance that consists of only one type of atom.
• Molecule has two different atoms.
• Compound
• substance that consists of more than one type of
element.
•Ion
• substance that has a positive or negative charge
 Atomic Theory of Matter

• We now take for granted the idea that all matter is

comprised of atoms.

• But how did the Atomic Theory of Matter develop, and

how was it proved?

• The notion that matter was made up of atoms had to be

postulated and proved.
 Experimental Evidence

• Experimental evidence for the atomic nature of matter was

realized in the 18th century.

• Since then scientists have proved conclusively the atomic

nature of matter

• In the mid ‘80’s a tool was developed which for the first time
allowed scientists to actually “see” individual atoms and
molecules.
Surface of graphite as
imaged by a scanning
tunneling microscope
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory

John Dalton (1766-1844) proposed an atomic

theory

While this theory was not completely correct, it

revolutionized how chemists looked at matter
and brought about chemistry as we know it
today instead of alchemy

Thus, it’s an important landmark in the history of

science.
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory - Summary

1. matter is composed, indivisible particles (atoms)

2. all atoms of a particular element are identical
3. different elements have different atoms
4. atoms combine in certain whole-number ratios
5. In a chemical reaction, atoms are merely
rearranged to form new compounds; they are not
created, destroyed, or changed into atoms of any
other elements.
 Problems with Dalton’s Atomic Theory?
1. matter is composed, indivisible particles
Atoms Can Be Divided, but only in a nuclear reaction
2. all atoms of a particular element are identical
Does Not Account for Isotopes (atoms of the same element
but a different mass due to a different number of neutrons)!
3. different elements have different atoms
YES!
4. atoms combine in certain whole-number ratios
YES! Called the Law of Definite Proportions
5. In a chemical reaction, atoms are merely rearranged to form
new compounds; they are not created, destroyed, or changed
into atoms of any other elements.
Yes, except for nuclear reactions that can change atoms of
one element to a different element
 Are Atoms really indivisible?

• Dalton reached his conclusions about atoms on the basis

of evidence gained on a macroscopic level.

• As scientists developed more instrumentation capable of

probing phenomena at a microscopic level, more about
atoms was understood.

• Example: The color of the emitted light characterizes the

element.
 Electrons

• J.J. Thompson showed that the cathode rays were in fact

particles of NEGATIVE charge, the rays could be deflected
by a magnetic field.

• The term ELECTRON was coined for the negative particles.

• Thompson also calculated the charge of each particle
 Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment

• Robert Millikan’s oil drop experiment calculated the

charge/mass ratio of the electron, and combining
Thompson’s results the mass of the electron was
calculated to be 9.10 x 10-28 g.
• (actual mass of the electron 9.10939 x 10 -28 g)

• There must be a positive species which counters the

electron charge.
 Radioactivity

• Henri Becquerel in 1896 discovered high-energy radiation

was spontaneously emitted from uranium.
• Later Marie Curie and her husband Pierre further
investigated this spontaneous emission of radiation which
was termed radioactivity.
• Further studies of radioactivity by Rutherford showed that
the radiation consisted of three types of radiation , b, g
radiation.
•  and b radiation are bent by an electric field, but in
opposite directions, and g radiation is unaffected.
• Rutherford was able to show that  particles have charge
of +2 and that b –1 and that  particles combine with
electrons to form Helium atoms.
• g rays are high energy electromagnetic radiation
 Rutherford’s Experiment

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/rutherford/
 The Structure of the Atom
• J.J. Thompson, realized that electrons were sub-atomic
particles, and presented his theory of the model of the
atom.

• The “PLUM-PUDDING” model

electron

positive sphere
of charge
 William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
Plum Pudding Model

1824-1907

• Reasoned that the atom

might be thought of as a
uniform “pudding” of
positive charge with
enough negative
electrons scattered
within to counterbalance
that positive charge.
 ATOMIC COMPOSITION
• Protons (p+)
– + electrical charge
– mass = 1.672623 x 10-24 g
– relative mass = 1.007 atomic mass
units (amu) but we can round to 1
• Electrons (e-)
– negative electrical charge
– relative mass = 0.0005 amu
but we can round to 0
• Neutrons (no)
– no electrical charge
– mass = 1.009 amu but we can round to 1
 Isotopes
• Atoms of different elements are distinguished by the
difference in the number of protons and the number of
electrons.
• Since atoms are electrically neutral, the number of
protons = number of electrons
• Since the number of protons (and electrons) differ, their
MASS differ.
• Hence atoms of different elements have different
masses.
• So for example, hydrogen has ONE proton and ONE
electron
• Carbon has SIX protons and SIX electrons
• Atoms of the SAME element can have different number
of NEUTRONS.

• These atoms of the SAME elements but with different

number of neutrons are called ISOTOPES.

• Hence isotopes of the same elements have the same

number of protons and electrons, but different number
of neutrons and hence different masses.

• EXAMPLE – Carbon has three isotopes C12, C13, C14.

Each of these isotopes differ by the number of neutrons
– ALL have SIX protons. C12 has SIX neutron, C13 has
SEVEN and C14 has EIGHT.
• To denote the number of protons and neutrons in an
atom the following symbol notation is used

• 12
C where 12 denotes SUM OF PROTONS + NEUTRONS
6
6 denotes the number of PROTONS

• So for the isotopes of carbon the complete chemical

symbols are: 126C, 136C, 146C

• The superscript, which is the sum of the number of

protons and neutrons, is called the MASS NUMBER (A).

• The subscript indicates the number of protons and is

called the ATOMIC NUMBER (Z) .
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are there in

197
79 Au
197 is the mass number and refers to the total number of
protons and neutrons. 79 is the atomic number and
refers to the number of protons. Hence this atom has 79
electrons and 197-79 = 118 neutrons
 Atomic Units
• Atoms are very, very light and very, very small
• Since atomic dimensions are so small, it would be cumbersome
to use units we typically use for length (cm, m) or mass (g).
• Hence, on the atomic scale we define units appropriate for this
scale
MASS – unit typically used is an ATOMIC MASS UNIT (amu)
1 amu = 1.66054 x 10–24 g

Particle Charge Mass (g) Mass (amu)

Proton +1 1.6727x10-24 1.0073
Neutron Neutral 1.6750x10-24 1.0087
Electron -1 9.109x10-28 5.486 x 10-4
LENGTH – ANGSTROM(Å) = 10-10m
Typical atomic dimensions are 1 to 5 x10-10 m which corresponds
to 1 to 5 Å.
Two isotopes of sodium.
 Isotopes &
Their Uses

Bone scans with

radioactive
technetium-99.
 Isotopes & Their Uses

The tritium content of ground water is used

to discover the source of the water, for
example, in municipal water or the source of
the steam from a volcano.
 Atomic Symbols

 Show the name of the element, a hyphen, and

the mass number in hyphen notation

sodium-23
 Show the mass number and atomic number in
nuclear symbol form
mass number
23
Na
atomic number 11
 Counting Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
• Protons: Atomic Number (from periodic table)
• Neutrons: Mass Number minus the number of
protons (mass number is protons and neutrons
because the mass of electrons is negligible)
• Electrons:
– If it’s an atom, the protons and electrons must be
the SAME so that it is has a net charge of zero
(equal numbers of + and -)
– If it does NOT have an equal number of electrons,
it is not an atom, it is an ION. For each negative
charge, add an extra electron. For each positive
charge, subtract an electron (Don’t add a
proton!!! That changes the element!)
Isotope Notation
Protons Neutrons Electrons
6 6 6

6 7 6

6 8 6

How many protons, neutrons and electrons in

each of the following:
protons neutrons electrons
23
Na 11 12 11
14
N 7 7 7
38
Ar 18 20 18
35
Cl 17 18 17
36
Cl-1 17 19 18
56
Fe 26 30 26
 IONS
• IONS are atoms or groups of atoms with a positive
or negative charge.
• Taking away an electron from an atom gives a
CATION with a positive charge
• Adding an electron to an atom gives an ANION
with a negative charge.
• To tell the difference between an atom and an ion,
look to see if there is a charge in the superscript!
Examples: Na+ Ca+2 I- O-2
Na Ca I O
 Forming Cations & Anions

A CATION forms An ANION forms

when an atom when an atom
loses one or more gains one or more
electrons. electrons

Mg --> Mg2+ + 2 e- F + e- --> F-

 PREDICTING ION CHARGES

In general
• metals (Mg) lose electrons ---> cations
• nonmetals (F) gain electrons ---> anions
 Charges on Common Ions
-3 -2 -1
+1
+2

By losing or gaining e-, atom has same number

of e-’s as nearest Group 8A atom.