General Biology

• Chapters
• 1. Biology and Scientific Study of Life
• 2. The Chemistry of Life
• 3. Cells
• 4. The Energy of Life
• 5. Photosynthesis
• 6. How cells release Energy?
• 7. DNA structure and Gene function
• 8. DNA replication, Binary fission and Mitosis
• 9. Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
• 10. Patterns of Inheritance
• 11. DNA technology
• 12. Forces of Evolutionary Change
• 13. Evidence of Evolution
• 14. Speciation and Extinction
• 15. Evolution and Diversity of Microbial Life
• 16. Animal Anatomy and Physiology
• a. Animal tissues and Organ Systems
• b. The Nervous System and the Senses
• c. The Endocrine System
• d. The Skeletal and Muscular Systems
• e. The Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
• f. The Digestive and Urinary Systems
• g. The Immune System
• h. The Animal Reproduction and Development
Chapter 1
- Biology and scientific study of life
- Cell - basic unit of life.
- Organism – living individual consists of one or more cells.
- Tissue – a collection of specialized cells that function in a
coordinated fashion.
- Organ – a structure consisting of tissues organized to interacts
and carry out specific functions.
- Organ System – organs connected physically or chemically that
function together.
- Population – includes members of the same species of organism
occupying the same place at the same tune.
- Community – includes the population of different species in a
region.
- Ecosystem – includes both the living and non-living components
of an area.
• Biosphere – refers to all parts of the planet that can
support life.
• Emergent properties – new functions that arise from
interactions among a systems component.
• Broad categories of organisms (based on their source of
energy and raw materials):
1. Producers – also called autotrophs, make their own food
by extracting energy and nutrients from non-living sources.
2. Consumer – also called heterotrophs, obtain energy and
nutrients by eating other organisms, living or dead.
3. Decomposers – are heterotrophs that absorb energy
and nutrients from wastes or dead organisms
- Homeostasis – process by which a cell or organisms
maintains this state of internal constancy or equilibrium.
- Assignment: Draw the human Cell and label its parts.
- Give the functions of each part.
Reproduction
1. Asexual – genetic information comes from only one parent
and all offspring are virtually identical.
2. Sexual – genetic material from 2 parent individuals unites
to form an offspring, which has a new combination of inherited
traits.
- Adaptation – is an inherited characteristic or behavior that
enables an organism to survive and reproduce successfully in
its environment.
- Natural selection – is the enhanced reproductive success of
certain individuals from a population based on inherited
characteristics.
- Evolution – is a change in the genetic make-up of a
population over multiple generations.
- Taxonomy – the science of naming and classifying organisms.
• Species – basic unit of classification which designates a
distinctive “type” of organism.
• Genus – Closely related species are grouped into the
same.
• Domains – genetic evidence suggests that all species fall
into one, the broadcast taxonomic category.
3 Domains
1. Bacteria – cells lack nuclei ( prokaryotic )
most are unicellular
2. Archaea – cells lack nuclei ( prokaryotic )
most are unicellular
3. Eukarya – cells contain nuclei
unicellular or multi-cellular
• Scientific method – a general way of using evidence to answer
questions.
• Hypothesis – a tentative explanation for one or more
observations.
- it is the essential ‘’unit’’ of scientific inquiry.
• Predictions – is written as an if-then statement.
• Peer Review – evaluate the validity of the methods, data and
conclusion.
• Experiment – is an investigation carried out in controlled
conditions.
• Sample size – is the number of individuals assigned to each
treatment.
• Variable – a changeable element of an experiment 2 types.
1. Independent – the factor that an investigator
Directly manipulates to determine whether it causes another
variable to change.
• 2.Dependent- is any response that might depend on
the value of the independent variable.
• Standard variable- is anything that the investigator
holds constant for all subjects in the experiment,
encouraging the best chance of detecting the effect of
the independent variable’
• Theory- is an explanation for a natural phenomenon
but is typically broader in scope than a hypothesis.
• Fact- a repeatable observation that everyone can agree
on.
• Technology- is the practical application of scientific
knowledge
• - advances in science lead to new technologies and
vice versa.
• Assignment: Enumerate the Organ/System of the
body and give the functions of each.
• Chapter 2: The Chemistry of Life
• Matter- is any material that takes up space such as
organism,rocks, the oceans and gases in the
athmosphere.
• Energy- ability to do work.
• Element- a pure substance that cannot be broken
down by chemical means into other substances,
• - examples:
oxygen[O2],carbon[C],nitrogen[N],Sodium[Na],Hy
drogen[H]
• Atom- smallest unit of an element that retains the
characteristics of that element.
• 3 types of particles of that element:
• 1. neutrons- are unchanged, together form a
central nucleus.
• 2. electrons- negatively charged, that surround
the nucleus.
• 3. protons- carry a positive charged.
• Atomic number- the number of protons in an
atom’s nucleus.
• Mass number- the number of protons plus the
number of neutrons in an atom’s nucleus.
• Isotope- any of the different forms of the same
element distinguished by the number of neutrons
in the nucleus.
• Atomic weight- the average mass of all isotopes of an
element.
• Radioactive isotope- means they emit energy as rays or
particles when they break down into more stable forms.
• Molecule- is 2 or more chemically joined atoms.
• Compound- a molecule composed of 2 or more different
elements.
• - example: carbon monoxide[CO]
• Energy shell- is a group of orbitals that share the same
levels.
• Valence shell- outermost occupied inert shell
• Electronegativity- measures the atom’s ability to attract
electrons on a scale of 0-4
• Chemical bond- an attractive force that holds atoms
together.
• Ionic bond- one atom donates one or more electrons to
another atom, forming oppositely charged ions that attract
each other.
• Covalent bond- two[2] atoms share electrons.
• Hydrogen bond- an atom with a partial negative charge
attracts an atom with a partial positive charge.
• - form between adjacent molecules or
between different parts of a large molecule.
• Polar covalent bond- is a top-sided union in which one
nucleus exerts a much stronger pull on the shared electrons
than does the other nucleus.
• Non-polar covalent bond- two[2] atoms exert
approximately equal pull on their shared elements.
• Cohesion- the tendency of water molecules to stick
together.
• Adhesion- the tendency to form hydrogen bonds with
substances other than water
• Solvent- a chemical in which other substances called
solutes dissolve.
• Solution- consists of one[1] or more solutes dissolved in
a liquid solvent.
• Hydrophilic substances- either polar or charged, they
readily dissolve in water[ the term literally means
water-loving]
• Hydrophobic substances[ water- fearing]- do not
dissolve in or form hydrogen bonds with water.
• Evaporation- is the conversion of a liquid into a vapor.
• pH scale- measure how acidic or basic a solution is
• - ranges from 0-14 with 7 as neutral solution
• - an acidic solution has a pH lower than 7,
whereas an alkaline or basic has a pH greater than 7.
• - 0 represents a strongly acidic solution and 14
has an extremely basic one.
• Organic molecules- chemical compounds that contain
both carbon and hydrogen.
• Hydrolysis- breaks the covalent bonds that link
monomers,
• - enzymes use atom from water to add a
hydroxyl group to one[1] molecule and a hydrogen atom
to another.
• ‘breaking with water’
• Carbohydrates- organic molecules that consists of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, often in the
proportion
• - simplest of the 4 main types of
organic compounds.
• 2 main groups:
• 1. simple sugars 2. complex carbohydrates
• Simple carbohydrates
• a. monosaccharides- smallest carbohydrates,
usually contain 5 or 6 carbon atoms
• b. disaccharides [2 sugars]- 2 monosaccharides
joined by dehydration synthesis.
• Complex carbohydrates
• a. polysaccharides[many sugars]- huge molecules
consisting of hundreds or thousands of monosaccharide
monomers.
• - most common: cellulose,
chitin, starch and hydrogen.
• Cellulose forms part of plant cell walls.
• - it is the most common organic compound in nature,
humans cannot digest it.
• - it is an important component of the human diet, making
up much of what nutrition labels refer to as fiber.
• - a high fiber diet reduces the risk of colon cancer.
• - fiber eases the movement of food through the
digestive tract so it may shorten the length of time that
harmful chemicals linger within the intestine.
• Chitin- second most common polysaccharide in nature.
• - cell walls of fungi contain chitin, as do the
flexible exoskeletons of insects, spiders and
crustaceans.
• - also supports cells.
• - it resembles a glucose polymer except that it
also contains nitrogen atoms.
• - it is tough, flexible and biodegradable, it is used
in the manufacture of surgical thread.
• Starch and glycogen have similar structures and
functions.
• - both act as storage molecules that readily
breakdown into their glucose monomers when cells
need a burst of energy.
• - most plants store starch.
• - potatoes, rice and wheat are all starchy, high energy
staples in the human diet.
• Glycogen- occurs in animal and fungal cells.
• -in humans, skeletal muscles and the liver store energy as
glycogen.

• Proteins- is a chain of monomers called amino acids,each

composed of a central carbon atom bonded to a hydrogen
atom, a carboxyl group, an amino group and a variable R
group.
• A proteins 3-dimensional shape is vital to its function.A
denatured protein has a ruined shape.
• Protein have a great variety of functions, participating in all
the work of the cell.
• Peptide bond- is the resulting covalent bond that links
each amino acid to its neighbor.
• - 2 linked- amino acids form a dipeptide; 3
form a tripeptide.
• Polypeptide- long chain of amino acids
• - is called a protein once it folds into its
functional shape; a protein may consist of one[1] or more
polypeptide chains.
• Nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA are polymers
consisting of nucleotides that each nucleotide consists of a
phosphate group, a sugar and a nitrogenous base.
• DNA carries genetic information and transmit it from
generation to generation.
• RNA helps use the DNA’s information to make proteins.
• Lipids- are organic compounds with one property in
common: they do not dissolve in water.
• - are hydrophobic because they contain large areas
dominated by nonpolar carbon-carbon and carbon-
hydrogen bonds.

• Triglycerides
• - consists of 3 long hydrocarbon chains called fatty acids
bounded to glycerol, a 3-carbon molecule that forms the
triglyceride’s back bone.
• a. saturated fatty acid contains all the hydrogen, that is,
single bonds connect all the carbons and each carbon has 2
hydrogens.
• -animal fats are saturated and tend to be solid
• - bacon fat and butter are examples.
• b. unsaturated fatty acid has at least [1] double
bonds
• - these fats have an oily[liquid] consistency at
room temperature.
• = olive oil is an unsaturated fat.
• - these fats are healthier than saturated fats.

• Artificial sweeteners
• 1. Sucralase[Splenda]
• - a close relative of sucrose except that 3 chlorine
atoms replace 3 of sucrose’s hydroxyl groups.
• - is about 600 times sweeter than sugar and the body
digests little if any of it, so it is virtually calorie-free.
• 2. Aspartame[Nurasweet/Equal]
• - chemical structure does not resemble sugar
• - consists of 2 amino acids, phenylalanine and
aspartic acid.
• - delivers about 4 calories per gram but is about 200
times sweeter than sugar.
• 3. Saccharin[Sweet’n low/Sugar twin]
• - has only 1/32 of a calorie per gram, consist of a
double ring with nitrogen and sulfur.

• Fat substitutes
• - fat is calorie-dense[ about 9 calories per gram]
• - fat aids in the absorption of some vitamins and
provides fatty acids that human bodies cannot produce.
• - fats also lends food tastes and consistency.
• Carbohydrate- based fat substitutes
• - modified food starches, dextrins, guar gum, pectin and
cellulose gels are all derived from polysaccharides and they
all mimic fats ‘mouth feel’ by absorbing water to form gel.
• - these fat substitutes deliver 0-4 calories per gram.
• - cannot be used to fry foods.

• Protein-based fat substitutes

• - derived from egg whites or whey[the watery part of
milk]
• - these proteins mimic fat’s texture as they slide by each
other in the mouth.
• - deliver about 4 calories per gram and they cannot be
used in frying.
• Fat based fat substitute
• - Olestra/Olean is a hybrid molecule that contains a
central sucrose molecule with 6-8 fatty acids.
• - chief advantage is that it taste and behaves like fat even
for frying.
• -Olestra is currently approved only for savory snacks such
as chips.
• - it is indigestible and calorie free but olestra removes fat
soluble vitamins as it passes thru the digestive tract.

• Trans-fast- unsaturated fats whose fatty acid tails are

straight, not linked.
• - common in fast foods, fried foods and many
snack products and they raise the risk of heart disease even
more than saturated fats.
• Steroids
• - lipids that have 4 interconnected carbon rings.
• - Vitamin D and cortisone are examples of steroids as
is cholesterol.
• - Cholesterol is a key part of animal cell membranes.
• - animal cells use cholesterol as a starting
material to make other lipids including the sex
chromosomes testosterone and estrogen.
• - is essential, an unhealthy diet can easily
contribute to cholesterol levels that are too high,
increasing the risk of cardiovascular disease.
• - saturated fats stimulate the liver to produce
more cholesterol, important to limit dietary intake of
both saturated fats and cholesterol.
• Chapter 3: Cells

• Cells- smallest unit of life that can function independently

• - microscopic components of all organism.
• The first person to see cells was Robert Hooke,who viewed cork with a
crude lens in the late 17th century.
• The cell theory states that ‘all life is composed of cells that cells are
the functional units of life, and that all cells come from pre-existing
cells’

• Light microscopes
• > ideal for generating true- color views of living or preserved cells.
• > 2 types:
• 1. compound- uses 2 or more lenses to focus visible light through
a specimen.
• ,
•
• - most powerful ones can magnify up to 1600 times
and resolves objects that are 200 nanometers apart.
• 2. confocal- enhances resolution by focusing white or
laser light through a lens to the object.
• - the image then passes through a pinhole
• - the result is a scan of highly focused light on one
tiny part of the specimen at a time.

• Transmission of an electron microscope

• - sends a beam of electron through a very thin slice of
a specimen.
• - the microscope translates differences in electron
transmission into a high- resolution, 2- dimensional
image that shows the internal features of the object.
• - can magnify up to 50 million times and resolve
objects less than 1 angstrom apart.

• Scanning electron microscope

• - scans a beam of electrons over a metal- coated
3 dimensional specimen.
• - its images have lower resolution than the TEM.
• - the maximum magnification is about 250,000
times and the resolution limit is 1-5 nanometers.
• - chief advantage is its ability to reveal textures
on a specimen’s external surface.
• Structures of the cell
• Ribosomes- structures that manufacture proteins.
• Cell membrane- a lipid-rich that forms a boundary between the
cell and its environment.
• Cytoplasm- encloses cell membrane, which includes all cell
contents[ except the nucleus, in cells that have one]
• Cytosol- fluid portion of the cytoplasm.
• Prokaryotes- the simplest and most ancient forms of life, are
organism whose cells lack a nucleus,
• Eukaryotes- have cells that contain a nucleus and other
membranous organelles.
• Nucleoid- is the area where the cell’s circular DNA molecule
congregates.
• Cell wall- surrounds the cell membrane of most bacteria,
protecting the cell and preventing it from bursting if it absorbs
too much water.
• Flagella- tail- like appendages that enable these cells
to move.
• Vesicles- small membranous spheres that transport
materials inside the cell.
• - these ‘ bubbles’ of membrane, which can
pinch off from one[1] organelle travel within the cell
and fuse with another, are also considered part of the
endomembrane system.
• The mRNA molecules exit the nucleus through nuclear
pores, which are holes in the double-membrane
nuclear envelope that separates the nucleus from the
cytoplasm.
• Nucleolus- a dense spot that assembles the
components of ribosomes.
• Endoplasmic reticulum- is a network of sacs and tubules composed
of membranes.
• - this complex organelle originates at the
nuclear envelope and winds throughout the cell[ endoplasmic
means ‘within the cytoplasm’] and reticulum means ‘network’
• a. Rough ER- ribosomes give these membranes a roughened
appearance.
• b. Smooth ER- adjacent to the rough ER, a section of the network
synthesizes lipids such as those that will end up in the milk and
other membrane components.
• - also houses enzymes that detoxify drugs and
poisons.
• Golgi apparatus- is a stack of flat membrane-enclosed sacs that
functions as a processing center.
• - enzymes also manufacture and attach
carbohydrates to proteins or lipids, forming the ‘ name tags’
• recognized by the immune system.
• Lysosomes- are organelles containing enzymes that
dismantle and recycle food particles, captured
bacteria,wornout organelles and debris.
• Vacuoles- the large central contains a watery solution of
enzymes that degrade and recycle molecules and
organelles.
• - occupies up to 90% of the cell’s volume
• > as the vacuole acquires water, it exerts
pressure[ called turgor pressure] against the cell
membrane.
• > turgor pressure helps plants stay rigid and
upright.
• Peroxisomes- all eukaryotic cells contain
peroxisomes,organelles that contain several types of
enzymes that dispose toxic substances.
• - resembles lysosomes in size and function,
peroxisomes originate at the ER and contain
different enzymes.
• - peroxisomes in the liver and kidney cells help
dismantle toxins from the blood.
• - peroxisomes also breakdown fatty acids and
produce cholesterol and some other lipids.
• - in a disease called
ADENOLEUKODYSTROPHY[ALD], a faulty
peroxisomal enzyme causes fatty acids to accum
ulate to toxic levels in the brain, causing severe
brain damage and eventually death.
• Mitochondria- organelles that use a process called
cellular respiration to extract this needed energy
from food.
• - all eukaryotic cells have mitochondria.
• Chloroplast- site of photosynthesis in eukaryotes.
• - eachchloroplast contains multiple
membrane layers
• > 2 outer membrane layers enclose an
enzyme- rich fluid called stroma.
• - within the stroma is a third
membrane system folded into flattened sacs called
thylakoids which are stacked like pancakes to form
structures called grana.
• Cytoskeleton- an intricate network of protein tracks
and tubules
• - is a structural framewrk with many
functions.
• - it is a transportation system and it
provides the physical support necessary to maintain
the cell’s characteristic 3- dimensional shape.
• - it aids in cell division and helps
connect cells to one another.
• - also enables cells or parts of a cell to
move
• - includes 3 major components:
• 1. microfilaments
• - thinnest component of the cytoskeleton, a long rod
composed of the protein actin.
• - also provide strength for cells to survive stretching and
compression and they help to anchor one[1] cell to another.
• 2. intermediate filaments
• - so named because their 10- nanometer diameters are
intermediate between those of microfilaments and
microtubules.
• - maintain a cell’s shape by forming an internal scaffold
in the cytosol and resisting mechanical stress.
• - also help bind some cells together.
• 3. microtubule
• - composed of a protein called tubulin assembled into a
hollow tube that is 23 nanometers in diameter.
• - have many functions in eukaryotic cells.
• Cilia- short numerous extensions resembling a fringe.
• - enable the cells to swim in water.
• Flagella- occur singly or in pairs and is much longer than a
cilium.
• - are more loke tails and their whiplike movement
propels cells.
• - sperm cells in many species[ including humans]
have prominent flagella.
• > a man whose sperm cells have defective flagella
is infertile because the sperm are unable to swim to the egg
cell.
• Plasmodesmata – channels that connect adjacent plant cells.
• - are essentially ‘tunnels’ in the cell wall,
though which the cytoplasm of one plant cell counteract
with that of another.
• Types of junctions:
• 1. Tight junction
• - fuses animal cells together, forming an impermeable barrier
between them.
• - proteins anchored in membranes connect to actin in the
cytoskeleton and join cells into sheets such as those lining the
inside of the digestive tract.
• - prevent stomach acid from seeping into the tissues
surrounding the stomach.
• 2. Anchoring[or adhering] junction
• - connects an animal cell to its neighbors or to the
extracellular matrix, somewhat like a rivet.
• - proteins at each junction span the cell membrane and link
to each cells cytoskeleton.
• - these junctions hold skin cells in place by anchoring them to
the extracellular matrix.
• 3. Gap junction
• - a protein channel that links the cytoplasm of
adjacent animal cells, allowing exchange of ions,
nutrients and other small molecules.
• - it is analogous to plasmodesmata in plants.
• - link heart muscle cells to one another allowing
groups of cells to contract again.
• Chapter 4: The Energy of Life
• Energy- ability to do work or to move matter.
• 2 forms:
• 1. potential energy
• - is stored energy available to do work
• 2. kinetic energy
• - is energy being used to do work,any moving object
possesses this form of energy.
• Calories{cal}- units used to measure energy.
• - the amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water from 14.5 C- 15.5 C.
• Energy is measured in units called calories.One[1] food
calorie is 1000 calories or 1 kilocalorie.
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed but only converted
to other forms.
• Every reaction increases entropy[disorder] and loses heat
energy to the environment.
• Metabolism- is the sum of the chemical reactions in a cell.
• Many energy transformations in organism occur via
oxidation- reduction[redox] reactions. Oxidation is the loss
of electrons;Reduction is the gain of electrons. Oxidation
and reduction reactions occur simultaneously because
electrons removed from one[1] molecule during oxidation
join another molecule and reduce it.
• In both photosynthesis and respiration, proteins shuttle
electrons along electron transport chains.
• ATP stores energy in its high- energy phosphate bonds.
• Cellular respiration generates ATP.
• Cells use the energy released in ATP hydrolysis to drive
other reactions.
• ATP is too unstable for long-term storage. Instead, cells
store energy as fats and carbohydrates.
• Enzyme- is an organic molecule that catalyzes[speeds
up] a chemical reaction without being consumed.
• - most are proteins, some are made of RNA.
• - most of the cell’s organelles including
mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes and
peroxisomes are specialized sacs of enzymes.
• - enzymes copy DNA, build proteins, digest
food, recycle a cell’s worn-out parts and catalyze
oxidation-reduction reactions.
• Enzymes speed reactions by lowering the activation
energy[ the amount of energy required to start a
reaction]
• The enzyme brings reactants[ also called
substrates] into contact with one[1] another, so
that less energy is required for the reaction to
proceed.

• Negative feedback[ also called feedback inhibition]

• - a reaction products inhibit the enzyme that
catalyzes the reaction.
• - as the reaction products accumulate, the
reaction rate slows or stops.
• - when the concentration of the reaction
products falls, the block on the enzyme lifts and
the cells can once again carry out the reaction.
• Non-competitive inhibition
- product molecules bind to the enzyme at a location other
than the active site in a way that alters the enzyme’s shape so that
it can no longer bind the substrate.

Competitive inhibition
- the product of a reaction binds to the enzyme’s active
site,preventing it from binding substrate,
- it is competitive because the product competes with the
substrate to occupy the active site.

Enzymes are also very sensitive to conditions in the cell.

- if pH or the salt concentration is too high or too low, an
enzyme can become denatured and stop working.
- enzyme action speeds up as the temperature climbs because
reactants have more kinetic energy at a higher temperatures.
• - if either enzyme gets too high, it rapidly denatures
and can no longer function;that is why reaction rates
plummet above the temperature optimum.
• - hand sanitizers also owe their germ-killing effect
partly to denatured enzymes.
• Passive transport
- a substance moves across a membrane without the
direct expenditure of energy.
- Diffusion : the spontaneous movement of a substance
from a region where it is more concentrated to a region
where it is less concentrated.
: The dissipation of a chemical gradient – and the
loss of potential energy and it does not require energy
input.
• Simple diffusion
- a substance moves down its concentration gradient without the
use of a transport protein.
• Osmosis – is a simple diffusion of water across a selectively
permeable membrane.
a. Isotonic – the plasmas solute concentration is the same as the
inside of the cell.
- water moves into and out of the cell at equal rates.
b. Hypotonic – the solute concentration is lower that it is inside
the cell
- water moves by osmosis into a blood cell placed
into hypotonic surround; since animal cells lack a cell wall, the
membrane may even burst.
c. Hypertonic – have a higher concentration of solutes than the
cells cytoplasm
- a cell loses water, shrivels and may die for lack of
water.
• Turgor pressure : is the resulting force of water against
the cell wall.
• Facilitated diffusion – is a form of passive transport in
which a membrane protein assists the movement of a
polar solute along its concentration gradient.
- Releases energy because the
solute moves from where it is more concentrated to
where it is less concentrated.
• Active transport – a cell uses a transport protein to
move a substance against its concentration gradient –
from where it is less concentrated to where it is more
concentrated.
• Na+ – K+ pump – uses ATP as an energy source to
expel 3 Na7 for every 2 K+ it admits,
• Endocytosis – a cell membrane engulfs fluids and
large molecules to bring them into the cell.
- 2 Main forms
1. pinocytosis
- the cell engulfs small amounts of fluids
and dissolved substance.
2. phagocytosis
- the cell captures and engulfs large
particles, such as debris or even another cell.
• Exocytosis – uses vesicles to transport fluids and
large particle out of cells.
• Chapter 5:Photosynthesis
 Autotrophs – uses inorganic substances such as water and CO2 to
produce organic compounds.
Heterotrophs – an organism that obtains carbon by consuming
pre-existing organic molecules.
Photosynthesis – the process by which plants, algae, and some
microbes harness solar energy and convert it into chemical
energy.
• Visible light is a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Photons move in waves the shorter the wavelength, the
more kinetic energy per photon.
• Chlorophyll – is the primary photosynthetic pigment in
plants.
• Accessory pigments absorb wavelengths of lights that
chlorophyll cannot absorb.
• Stromata – tiny openings in the epidermis of a leaf or stem.
– stroma comes from the greek word for “mouth”.
• Mesophyll – a collective term for the cells filling the leafs
interior ( meso means “middle” and phyll means “leaf ).
• Chloroplasts – the organelles of photosynthesis in plants
and algae.
• Stroma – the chloroplasts fluid inner region
– This gelatinous fluid contains ribosomes, DNA and
enzymes.
• Grana – composed of a stack of 10-20 pancake-shaped
thylakoids.
 Thylakoids – consist of a membrane that is studded with
photosynthetic pigments.
 Thylakoid space – inner compartment enclosed by a thylakoid
membrane.
• Photosystems – clusters of pigments and proteins
that participate in photosynthesis.
– Each photosystem includes about
300 chlorophyll molecules and 50 accessory
pigments.
– Photosystems reaction center
includes a special pair of chlorophyll molecules that
actually use the energy in photosynthetic reaction.
• Antenna pigments make up the light – harvesting
complex that surrounds the reaction center
– capture
photon energy and funnel it to the reaction center.
• Light reaction – convert solar energy to chemical energy.
• Electron transport chain – is a group of proteins that shuttle
electrons form carrier to carrier, releasing energy with each
step.
• ATP synthase – is the enzyme complex that transforms the
gradients potential energy into chemical energy in the form of
ATP.
• Calvin cycle – is the metabolic pathway that uses NADPH and
ATP to assemble CO2 molecules into 2-carbon carbohydrate
molecules.
• PGA – two three-carbon molecules.
• In the calvin cycle, rubisco catalyzes the reaction of CO2 with
ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) to yield 2 molecules of PGA.
These are converted to PGAL, the immediate product of
photosynthesis PGAL later becomes glucose and other
carbohydrates.
• The Calvin cycle is also called the C3 pathway.
Most plant species are C3 plants, which use only
this pathway to fix carbon.
• Photorespiration wastes carbon and energy when
rubisco reacts with O2 instead CO2.
• The C3 pathway reduces photorespiration by
separating the light and carbon reaction into
different cells. In mesophyll cells, CO2 is fixed as a
4-carbon molecule which moves to a bundle-
sheath cell and liberates CO2 to be fixed again in
the calvin cycle.
• In the CAM pathway, desert plants such as cactus
open their stomata and take in CO2 at night,
storing the fixed carbon vacuoles. During the day
they split off CO2 and fix it in chloroplasts in the
same cells.
Chapter 6:How Cells release energy?
• ATP
 Is essential because it powers nearly every activity that
requires energy input in the cell: synthesis of DNA, RNA,
Proteins, Carbohydrates, and lipids; active transport across
membranes: separation of duplicated chromosomes during
cell division; muscle contraction; and many others.
• Aerobic respiration
 A cell uses O2 gas and glucose to generate ATP.
• 3 Main Groups of biochemical pathways of
respiration.
 Glycolysis – ( literally “breaking sugar”), a 6-carbon
glucose molecule splits into two three-carbon molecule of
pyruvate
-this process harvests energy in 2 forms. First, some of the
electrons from glucose are transferred to an electron carrier
molecule called NADH. Second, glycolysis generates 2
molecules of ATP.
 Krebs cycle – Oxidize the pyruvate and release CO2
– Enzymes rearrange atoms and bonds in ways
that transfer the pyruvates potential energy and electrons to
ATP, NADH and another electron carrier molecule FADH2.
 Electron transport chain
 Transfer energy – rich electrons, from NADH and FADH2,
through a series of membrane proteins.
 As electrons pass from carrier to carrier in the electron
transport chain. The energy is used to create a gradient of
hydrogen ions.
An enzyme called ATP synthase forms a channel in the
membrane , releasing the protein and using their potential
energy to add phosphate to ADP.
• Mitochondria – Specialized organelles that house the other
reactions of cellular respirations
– Bounded by 2 membranes
1. an outer membrane
2. Highly folded inner membrane
• Cristae – are folds of the inner membrane.
• Intermediate compartment – is the area between the 2
membranes.
• Mitochondrial matrix – is the fluid enclosed with the inner
membrane.
• In glycolysis, glucose is split into 2 molecules of pyruvate.
• The reactions of glycolysis also produce NADH & 2 ATP’S.
• Pyruvate moves into the mitochondrial matrix. Where it is
broken clown into acetyCoA and CO2 This translation gap
also produces NADH.
• AcelylCoA enters the Kreb’s cycle. This series of oxidation
reduction reactions occurs in the matrix and produces
ATP, NADH, FADH and CO2.
• Energy – rich electrons from NADH and FADH, function an
electron transport chain in the inner mitochondria
membrane. Electron’s move along a series of proteins that
release energy at each step, O2 accepts electrons at the
end of the chain, producing water.
• Proteins in the electron transport chain pump H+ from the
matrix into the inter membrane compartment. As protons
diffuse back into the matrix through ATP synthase, their
potential energy drives ATP production.
• In aerobic respiration, each glucose molecule theoretically
yields 36 ATP molecules. The actual yield is about 30 ATP
per glucose.
• Polysaccharides are digested to glucose before
undergoing cellular respiration, Amino acids enter
the energy pathways as pyruvate, acetylCoA
intermediate of the Kreb’s Cycle. Fatty acids enter
as acetylCoA and glycerol enters as pyruvate.
• Fermentation pathways oxidize NADH to NAD,
Which is re-cycled to glycosis, but these pathways
do not produce additional ATP. Alcoholic
fermentation produces ethanol and CO2 whereas
lactic acid fermentation generates lactic acid or
lactate as a waste.
• Chapter 7: DNA Structure and Gene function
• DNA[deoxyribonucleic acid]
• - a molecule with a remarkable function:
• 1. it stores the information that each cell
needs to produce proteins[ are chains of amino
acids that fold into intricate,3-dimensional shapes]
• > proteins are vital not only to the life of
individual cells but also to defining many of an
organism’s overall traits.
• > enzymes are proteins that speed up the
cell’s chemical reactions[ these reactions break
down food, build the cell’s structure, place blood
type molecules on red blood cell surfaces, produce
the melanin pigment in the skin
• Nucleotides- form DNA’s building blocks and that each
nucleotide included one type of base: adenine[A], cytosine[C],
guanine[G], and thymine[T]
• An organism’s genome includes all of its genetic material.In
eukaryotic cells, the genome is divided among multiple
chromosomes.
• A gene is a sequence of DNA that is transcribed to RNA, typically
encoding a protein. Proteins, in turn, interact with other
chemicals and perform other functions that are critical to life.

• 3 types of RNA[mRNA, tRNA, rRNA]

• 1. messenger RNA[mRNA]
• > carries the information that specifies a protein.
• > divided into genetic code words called codons[ a geoup of
3 consecutive mRNA bases that corresponds to one amino acid.
• 2. transfer RNA[tRNA]
• > are connectors that bind a mRNA codon at one end
and a specific amino acid at the other.
• > the role is to carry each amino acid to the correct
spot along the mRNA molecule.
• 3. ribosomal RNA[rRNA]
• > combines with proteins to form a ribosome, the
physical location where translation occurs.

• Transcription
• > produces an RNA copy of one[1] gene.
• DNA is a double helix, but only one of the two[2] strands
contains the information encoding each protein.This strand is
called the template strand, contains the DNA sequence that
is actually co[ied to RNA.
• Promoter
• - a DNA sequence that is not only signals a gene start,
but also indicates which of the two[2] strands is the template.

• 3 stages of transcription:
• 1. Initiation
• - enzymes unzip the DNA double helix corresponding to the
gene, exposing the template strand.
• -RNA polymerase, the enzyme that builds an RNA chain,
may then attach to the promoter.
• 2. Elongation
• -RNA polymerase moves along the DNA template strand
adding RNA nucleotides that are complimentary to exposed
bases on the DNA template strand.
•
• 3.Termination
• > a terminator sequence in DNA signals the end of the gene
• > upon reaching the terminator,the RNA polymerase
enzyme separates from the DNA template and releases the
newly produced RNA.

• Introns
• - are portions of the mRNA that are removed before
translation.
• Exons
• - are spliced together to form the mature mRNA that leaves
the nucleus to be translated.
• Genetic code
• - the set of rules by which a cell uses the codons in mRNA
to assemble amino acids into a protein.
• Translation
• - the actual construction of the protein- requires 3 main types
of participants:
• 1. mRNA- the molecule that carries the genetic information
encoding a protein.
• 2. tRNA- this bilingual molecule carries amino acids from the
cytoplasm to the mRNA being translated.
• - interacts with mRNA via its anticodon, a 3 base loop
on tRNA that is complementary to one[1] mRNA codon.
• 3. ribosome- site of translation.
• - are the ‘bowl’ where the ingredients come
together[ and tRNA molecules are helpers that carry those
ingredients to the bowl]
• - occurs in 3 steps:
• 1. initiation
• > one[1] end of the mRNA molecule[ the cap end]
• Bonds with a small ribosomal subunit.
• > the first mRNA codon to specify an amino acid is usually
AUG, which attracts a tRNA that carries the amino acid
methionine.
• > a large ribosomal subunit attaches to the small subunit to
complete initiation.
• 2 Elongation
• > a tRNA molecule carrying the second amino acid[glycine]
binds to the second codon,GGA the 2 amino acids, methionine
and glycine align and a covalent bond forms between them.
• 3. Termination
• > elongation halts at a stop codon[UGA,UAG,or UAA]
• > no tRNA molecules correspond to these stop codons.
• > proteins called release factors bind to the stop
codon,prompting the paricipants of translation to separate
• Of translation to separate from one[1] another.

• Operon
• - is a group of related genes plus a promoter and an operator that
control the transcription of the entire group at once.
• Promoter
• - is the site to which RNA polymerase attaches to begin
transcription.
• Operator
• - is a DNA sequence located between the promoter and the
protein-encoding regions.
• Repressor
• - binds to the operator; it prevents the transcription of the genes.
• Lac operon
• - consists of the 3 genes encoding the lactose- degrading
enzymes, plus a promoter and operator.
• Transcription factors
• - bind DNA at specific sequences that regulate
transcription.
• - form a pocket for RNA polymerase activating
transcription.
• Mutation
• - is any change in a cell’s DNA sequence.
• > change may occur in a gene or in a regulatory
region such as a promoter.
• - are always harmful because some of them cause
such as dramatic changes.
• - can cause illness, they also provide the variation
that makes life interesting[ and makes evolution
possible]
• Major types of mutations:
• 1. substitution mutation
• - is the replacement of one[1] DNA base with another.
• - such a mutation is silent if the mutated gene encodes
the same protein as the original genes version.
• 2. insertion mutation
• - adds one[1] or more nucleotides to a gene a deletion
mutation- removes nucleotide.
• 3. frameshift mutation
• - nucleotides are added or deleted by a number other
than a multiple of three[3]

• Mutagen
• - is any external agent that induces mutations.
• - examples: ultraviolet radiation in sunlight
• X-rays
• radioactive fallout from atomic bomb tests and nuclear
accidents
• chemicals in tobacco

• Virus
• - is a small infectious agent that is simply genetic information
enclosed in a protein coat.
• - is much smaller than cell about 10um[micron] in diameter, an
average human cell is perhaps 1/10 the diameter of a human hair.
• Bacteria
• - 1/10 small, about 1 um[1000nm] long
• - average virus with a diameter of 80nm,is more than 12 times
smaller than a bacteria.
• Viruses are simple structures that lack many of the characteristics
of cells.
• A virus does not have a nucleus, organelles, ribosomes,cell membrane
or cytoplasm.
• Only a few types of viruses contain enzymes.
• 2 features of a viruses:
• 1. genetic information
• -all viruses contain genetic material[either RNA or DNA] that
carries the recipes for their proteins.
• 2. protein coat
• - surrounds the viral genetic material.
• - protein coats shape determines a viruse’s overall form.
• many viruses are spherical or icosahedral; others are rod-shaped,oval
or filamentous
• Envelope
• - lipid-rich; an outer layer derived from the host cell’s membrane.
• - proteins embedded in the envelope help the viruses invade a new
host cell.
• - example: HIV; influenza virus
• Bacteriophages
• - viruses that infect bacteria
• - have parts that resemble tails, legs and spikes; they
look like the spacecrafts once used to land on the moon
• Viral replication occurs in 5 stages:
• 1. Attachment
• - virus binds cell surface receptor.
• 2. Penetration
• - viral nucleic acid is released inside host cell.
• 3. Synthesis
• - host cell manufactures viral nucleic acids and proteins.
• 4 Assembly
• - new viruses are assembled from newly synthesized coat
proteins, enzymes and nucleic acids..
• 5 Release
• - new viruses leave the host cell.
• Lytic infection
• - a virus enters a bacteria, immediately replicates and causes
the host cell to burst[lyse] as it releases a flood of new viruses.
• Lysogenic infection
• - the genetic material of a virus is replicated along with the
bacterial chromosomes, but the cell is not immediately
destroyed.
• Prophage
• - is the DNA of a lysogenic bacteriophage that is inserted
into the host chromosome.
• Latent infection
• - a phase of viral infection during which viral genetic
information is not expressed
• Viroids
• - is a highly wound circle of RNA that lacks a protein
coat.
• - it is simply naked RNA that can infect a plant cell.
• - viroid RNA does not encode protein, it can cause
severe disease in many important crop plants.
• - viroid’s RNA interferes with the plant’s ability to
produce one or more essential proteins.
• Prion
• - which strands for’ proteinacious infectious particle’.
• - a prion protein is a normal membrane protein that
can exist in multiple 3- dimensional shapes at least one
of which is abnormal and can cause a disease.
• Chapter 8. DNA replication, Binary fission and Mitosis

• Asexual reproduction
• - one[1] cell replicates its genetic material and splits into 2.
• - generates genetically identical offspring.
• Sexual reproduction
• - is the production of offspring whose genetic make up
comes from 2 parents.
• Meiosis
• - a specialized type of cell division that gives rise to nuclei
that are genetically different from one[1] another.
• Gametes
• - sperm cells [ produced by males] and egg cells[ produced
by females]
• Fertilization
• - is the union of the sperm and the egg cell, producing a
zygote[ the first cell of the new offspring]
• Mitosis
• - divides a eukaryotic cell’s genetic information into 2 identical
nuclei.
• Apoptosis
• - also called ‘ programmed cell death’, is a normal part of
development
• Binary fission
• - an asexual process that replicates DNA and distributes it into
two[2] daughter cells.
• Chromatin
• - a collective term for all of the cell’s DNA and its associated
proteins.
• > these proteins include the many enzymes that help
• the DNA and transcribe it to RNA.
• Nucleosome
• - consists of a stretch of DNA wrapped around 8 proteins.
• Centromere
• - is a small section of DNA and associated proteins that
attaches the sister chromatids to each other.
• - it often appears as a constriction in a replicated
chromosome.
• Cell cycle
• - describes the events that occur in one[1] complete round
of cell division.
• Interphase
• - is the interval between successive cell divisions, protein
synthesis, DNA replication and many other events.
•
• Mitosis
• - contents of the nucleus divide.
• Cytokinesis
• - the cell splits into two[2] daughter cells.
• Interphase is divided into ‘gap phases’[G1 and G2} separated
by a synthesis[S].
• During G1 phase, the cell grows, carries out its basic function
and produces the new organelles and other components it
will require if it divides.
• During S phase, enzymes replicate the cell’s genetic material
and repair damaged DNA.
• - as S phase begins, each chromosome includes one[1]
DNA molecule
• - by the end of S phase, each chromosome consists of
two[2] attached sister chromatids.
• Centrosome
• - are structures that organize the mitotic spindle, a set of
microtubule proteins that coordinate the movements of the
chromosomes during mitosis.
• In G2 phase, the cell continues to grow but also prepares to
divide, producing the proteins that will help coordinate
mitosis.
• During prophase,DNA coils very tightly, shortening and
thickening the chromosomes.
• - as the chromosomes condense, they become visible
when stained and viewed under a microscope.
• - chromosomes remain randomly arranged in the nucleus.
• - also during prophase, the two[2] centromeres migrate
toward opposite each of the cell and the spindle begins to
form.
• Nucleolus- the darkened area of the nucleus
dissapear.
• Nuclear envelope breaks into small pieces as does the
surrounding endoplasmic reticulum[ER].
• Spindle fiber are now free to attach the
chromosomes.
• As metaphase begins, the spindle aligns the
chromosomes down the center or equator of the cell.
• -this alignment ensures that each cell will receive
one[1] copy of each chromosome.
• In anaphase, the centromeres split and the spindle
fibers pull the sister chromatids[ new chromosomes]
toward opposite poles of the cell.
• Telophase, the final stage of mitosis, essentially reverses the
events of prophase.
• - the spindle disassembles, and the chromosomes begin
to unwind.
• - nuclear envelope and nucleolus form at each end of the
stretched-out cell.
• - as telophase ends, the division of the genetic material is
complete and the cell contains two[2] nuclei but not for
long.
• Cleavage furrow
• - first sign of cytokinesis
• - a slight indentation around the middle of the dividing
cell.
• - a ring of proteins beneath the cell membrane contracts
like a drawstring, separating the daughter cells.
• Cell plate
• -first sign of cell wall constriction.
• -a structure that appears at the midline of the
dividing plant cell.
• -cell plate grows and consolidates as vesicles from
the Golgi apparatus deliver cellulose, other
polysaccharides and proteins.

• Tumor
• - an abnormal mass of tissue forms.
• Classifications:
• 1. Benign tumors
• - slow- growing and harmless, unless they become
• Enough to disrupt nearby tissues or organs.
• Examples: warts, moles
• 2. Malignant tumors
• - invades adjacent tissues.
• -lacks a surrounding capsule
• -likely to metastasize- cells can break away from
the original mass and travel in the bloodstream or
lymphatic system to colonize other areas of the
body.
• Cancer is characterized by malignant cells.
• Chapter 9: Sexual reproduction and Meiosis

• Asexual reproduction
• - an organism simply copies its DNA and splits the contents of
one[1] cell into two[2].
• - examples: bacteria
• archaea
• single celled eukaryotes[amoeba]
• plants
• fungi
• Sexual reproduction
• - requires two[2] parents.
• > male parent contributes sperm cells, one[1] of which
fertilizes a female egg cell to begin the next generation.
• Chromosomes
• -is a single molecule of DNA and its associated proteins.
• Diploid cells
• - contain two[2] full sets of chromosomes,one[1] set is inherited
from each parent.
• Karyotype
• ===Size- ordered chart of all the chromosomes in a cell
• - 46 chromosomes are arranged in 23 pairs.
• > of the 23 chromosome pairs in a human cell,22 pairs consist of
autosomes- chromosomes that are the same for both sexes.
• > the remaining pair is made up of the two[2] sex chromosomes,
which determine whether an individual is female or male.
• --females have two[2] X chromosomes wheras males have
one[1] X and Y chromosomes.
• Homologous pair
• - the two[2] chromosomes look alike and have the same sequence of
genes.
• - homologous means having the same basic structure.
• .
• Haploid cells
• - contain only one[1] full set of genetic information
instead of the two[2] sets that characterize diploid cells.
• Gametes
• - are called haploid cells
• - sex cells that combine to form a new offspring.
• Fertilization merges the gametes from two[2] parents,
creating a new cell, the diploid zygote, which is the first
cell of the new organism.
• The events of meiosis ensure that gametes are haploid
and genetically variable.
• During interphase, which precedes meiosis, the cell
grows and copies its DNA.
• Spindle proteins move the chromosomes
throughout meiosis.
• Homologous pairs of chromosomes align during
prophase I, line up double-file at the cell’s center
during metaphase I then split apart during anaphase
I,The chromosomes arrive at the poles in telophase
I, the cell often divides the two[2] products of
meiosis I divides once more to yield four[4] haploid
cells. The chromosomes condense during telophase
II.During metaphase II, they line up single- file at the
cell’s equator. The sister chromatids are separated in
anaphase II and the chromosomes arrive at the
poles in telophase II. Cytokinesis then occurs once
more.
• Crossing over
• - occurs in prophase I, produces variability when
portion of homologous chromosomes switch
places. After crossing over the chromatids carry
new combinations of allels.
• Every possible orientation of homologous pairs of
chromosomes at metaphase I is equally likely. As a
result, one[1] person can produce over 8 million
genetically different gametes.
• Because any sperm can fertilize any egg cell, a
human couple can produce over 70 million
genetically different offspring.
• Identical[monozygotic] twins arise when a zygote splits into
two[2] embryos.
• Fraternal[ dizygotic] twins develop from separate zygotes.
• Mitotic division produces identical copies of a cell and occurs
throughout life.
• Meiosis produces genetically different haploid cells. It occurs
only in specialized cells and only during some parts of the life
cycle.
• Polypoid cells have one[1] or more extra sets of
chromosomes
• Polyploidy means extra chromosome sets.
• Nondisjunction is the failure of chromosomes to separate in
meiosis and it causes gametes to have incorrect chromosome
numbers. A sex chromosome abnormality is typically less
severe than an incorrect number of autosomes.
• Extra autosomes: Trisomy 21
• - most common cause of Down syndrome
• - affected person has a distinctive facial features and a
unique pattern of hand creases.
• - some children have profound mental retardation.
• - many affected children die before their first
birthdays,often because of congenital heart defects.
• - may have an above-average risk for leukemia and
Alzheimer disease.
• - as a woman ages, the probability of giving to a child
with trisomy 21.
• > women younger than 30, the chances of
conceiving a child with the syndrome are in 1 in 3000
• > for a woman of 48, incidence jumps to 1 in 9.
• Chapter 10: Patterns of Inheritance

• Gene
• - is a portion of DNA whose sequence of nucleotides
encodes a protein; the organism’s protein, in turn help
determine many of its characteristics.
• Meiosis
• - is a specialized form of cell division that occurs in diploid
germ cells and give rise to haploid cells, each containing just
one[1] set of chromosomes.
• > in humans, these haploid cells are gametes- sperm or
egg cells.
• Fertilization
• - unites the gametes from two[2] parents, producing the
first cell of the next generation.
• Gametes
• - are the cells that convey chromosomes from one[1] generation
to the next.
• Dominant alele
• - encodes a protein that exerts its effects whenever it is present.
• Recessive alele
• - encodes a protein whose effect is masked if a dominant alele is
also present.
• Homozygous
• - possessing identical aleles of one[1] gene.
• Heterozygous
• - possessing different aleles of one[1] gene.
• Genotype
• - the alele combination in an individual
• Phenotype
• - an observable characteristic.
• Wild type
• - the most common phenotype or alele for a gene in a population.
• Mutant
• - a phenotype or alele resulting from a change in a gene.
• True breeding
• - homozygous; self-fertilization produces offspring identical to self
for a given trait.
• Hybrid
• - heterozygous; self-fertilization produces offspring with mixed
genotypes and phenotypes.
• Monohybrid cross
• - mating between two]2] individuals that are both heterozygous
for one[1] gene.
• Punnell square
• - diagram showing how the aleles in two[2] parents gametes
might combine at fertilization.
• Dihybrid cross
• - mating between two[2] individuals that are both
heterozygous for two[2] genes.
• Law of independent assortment
• - states that ‘during gamete formation, the aleles for one[1]
gene do not influence the aleles for another gene.
• Linked genes
• - genes carried on the same chromosomes.
• Parental chromatid
• - a chromatid carrying the aleles of only one[1] parent.
• Recombinant chromatid
• - a chromatid carrying a mix of aleles from both parents.
• Incomplete dominance
• - the heterozygote has a phenotype that is intermediate
between those of the two[2] homozygotes.
• Codominance
• - two[2] different aleles are fully expressed in the
phenotype.
• Plenotropy
• - a single gene has multiple effects on the phenotypes.
• Sex- linked
• - phenotypes that affect one[1] sex more than the other.
• Autosomal dominant
• - expressed whether a person inherits one[1] or two[2]
copies of the disease causing alele.
• Autosomal recessive
• - condition caused by alele on non-sex chromosome;
expressed only if an individual inherits two[2] copies of the
alele.
• X- linked
• - condition caused by alele on the x-
chromosome.
• Pedigree
• - chart used to determine a disorder’s mode of
inheritance.
• Polygenic
• - the phenotype reflects the activities of more
than one[1] gene.
• Test cross
• - reveals an unknown genotype by breeding the
individual with a homozygous recessive individual.
• Chapter 11: DNA technology

• Restriction enzyme
• - protein that cuts double- stranded DNA at a specific base
sequence.
• Recombinant DNA
• - genetic material that has been cut with restriction
enzymes and pliced with DNA from other sources.
• Transgenic organism
• - an individual with recombinant DNA.
• DNA sequencing
• - determines the nucleotide sequence of DNA fragments.
• Polymerase chain reaction[PCR]
• - amplifies DNA in a test tube using the cell’s replication
machinery.
• DNA profiling
• - uses DNA sequencing and PCR to detect genetic differences
among individuals.
• Stem cells
• - cells found in embryos and some adult tissues that can rise
to other cell types.
• Cloning
• - makes an identical copy of an organism.
• Somatic cell nuclear transfer
• - a type of cloning that combines a nucleus taken from one[1]
individuals body cell with a denucleated egg cell from another
individual to produce the first cell of a new organism.
• DNA probe
• - a single- stranded sequence of DNA,labeled with a
radioactive isotope or flourescent tag, used to detect the
prescence of a known sequence of nucleotides.
• Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis
• - uses PCR and DNA probes to detect genetic
diseases in embryos that might later be implanted
in a woman’s utero.
• Genetic testing
• - uses PCR and DNA probes to detect genetic
diseases in fetuses,newborns, children and adults.
• Gene therapy
• - employs viruses to insert healthy genes into
cells.
• Chapter 12: Forces of Evolutionary Change

• Allele frequency
• - the number of copies of an allele, divided by the total
number of alleles for the same gene in the population.
• Gene pool
• - a populations entire collection of genes and alleles.
• Macroevolution
• - large-scale evolutionary events, such as the appearance of
new species.
• Microevolution
• - small, generation by generation changes to a population’s
gene pool.
• Population
• - interbreeding members of the same species.
• Natural selection
• - occurs when individuals with certain genotype- those
that are best suited to the environment- have greater
reproductive success than other individuals.
• Artificial selection
• - a human chooses one[1] or a few desired traits, such as
milk production or seed size and then allows only the
individuals that best express those qualities to reproduce.
• - responsible not only for agriculturally important
varieties of plant and animals but also for many breeds of
domesticated cats and dogs.
• Modern evolutionary synthesis
• - suggest that genetic mutations create heritable
variation and that this variation is the raw material upon
which natural selection acts.
• Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
• - highly unlikely situation in which allele frequencies
and genotype frequencies do not change from one[1]
generation to the next.
• - occurs only in population that meet the following
assumptions:
• 1. natrual selection does not occur
• 2. mutations do not occur, so no new alleles arise
• 3. the population is infinitely large,or at least large
enough to eliminate random changes in allele
frequencies.
• 4. individuals mate at random.
• 5. individuals do not migrate into or out of the
population
• Directional selection
• - one[1] extreme phenotype is fittest and the environment
selects against the others.
• Disruptive selection
• - two[2] or more extreme phenotypes are fitter than the
intermediate phenotype.
• Stabilizing selecton
• - extreme phenotypes are less fit than the optimal intermediate
phenotype.
• Sexual dimorphism
• - difference in appearance between males and females.
• Sexual selection
• - is a type of natural selection resulting from variation in the
ability to obtain mates.
• Genetic drift
• - is a change in allele frequencies that occurs purely by chance..
• Founder effect occurs when a small group of individuals
leaves its home population and establishes a new, isolated
settlement.
• Bottleneck effect
• - occurs when a population’s size drops rapidly over a
short period.
• Migration
• - is the movement of individuals into or out of a
population.
• - as individual’s migrate,they can carry new alleles into
existing population altering allele frequencies.
• - can counteract the effects of both natural selection and
genetic drift.
• - does not require the movement of entire individuals.
• -
• Chapter 13: Evidence of evolution

• Paleontology
• - study of fossil remains or other clues to past life.
• Geologic time scale
• - divides earth’s history into a series of cons and eras defined
by major geological or biological events such as mass extinctions.
• Fossil
• - is any evidence of an organism from more than 10,000 years
ago.
• - come in all sizes, documenting the evolutionary history of
everything from microorganisms to dinosaurs to humans.
• > these remains, the oldest of which formed more 3 billion
years ago, give us our only direct evidence of organisms that
preceeded human history.
• Absolute dating
• - assign an age to a fossil by testing either the fossil itself or the
sediments above and below the fossil.
• Radiometric dating
• - is a type of absolute dating that uses radioactive isotope as a
‘clock’
• Half-life
• - is the time it takes for half of the atoms in a sample of a
radioactive substance to decay.
• Biogeography
• - the study of the distribution of species across the planet.
• Plate tectonics
• - earth’s surface consists of several rigid layers, that move in
response to forces acting deep within the planet.
• Homologous
• - if the similarities between them reflect common ancestry.
• - homologous genes, chromosomes, anatomical structures or other
features are similar in their configuration, position or developmental
path.
• Vestigial structure
• - has no apparent function, yet it is homologous to a functional
organ in another.
• Analogous
• - the structures evolved independently.
• Convergent evolution
• - produces similar adaptations in organisms that do not share the
same evolutionary lineage.
• Homeotic
• - any gene that, when mutated, leads to organisms with structures
in abnormal or unusual places
• Molecular clock
• - uses DNA or protein sequencies to estimate the time when
two[2] organisms diverged from a common ancestor.
• Chapter 14: Speciation and Extinction

• Biological species concept

• - a species is a population or group of populations, whose
members can interbreed and produces fertile offspring.
• Speciation
• - the formation of new species, occurs when some
members of a population can no longer successfully
interbreed with the rest of the group.
• Gene pool
• - a population’s entire collection of genes and alleles.
• Prezygotic reproductive barrier
• - prevent the formation of a zygote or fertilized egg;
collectively, they are the most common way for one[1] gene
pool to become another.
• Postzygotic reproductive barrier
• - act after fertilization, reduce the fitness of a hybrid
offspring[ is the offspring of individuals from two[2] different
species.
• Speciation
• - the formation of new species.
• Reproductive barrier
• - mechanism that prevents groups of organisms from
sharing a gene pool.
• Extinction
• - the death of all of the individuals of a species.
• Allopatric speciation
• - a new species forms when a geographic barrier physically
separates a population into 2 groups that cannot interbreed.
• - allo means ‘other’; patria means ‘fatherland’
• Sympatric speciation
• - a new species arises while living in the same physical area as
ancestral species.
• - sym means ‘together’
• Gradualism
• - the hypothesis that evolution occurs in small,incremental
changes.
• Punctuated equilibrium
• - the hypothesis that evolution occurs in periods of rapid change
following intervals of little change.
• Background extinction rate
• - the gradual loss of species due to normal evolutionary processes.
• Mass extinction
• - rapid loss of species in a relatively short period.
• Taxonomy
• - it is the science of describing, naming and classifying species.
• Phylogenetics
• - is the study of evolutionary relationships among species.
• Ancestral characters
• - features present in the common ancestor of a clade.
• Clade
• - group of organisms consisting of a common ancestor and
all of its descendants.
• Cladistics
• - phylogenetic system that groups organisms by characters
that best indicate shared ancestry.
• Cladogram
• - phylogenetic tree built on shared-derived characters.
• Derived characters
• - features of an organism that are different from those
found in a clade’s ancestors.
• Chapter 15: Evolution and Diversity of Microbial Life
• Geologic time scale
• - divides time into eons and eras defined by major geological or
biological events.
• Prokaryote
• - a single- celled organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane-bounded
organelles.
• Eukaryote
• - has a nucleus and other membrane-bounded organelles such as
mitochondria and chloroplasts.
• Nucleoid
• - is the region where this DNA is located along with some RNA and a few
proteins.
• Ribosome
• - are structures that use the information in RNA to assemble proteins.
• Peptidoglycan
• - a complex polysaccharide that does not occur in the cell walls of
archaea.
• > the wall gives the cell its shape
• > 3 of the most common forms are coccus[ spherical],
bacillus[ rod- shaped] and spirillum[ spiral or corkscrew- shaped]
• Slime layer or capsule
• - is a sticky layer of proteins or polysaccharides that may surround
the cellwall.
• Pili
• - short, hairlike projections made of protein.
• Sex pili
• - aid in the transfer of DNA from cell to cell.
• Flagellum/flagella
• - whip-like extension that rotates like a propeller.
• Endospores
• - dormant, thick-walled structures that can survive harsh conditions
• - can withstand boiling, drying, ultraviolet radiation and
disinfectants.
• Bacteria
• - one[1] of two[2] domains containing prokaryotic organisms.
Cell wall
- a rigid barrier surrounding the cell membrane of most prokaryotic cells.
Autotophs
- an organism that builds organic molecules using inorganic carbon sources,
Heterotrophs
- an organism that acquires carbon by consuming other organisms.
Chemotrophs
- an organism that derives energy from chemicals.
Obligate aerobe
= an organism that requires O2 to produce ATP.
Anaerobe
- an organism that can produce ATP in the absence of O2.

-
• Obligate anaerobe
• - an organism that live in habitat that lack O2.
• Facultative anaerobe
• - an organism that generate ATP with or without O2.
• Nitrogen fixation
• - the chemical reactions in which prokaryotes convert
atmospheric nitrogen gas to ammonia.
• Endosymbiont theory
• - proposes that mitochondria and chloroplast
originated as free-living bacteria that began living inside
other prokaryotic cells.
• Protist
• - eukaryotic that did not fit the description of a
plant,fungus or animal.
• Algae
• - photosynthetic protist that lives in water.
• - cells contain chloroplasts that house yellow, gold, brown, red or
green photosynthetic pigments.
• - produce much of the O2 in earth’s atmosphere and form part of the
plankton that supports food webs in oceans, lakes, rivers, and ponds.
• - algae living among the threads of fungi on rocks and tree bark form
lichens, which play a crucial role in building soil from bare rock.
• Diatoms
• - are unicellular algae with ornate,2-part silica cell walls that fit
together like a shoe box and its lid.
• Brown algae
• - most common and largest protists.
• - these multicellular algae live in marine habitats all over the world.
• - kelps= largest of the brown algae, produce enormous underwater
forests that provide food and habitat for
• many animals.
• - humans consume several species of kelp especially
in east Asian cuisine.
• Algin
• - a chemical extracted from the cell walls of brown
algae, is used as an emulsifying, thickening and
stabilizing agent in products including ice cream,
candies, chocolate, salad dressings, sauces, soft drinks,
beer, cough syrup, toothpaste, cosmetics, polishes,
latex paint and paper.
• Red algae
• - relatively large, although some are microscopic.
• - these marine organisms can live in water exceeding
200 meters in depth.
• Agar
• - is a polysaccharide in the cell walls of some species.
• - the jelly-like substance is used as a culture medium for
microorganism.
• - also used as a gel in canned meats and as a thickener in ice
cream and yogurt,
• Carrageenan
• - a polysaccharide that emulsifies fats in chocolate bars and
stabilizes paints, cosmetics and creamy foods.
• Green algae
• - are protists that share the most similarities with plants.
• - habitats and body forms are diverse, they may be unicellular,
filamentous, colonial or multicellular.
• -the multicellular species may have root-like and stem-like
parts, but the structures are far less specialized than the true
roots, stems and leaves of plants.
• Chlamydomas
• - a inicellular organism that reproduces asexually and
sexually.
• - scientists study these algae learn about the evolution of
sex.
• Volvox
• - a colonial green algae form hollow balls- the cells move
their flagella in coordinated waves to move the sphere.
• - important in studies of the evolution of multicellularity
• Water molds
• - are decomposers or parasites of plants and animals in
moist environments.
• - these protists produce filaments that secrete digestive
enzymes into their surroundings and absorb the nutrients.
• Swimming spores help them disperse in water and wet soil.
• - cell walls contain cellulose.
• - best known are those that ruin crops, causing such
diseases as downy mildew of grapes and lettuce.
• Phytophthora infestans= a plant destroyer causes late bright
of potatoes.
• - this disease triggered the devastating Irish potato famine
from 1845 to 1847, during which more than a millions more
emigrate from Ireland.
• Slime molds
• - live in damp inhabitants such as forest floors, engulfing
bacteria and other microbes on decaying vegetation.
• - their life cycles are extremely unusual.
• - they can exist either as single cells or as large masses
that behave as one multicellular organism.
• a. plasmodial slime mold
• - consist of a huge cell; a mass of thousands of nuclei
enclosed by a single cell membrane.
• - this conspicous, slimy, bright yellow or orange mass
maybe up to 25 cm. in diameter.
• - it migrates along the forest floor, engulfing in food.
• - the gigantic cells halts and forms fruiting bodies which
produce thick- walled reproductive cells called spores, in
times of drought or starvation.
• - when favorable conditions return, the spores
germinate and form new cells that resume feeding.
• b. cellular slime mold
• - consist of individual cells that retain their membranes
throughout the life cycle.
• - the cells exist as haploid feeding amoebae.
• - when food become scarce, the amoebae secrete chemical
signals that stimulate the neibouring cells to aggregate into a
slug- like structure.
• - the slug moves toward light, stops and forms a stalked
topped by a fruiting body that produce spores.
• - the cells of the stalked perish, but the spores survive,
wind, water, soil- dwelling animals or binds carry them to
new habitats.
• - the spores then germinate and the cycle begins anew.
• D. Protozoa
• - most are unicellular and majority are heterotrophs.
• - some can swim but others cannot.
• - some are free-living but others are parasite.
• - most are asexual, but sexual reproduction occurs many
species.
• Classifications:
• 1. Flagellated protozoa
• - are unicellular organisms with one[1] or more flagella.
• - most are free-living in fresh water, the ocean and soil but a few
parasitic species harm humans.
• - ex. Trichomonas vaginalis
• > resides in the urogenital tract of both men and women.
• > it is a sexually transmitted and causes a form of vaginitis in
females.
• Giardia
• > a flagella that causes ‘hikers’ diarrhea or giardiasis.
• > people ingest the cysts of the organism in contaminated water.
• Trypanosomes
• > whip- shaped parasites that invade the bloodstream and brain.
• > insects transmit trypanosomes to humans causing African
sleeping sickness and Chagas disease.
• 2.Amoeboid protozoa
• - produce cytoplasmic extensions called pseudopodia[ false
feet] which are important in locomotion and capturing food.
• - Amoeba proteus, a common freshwater microbe that
engulfs bacteria, algae and other protists on its pseudopodia.
• - have complex shells made of durable minerals.
• - their population are immerse.About 1/3 of the ocean
floor is made of the shells of marine forams.
• - paleontologists correlate with oil and gas deposits.
• - the shells are useful in dating rock strata.
• 3. Ciliates
• - are complex, unicellular protists characterized by
abundant hair-like cilia.
• - waves of moving cilia propel the organism through the
water.
• - it also sweep bacteria,algae and other ciliates into the cell’s
oral groove.
• - most ciliates are free-living, motile cells such as Paramecium.
• - nearly 1/3 of ciliates are stmbiotic, living in the bodies of
crustaceans, mollusks and vertebrates.
• - some inhabit the stomach where they house bacteria that
breakdown the cellulose in grass.
• - ex. Ichthyophthirus multifilis
• - familiar to aquarium owners as the cause of freshwater fish
disease called ‘ich’
• 4. Apicomplexans
• - non-motile, spore-forming, internal parasites of animals.
• - comes from the apical complex,a cluster of microtubules
and organelles at one[1] end of the cell.
• - ex. Cryptosporidium
•
• - tough- walled cryptocysts can survive for days in the
chlorinated water of public pools, a common source of this illness.
• Toxoplasma gondii
• - a protist that infects cats and other mammals.
• - a person who handles feces from infected cats can
accidentally ingest Toxoplasma cysts.
• - the infection can pass to a fetus which is why pregnant
women should avoid cat litter boxes.
• Plasmodium sp.
• - cause mosquito-borne malaria in humans.
• - continues to be the world’s most significant infectious
disease.
• - no effective vaccine exists.
• Fungi
• - are more closely related to animals than to plants.
• - cannot carry out photosynthesis.
•
• Characteristics:
• 1. cells are eukaryotic
• 2. fungi are heterotrophs as are animals but these 2 groups
acquire food in different ways.
• - animals ingest their food and digest it internally; fungi
secrete enzymes that break down organic matter outside
their bodies.
• - fungi absorbs the nutrients.
• 3. fungal cell walls are composed primarily of the modified
carbohydrate chitin.
• - this tough, flexible molecules also forms the exoskeletons
of some animals.
• 4. the storage carbohydrate of fungi is glycogen, the same for
animals.
• 5. most fungi are multicellular, although yeasts are unicellular.
• Body parts:
• - hyphae: microscopic, thread-like filaments
• : branch rapidly within a food source growing and
absorbing nutrients at their tips.
• - mycelium: is a mass of aggregated hyphae that may form visible
strands in soil or decaying wood.
• - spores: microscopic reproductive cells.
• : can be asexually or sexually produced.
• Classifications:
• 1. Chytridiomycetes
• - or chytrids, produce gametes and asexual spores with flagella.
• 2. Zygomycetes
• - produce thick-walled sexual spores called zygospores.
• 3. Glomeromycetes
• - do not reproduce sexually at all, instead they have large,
distinctive sexual spores, the largest of which are visible with the
unaided eye.
• 4. Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes
• - most complex fungi
• - their hyphae aggregate to form a fruiting body, a large,
specialized, sexual spore-producing organ such as mushrooms,
morell, puffball, or truffle.
• - ascomycetes produce sexual spores in characteristic saxs and
basidiomycetes release sexual spores from club-shaped
structures
• Fungi interact with other organisms
• Decomposers
• - many fungi secrete enzymes that breakdown dead plants
and animals releasing inorganic nutrients and recycling them to
plants.
• - these decomposers are the garbage processors of the planet.
• - in forests, fungi that decay wood play a vital role in earth’s
carbon cycle.
• - most molds become obvious only when they are decaying
our own foods and possessions.
• - molds include many types of fungi:
• -ex. Zygomycete forms a black, fuzz on bread, fruits and
vegetables but many of the common molds that ravage flood-
damaged homes are ascomycetes.
• Food and medicine
• - commercial mushroom growers cultivate many edible fungi.
• - the white ‘button mushrooms’ is most familiar but shitakes,
oyster mushrooms and other basidiomycete species are available
as well.
• - ascomycetes called truffles and morrels are prized for their
delicious flavors.
• - fungi also find their way into the human diet.
• - ascomycete Penicillum lead its sharp flavors to Roquefort
cheese.
• NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Divisions:
• I. CNS: Brain & Spinal cord
• II. PNS: 12 cranial nerves; 31 spinal nerves
• III. ANS: sympathetic & parasympathetic
• Coverings of the brain & spinal cord:
• 1. Dura mater: thick, strong, white fibrous tissue made up of 2
layers
• 2. Arachnoid mater: spongy, delicate, non- vascular tissue
• 3. Pia mater: innermost layer
• : lined up with numerous capillaries & blood vessels.
• Spaces:
• 1. extradural/epidural space- space between the cranial bone &
the dura mater.
• 2. subdural space- space between the dura and arachnoid mater
• 3. subarachnoid- space between arachnoid & pia mater
• CSF[ cerebrospinal fluid]
• -clear, colorless fluid found in the:
• a. ventricles of the brain
• b. central canal of spinal cord
• c. subarachnoid space
• - serves as a protective cushion around the brain & spinal cord.
• - alkaline in reaction & contain traces of glucose,protein and
some salts
• -normal CSF pressure: 75-200 mmHg
• -normal amount of CSF: 80-100 cc.
• -withdrawn in the lumbar area at the subarachnoid
space[Between L3 & L4]
• -position: pre-test: lateral recumbent wherein head is flexed at
the knee
• : post-test: flat on bed
• BRAIN
• 4 divisions:
• 1. Cerebrum
• - largest part of the human brain
• -’true’ brain
• - seat of higher faculties
• - cerebral cortex: higher center
• - 4 lobes:
• a. frontal lobe
• 1.a. pre-central gyrus- motor function
• 2.a. Brocas area- motor speech area
• - ability to talk
• - ability to understand spoken language
• - ability to comprehend
• 3.a. pre-frontal area- controls morals,values, emotions & judgement
• b. parietal lobe
• 1.b. posterior central gyrus: gen.sensation: touch, pressure,pain
• c. temporal lobe- hearing, smell, taste
• 1.c. Wernickes area- sensory speech center
• d. occipital lobe- vision
• 2. Diencephalon
• a. Thalamus- relay station of the brain.
• - it relays sensory impulses of touch, pressure and pain to the
cerebral cortex.
• b. Hypothalamus- closely associated with the pituitary gland and
produces 2 hormones: ADH & oxytocin
• - controls: BP, Temperature, Respiration & emotions.
• - chief autonomic integration center & is a part of the limbic
system which is the emotional brain.
• c. Epithalamus- linked to the pineal gland which secretes the
hprmone melatonin responsible for sleep-wake cycle.
• Brainstem
• a. Pons- control depth and rate of respiration[pneumotaxic center]
• - contains C.N. 5, 6, 7, 8
• b.Medulla oblongata- contains autonomic centers such as
cardiac center, respiratory center, vasomotor center, coughing,
sneezing and vomitting center.
• - site of decussation of the pyramidal tracts- this m eans that
the right side of the body is controlled by the left cerebral
hemisphere and vice versa.
• - contains C.N.9,10,11,12

• Cerebellum
• -coordinates voluntary muscle movement, balance and posture.
• - ensures that muscle movement are smooth, coordinated and
precise.
• - 3 lobes:
• a. anterior lobe: posture,reflex
• b. posterior lobe: muscle movement, tone, coordination
• c. flocculonodular lobe- equilibrium/balance
• Blood supply of the brain:
• 1. Internal carotid artery
• a. anterior cerebral artery- supplies medial surface
• b. middle cerebral artery- supplies dorso-lateral surface
• 2. Vertebro-basilar artery
• a. posterior cerebral artery- supplies base of the brain
• b. cerebellar artery- supplies cerebellum & brainstem
• All branches unites at the base of the brain forming the Circle of
Willis.
•
• Neurones
• - Characteristics:
• 1. Irritability- ability to irritate a nerve impulse.
• 2. Conductivity- ability to conduct an impulse.
• - consist of an axon, dendrites & cell body.
• Neuroglia
• - are cells that support neurones.
• - more numerous than neurones.
• - 2 types:
• 1. Schwann cells: responsible for forming the myelin sheath.
• 2. Satellite cells: function not known.
• -4 types of neuroglial cells:
• 1.Astrocytes- star-shaped cells which occur in large quantities
between neurones and blood vessels.
• - help form blood-brain barrier which gives the
neurones an extra layer of protection from any toxic
substances within the blood.
• 2.Microglia- lie close to neurones & can move closer if they
need to fulfill their function to nervous system macrophages.
• - phagocytose pathogens or cell debris
• 3. Oligodendrocytes- found close to myelinated neurones
• - help to form & maintain the myelin
sheath.
• 4. Ependymal cells- are often ciliated & are found lining
cavities such as the spinal cord or ventricles of the brain.
• - role is to circulate CSF.

• SPINAL CORD
• - lies in the vertebral canal & extends to the foramen
magnum down to the level of 2bd lumbar vertebrae.
• - 42-45 cm.long & 25 cm. shorter than the vertebral canal.
• - serves as a REFLEX CENTER.
• -REFLEX ARC: functional unit of the nervous system.
• Reflex arc is composed of:
• 1.receptors- sensory nerve terminals that receive a stimulus
• a. pain: free nerve endings
• b. pressure: Pacinian corpuscle
• c. touch: Meissners corpuscle
• d. cold: end bulb of Krause
• e. heat: end organ of Ruffini
• 2. Afferent/sensory nerves: nerve fibers that carries impulses
towards the brain.
• 3. Efferent/motor nerves: nerve fibers that carries impulses
away from the brain.
• 2 enlargements:
• 1, cervical- point of exit of cervical spinal nerves.
• 2. thoraco-lumbo sacral- point of exit of thoracolumbar spinal
nerves.
Blood supply of the brain:
1, Internal carotid artery
a. anterior cerebral artery: medial surface
b. middle cerebral artery: dorso-lateral surface
2. Vertebro-basilar artery
a. posterior cerebral artery: base of the brain &
occipital lobe
b. cerebellar artery: cerebellum & brainstem
- All branches unites at the base of the brain to form
the Circle of Willis.
• PNS:
• 12 Cranial nerves
• I. Olfactory nerve{sen}: sense of smell
• II. Optic nerve[sen]: vision
• III. Oculomotor[motor]: eye muscles,eyelids, lens, pupil
• IV. Trochlear[motor]: eye muscles
• V. Trigeminal[mixed]: teeth, eyes, skin, tongue for sensation of
touch, pain & temperature
• VI. Abducens[motor]: jaw muscles[chewing]; eye muscles
• VII. Facial[mixed]: facial muscles, salivary glands, taste buds
• VIII. Vestibulo-cochlear nerve[sen]: inner ear[ hearing &
balance
• IX. Glossopharyngeal nerve[mixed]: pharyngeal
muscles[swallowing]
• X. Vagus nerve[mixed]: internal organs
• XI. Spinal accessory nerve[motor]: neck & back
muscles
• XII. Hypoglossal nerve[motor]: tongue muscles

• 31 pairs of spinal nerves

• 8 cervical spinal nerve
• 12 thoracic spinal nerve
• 5 lumbar spinal nerve
• 5 sacral spinal nerve
• 1 coccygeal spinal nerve
• TISSUES
• - a group of cells that have a similar structure & function.
• I. Epithelial tissue
• - a sheet of cells which cover an area of the body.
• - covers or lines body surfaces or it lines the walls & the organs within
body cavities.
• -functions:
• 1. absorption 4. secretion
• 2. protection 5. filtration
• 3. excretion 6. sensory perception
• A. simple epithelia
• - consist of a single cellular layer & specialize in absorption, secretion
& filtration rather than protection.
• 1.a. simple squamous epithelium
• - found where the diffusion of nutrients is essential.
• - ex. Alveoli
• - found within hollow organs such as the alveoli is called
• Is called endothelium[ found in the kidneys & blood vessels especially
capillaries]
• 2.a. simple cuboidal epithelium
• - specializes in secretion as well as absorption.
• - found in the lining of the ovaries, kidney tubules & ducts of
smaller glands,
• - forms part of the secretory portions of glands such as the thyroid
& pancreas.
• 3.a. ciliated simple columnar epithelium
• - lines the fallopian tubes.
• B. simple columnar epithelium
• 1.b. ciliated simple columnar epithelium
• - has cilia on its apical surface.
• - found in areas of the body where movement of fluids, mucus or
other substances is required.
• - lines the passageways of the CNS & helps propel CSF
• - also line the fallopian tubes & help move oocytes recently
• Expelled from the ovaries.
• 2.b. non- ciliated simple columnar epithelium
• - found in the lining of the digestive tract from the stomach to
the rectum.
• - some possess microvilli, greatly increasing their surface area
for absorption, others specialize in the secretion of mucus.
• 3.b. pseudostratified columnar epithelium
• - found within the lining of the male reproductive system.
• - found in the lining of the respiratory tract.
• C. stratified epithelia
• 1.c. stratified squamous epithelium
• - most common stratified epithelium & forms the external part
of skin.
• 1.c.c. skin stratified squamous epithelial tissue
• - keratinized, toughened by the presence of keratin[ a special
tough fibrous protein]
• 2.c.c. non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
• - lines wet areas of the body, mouth, tongue, vagina.
• 2.c. stratified cuboidal epithelium
• - found in the esophagus, sweat glands & in the male
urethra.
• 3.c. stratified columnar epithelium
• - rare
• - small amounts can be found in the male urethra & in
the ducts of some glands.
• 4.c. transitional epithelium
• - found in organs such as the bladder
• D. glandular epithelium
• - formed by the glands of the body.
• - all glands are classified as endocrine or exocrine
• - glands which secrete their products internally are called
endocrine glands
• - endocrine glands release hormones, regulatory chemicals for
use elsewhere in the body,
• - exocrine glands release their products onto the surface of
epithelial tissue.
• - exocrine glands are either unicellular or multicellular.
• - unicellular exocrine glands consist of a single cell type & the
main example is the goblet cell which releases a glycoprotein
called mucin[ once mucin is dissolved in water,mucin forms
mucus which lubricates & protects surfaces.
• - multicellular exocrine glands are far more complex, coming
in several shapes & sizes.
• - some exocrine glands are simple & consist of a single branched
duct, others are complex with multi-branched ducts.
• CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• - most abundant tissue in the human body.
• - main functions are to bind tissues together, reinforcement,
insulation, protection & support.
• - 4 types: 1. connective tissue proper 3. bone
• 2. cartilage 4. blood
• - several types of cell are present in connective tissue,
macrophages, plasma cells, mast cells, adipocytes, white blood
cells & primary blast cells,
• - macrophages, plasma cells & white blood cells form part of the
body’s immune system.
• - macrophages engulf invading substances & plasma cells
produce antibodies.
• - white blood cells migrate into connective tissue during
inflammation.
• - mast cells produce histamine, which promotes vasodilation
• - during the body’s inflammatory response.
• - adipocytes: are fat cells within connective tissue; adipocytes store
triglycerides[fats].
• - primary blast cells: secrete ground substance & produce mature
connective tissue cells.
• - connective tissue cells are surrounded by a collection of substances
referred to as the extracellular matrix.
• - function: to ensure that connective tissue can bear weight &
withstand tension, abuse & abrasion.
• - 2 main elements of extracellular matrix: ground substance &
fibers.
• - Ground substance consists of interstitial fluid, cell adhesion
proteins & glycoaminoglycans.
• - cell adhesion proteins act as connective glue, keeping the
tissue cells together.
• - glycoaminoglycan trap water, making ground substance
jelly-like
• - 3 main types of fiber found within extracellular matrix: collagen,
elastic & reticular
• - most abundant are collagen fibers, which are essentially the
protein collagen.
• - collagen is very tough, stronger than similar-sized steel fibers.
• - reticular fibers are much thinner but also contain bundles of
collagen.
• - provide support & strength & are found in greater numbers in
soft organs, spleen & lymph nodes.
• - elastic fibers contain the rubber-like protein called elastin which
facilitates stretch & recoil.
• - found in greater numbers in tissue that has to endure stretch
skin & blood vessel walls.
• A. connective tissue proper
• - subdivided into: loose connective tissue
• : dense connective tissue
• 1.a. loose connective tissue
• - 3 types: areolar : reticular
• : adipose
• - areolar
• - most abundant
• - contains all 3 fibers[ collagen, elastic & reticular]
• - primary function: support, elasticity & strength
• - combined with adipose tissue to form the subcutaneous
layer, which connects the skin with other tissues & organs
• - adipose
• - contains adipocytes
• - primary function: to store triglycerides, to provide
insulation, protection & an energy store.
• - reticular
• - contain reticular fibers
• - main function: to form a protective framework or
• - or stronger which surrounds the liver, spleen & lymph nodes.
• - also filter blood, assisting with the removal of old blood cells.
• -Dense connective tissue
• - contains more collagen or elastic fibers.
• - made primarily from collagen is said to be either regular or
irregular depending on the organization of the collagen fibers.
• -a. dense regular connective tissue
• - contains collagen fibers which are arranged in parallel
rows.
• - it has a silvery appearance & is both tough & pliable
• -b. dense irregular connective tissue
• - found in ligaments & tendons.
• - its collagen fibers are randomly arranged but closely
knitted together.
• - can withstand pressure & pulling forces & is found in skin & the
heart as well as the membranes that surround cartilage & bone.
• - dense elastic connective tissue is found in areas of the body
that have to withstand great amounts of stretch such as arteries
& lung tissue.
• CARTILAGE
• - contains a compact network of collagen fibers & is stronger
than both loose & dense connective tissue.
• - it has the ability to return to its original shape after stress &
movement.
• - its strength & resilience are provided by a gel-like substance
called chondroitin sulfate, which is found in cartilage ground
substance.
• - surrounded by a layer of dense irregular tissue called
perichondrium[ the only area of cartilage that is served by blood
& nervous tissue]
• - 3 types of cartilage: hyaline elastic
• : fibrocartilage
• A. Hyaline
• - most common cartilage in the human body
• - mainly comprises collagen fibers with cartilage cells
chondrocytes accounting for around 10% of its volume.
• - collagen fibers are so fine, they are almost invisible giving
hyaline cartilage a bluish appearance.
• - is both strong & flexible, it can act as a shock absorber
reducing friction around joints.
• - found in rib cage & airways.
• B. Elastic
• - almost identical to hyaline
• - its major difference is the greater presence of elastic fibers.
• - can withstand greater movement & bending than hyaline.
• - found in areas of the body where stretchability is
required,i.e. the outer ear.
• C.Fibrocartilage
• - strongest of the 3 cartilages.
• - strength is provided by rows of chondrocytes & collagen.
• - can withstand great pressure; found where hyaline cartilage
meets tendons or ligaments, between the discs of the
vertebrae.
• BONE
• - make up the human skeletal frame.
• - similar to cartilage but contains even greater amounts of
collagen.
• - harder & more rigid, facilitating greater protection &
support for body structures
• - receives a rich supply of blood
• - also stores fat & plays an important role in the production of
blood cells.
• Liquid connective tissue
• - includes blood & lymph.
• - said to be atypical connective tissue because they do not
connect tissues or provide mechanical support.
• - the extra cellular matrix of blood is the plasma.
• - blood cells include: erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets
• - blood & plasma perform many important functions.
• =lymph has a clear extracellular matrix very similar to plasma.
• - primary function: defense against invading pathogen.
• MEMBRANES
• - are sheets of tissue, which cover or line areas of the human
body.
• - contain both epithelial & connective tissue.
• - consist of an epithelial tissue layer that is bound to a basement layer
of connective tissue.
• - 4 major types: cutaneous : serous
• : mucous : synovial
• A. Cutaneous
• - ex. Skin
• - consists of an outer stratified squamous epithelial layer which sits
on top of a thick layer of dense, irregular connective tissue.
• B. Mucous
• - line the external surfaces of body cavities
• -ex. Hollow organs of the digestive tract, respiratory system & renal
system.
• - are wet or moist but not all secrete mucus.
• C. Serous
• - or a serosa cover internal body cavities
• - consist of areolar connective tissue covered by a simple squamous
epithelium called mesothelium
• -Mesothelium secretes a watery substance referred to as serous
fluid, which allows organs to slide against one another with ease.
• - consist of an outer or parietal layer & an inner or visceral layer.
• - largest example is the peritoneum, which lines the organs of
the abdominopelvic cavity.
• -ex. Protective lining of the lungs, parietal & visceral pleura[ glide
over one another when the thorax expands on inspiration]
• D. Synovial
• - do not contain any epithelial tissue
• - found in moving joints & consist of areolar connective tissue,
adipocytes & elastic & collagen fibers.
• - secrete synovial fluid which bathes, nourishes & lubricates the
joints
• - Synovial fluid contains macrophages which destroy invading
microbes & debris from the joint cavity.
• - also found in cushion- like sacs in the hands & feet that ease the
movement of tendons.
• MUSCLE TISSUE
• - contains long muscle fibers
• - primary function: to generate force
• - found where there is a need for movement & maintenance of
posture.
• - Classifications: skeletal : cardiac
• : smooth
• A. Skeletal
• - found adjacent to the skeleton
• -functions: movement of the skeleton
• : maintenance of body posture
• - structure of the muscle fibers gives a striped or striated
appearance
• - also voluntary[ movement can be controlled by conscious control]
• B. Smooth
• - both voluntary & non- striated
• - found in hollow internal structures where fluid or solid
substances need to be propelled from one area to another.
• - found in blood vessels where blood is propelled thrpugh
the vascular system & the GIT where chyme is moved from
the stomach through the intestines towards the rectum.
• C. Cardiac
• - striated, involuntary
• - only found in the heart & provides the driving force of
contraction.
• NERVOUS TISSUE
• - found within the nervous system
• - 2 types of nervous tissue cells: neurones & neuroglia
• - Neurones: functioning unit of the nervous
system.
• : consist of 3 basic parts: cell body,
axon, dendrites
• : primary function: propagation of
nerve signals within the central & peripheral
nervous systems
• - Neuroglia: do not propagate nerve signals;
rather they nourish, protect & support neurons.