Module 1.2.

Introduction to Basic
Biology
 Cell Theory
• All living things are made up of cells.
• Cells are the smallest working units of all
living things.
• All cells come from preexisting cells
through cell division.
Definition of Cell

A cell is the smallest unit that is capable of

performing life functions.
 Examples of Cells
Amoeba Proteus

Plant Stem

Bacteria

Red Blood Cell

Nerve Cell
Two Types of Cells
•Prokaryotic
•Eukaryotic
 Prokaryotic
• Do not have
structures
surrounded by
membranes
• Few internal
structures
• One-celled
organisms,
Bacteria

http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/prokaryotic_cells.html
 Eukaryotic
• Contain organelles surrounded by membranes
• Most living organisms
Plant Animal

http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/eukaryotic_cells.html
 “Typical” Animal Cell

http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/images/cell.gif
“Typical” Plant Cell
Cell Parts
Organelles
Surrounding the
Cell
Cell Membrane
• Outer membrane of cell
that controls movement
in and out of the cell
• Double layer
Cell Wall
• Most commonly found
in plant cells &
bacteria
• Supports & protects
cells
Inside the Cell
 Nucleus

• Directs cell activities

• Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear
membrane
• Contains genetic material - DNA
 Nuclear Membrane
• Surrounds nucleus
• Made of two layers
• Openings allow
material to enter and
leave nucleus
Chromosomes
• In nucleus
• Made of DNA
• Contain instructions
for traits &
characteristics
 Nucleolus
• Inside nucleus
• Contains RNA to build
proteins
 Cytoplasm
• Gel-like mixture
• Surrounded by cell membrane
• Contains hereditary material
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Moves materials around
in cell
• Smooth type: lacks
ribosomes
• Rough type (pictured):
ribosomes embedded in
surface
 Ribosomes
• Each cell contains
thousands
• Make proteins
• Found on ribosomes
& floating throughout
the cell
 Mitochondria
• Produces energy through
chemical reactions –
breaking down fats &
carbohydrates
• Controls level of water and
other materials in cell
• Recycles and decomposes
proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates
 Golgi Bodies
• Protein 'packaging
plant'
• Move materials within
the cell
• Move materials out of
the cell
 Lysosome
• Digestive 'plant' for
proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates
• Transports undigested
material to cell
membrane for removal
• Cell breaks down if
lysosome explodes
 Vacuoles
• Membrane-bound
sacs for storage,
digestion, and waste
removal
• Contains water
solution
• Help plants maintain
shape
 Chloroplast
• Usually found in plant
cells
• Contains green
chlorophyll
• Where
photosynthesis takes
place
 The Chemistry of Life
2.1 Nature of Matter:
atom: smallest part/basic unit of matter

3 sub-atomic particles:
Proton (+), Neutron (0), Electron(-)

Element: pure substance …all the same

type of atoms
(about 26 elements compose all living
things - most abundant are: C, H, O, N )

atomic # : # of protons

atomic mass (mass number):

protons + neutrons (ie..mass of nucleus)
 What are the element symbols for…

• Carbon • Manganese
• Hydrogen • Flourine
• Oxygen • Helium
• Nitrogen • Magnesium
• Sulfur • Aluminum
• Phosphorus • Iodine
• Sodium • Lead
• Chlorine • Silver
• Potassium • Lithium
• Calcium • Mercury
Nature of Matter continued
Isotopes: elements with different neutron # than a stable atom
ex: 14C, 3H, 32P, 34S
Radioactive Isotopes: have unstable nuclei – break down at a known
rate, give off radioactive particles (gamma rays, etc)
* Dangerous AND useful, too
* ex: fossil dating, bone scans, GI series, chemotherapy
Compound: substance formed by 2 or more elements in a fixed ratio
• physical and chemical properties of compound are different
than atoms composing the compound
• Molecule: smallest unit of most compounds

Sodium Chlorine Sodium

Chloride
BONDING PATTERNS:
1. Ionic bonds: attractions between ions of opposite charge
– when atoms gain or lose electrons, ions are created

Na+
Cl–

2. Covalent bonds: join atoms into molecules through electron sharing

• when two atoms share one or more pairs of outer shell electrons

CH4 = ?
Polar Covalent/Non-polar Covalent/ H Bonds
Non-polar Covalent: When covalently
bonded atoms share electrons equally
Ex: CO2

Polar Covalent: Electrons are shared

unequally between atoms, creating a
polar molecule
Ex: H20

Hydrogen Bonds: weak bonds important

in the chemistry of life
– charged regions on water
molecules are attracted to the
oppositely charged regions on
nearby molecules
– Ex: water to water (cohesion)
Why Water Supports All Life:
1. Cohesion (w+w) and Adhesion (w+other)
– allows water to move from rootsàleaves
– some insects can walk on water due to
cohesive surface tension
– universal solvent – can dissolve more
solutes than any other solvent

2. Moderates temperature (heat capacity):

– takes a lot of energy to disrupt hydrogen
bonds à water can absorb lots of heat
without a large rise in temp
– As water coolsà a slight drop in temp
releases a large amount of heat
– water molecules take energy with it when
it evaporates à evaporative cooling
Mixtures: Solutions and Suspensions:
Mixture: composed of 2 or more elements or
compounds physically mixed, not chemically combined
(ex: salt and sugar together)

2 types of Mixtures:

a) Solution: where components are evenly

distributed (ex: salt water)
* water = solvent NaCl = solute
* polarity of water allows it to dissolve ionic
compounds and polar molecules (ex: salts, sugars,
minerals, gases, other solvents like alcohol)

b) Suspension: when materials don’t dissolve in

water, but break up into tiny pieces which do not
settle out (they are suspended by the moving water)
* ex: blood (water has dissolved compounds, blood
cells and other components (lipids) which remain
suspended in mixture)
The chemistry of life is sensitive to acidic and basic conditions

Acid: a compound that forms H+ ions in

solution

Base: a compound that produces OH-

(hydroxide) ions in solution

Acidity or Alkalinity (base) is measured on

the pH scale:

• From 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic)

• The pH of most cells is kept close to 7

(neutral) by buffers (substances that
resist pH change)

• Each step on pH scale is a factor of 10.

(ex: pH 5 is 10x more acidic than?)

Buffer: weak acid or weak base which can

keep a pH stable When the number of H+ is equal to
ex: Bicarbonate: most important the number of OH- à water
buffer in body- maintains homeostasis in
blood H+ + OH- à H20
 2.3 Organic Chemistry: The Chemistry of Carbon
• “Organic”: must contain at least one carbon. CH4 = simplest organic molecule
• Carbon has 4 valence electrons
• Therefore, carbon will always make 4 bonds with other atoms
• Carbon can bond with other carbons, form chains, rings
• Ability to form millions of different compounds with other elements
 The Four Macromolecules of Life
Macromolecule (polymer) made by joining many monomers (single unit)
Polymerization: chemical rxn which joins monomers to make polymers

The four main classes of biological molecules:

1. Carbohydrates (sugar, starches, cellulose)
2. Lipids (wax, fats, oils, steroids)
3. Proteins (muscle, hair, hormones, enzymes)
4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)
1. CARBOHYDRATES: Monomer = Monosaccharide
•Contain C, H, and O in a 1:2:1 ratio
•Most end with “ose”
•An animal’s main energy source
•Carbs are burned first in the body
•Monosaccharides: (C6H12O6):
glucose, fructose, galactose
•Disaccharides: (C12H22O11)
sucrose, lactose, maltose
•Polysaccharides: (complex carbohydrates)
– A) glycogen (carb storage animal liver)
– B) starch (carb storage in plants)
– C) cellulose (cell walls, cotton) “roughage”
– D) chitin (exoskeletons of arthropods)
 2. LIPIDS: Monomer = Fatty Acids
* Mostly C and H atoms linked by
nonpolar covalent bonds
* Reserve energy-storage molecules
(burned after carbs are gone)
* Insoluble in water (polar)
* Soluble in nonpolar solvents (ether)
* More energy in lipids than in carbs
- 9 cal/g Lipid vs. 4 cal/g Carb
* Examples: triglycerides, phospholipids,
steroids (cholesterol), waxes, oils, fats
* Triglyceride = 3 fatty acids + 1 glycerol
* Saturated Fats: all single bonds in chain
- solid at room temp (ex: butter, lard)
* Unsaturated fats: one or more C=C bond in
chain
- liquid at room temp (ex: all oils)
 3. NUCLEIC ACIDS: Monomer = Nucleotide
• Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) store and transmit genetic information
• DNA = Deoxyribonucleic acid
• RNA = Ribonucleic acid
• Large macromolecules containing C, H, O, N, P
• One nucleotide = 5-carbon sugar, phosphate (PO4-), nitrogenous base

The sugars and phosphates are the

backbone for the nucleic acid

DNA’s sugar = deoxyribose

RNA’s sugar = ribose
4. PROTEINS: Monomer = Amino Acid

• Essential to the structures and

activities of life
• Contain C, H, O, N (S, P)
• 50% of your dry weight
• examples of groups of proteins:
1. enzymes (amylase, sucrase, maltase,
lactase) –ase ending
2. structural (collagen, elastin)
3. contractile (actin, myosin)
4. transport (hemoglobin, protein
channels)
5. hormones (insulin)
AMINO ACID: Structure
Each amino acid has:
•An amino group (-NH2)
•A carboxyl group (COOH)
•An R group, which
distinguishes each of the 20
different amino acids

* Each amino acid has

specific properties
based on the R-group

* Peptide bonds link

amino acids together
à polypeptide
(protein)
PROTEINS: 4 Levels of Organization
Amino acids are assembled into polypeptide chains according to
instructions coded in the DNA.

Primary Structure: the sequence of

amino acids in its polypeptide chain

Secondary structure: the

coiling or folding of the chain

Tertiary Structure: the overall

three-dimensional shape of a
polypeptide – created when R-
groups bond
Quaternary Structure: the
association of two or more
polypeptide chains
2.4 Chemical Reactions and Enzymes
•Chemical reaction: process that changes or transforms one set
of chemicals into another
•Those chemicals that enter into a reaction are the “reactants”,
those that are made are the “products”
•Chemical reactions change the bonding patterns in the reactants
•Energy is released or absorbed when chemical bonds are formed
or broken during a reaction
•Rxns releasing energy generally happen spontaneously
•Rxns which absorb energy need energy to start them
•Some energy releasing rxns need activation (input of )energy
to get started
Enzymes are vital proteins that run biochemical rxns
• Lower the activation energy (EA) of
chemical reactions (they are catalysts)
• The reactants they “work” on are
called “substrates”
• Most enzymes are named for their
substrates with an “-ase” ending
Ex: sucrase digests sucrose
lactase digests lactose
• VERY shape specific (“lock and key”)
reaction with active site on enzyme
(where substrate and enzyme join)

One Enzyme : One Substrate

•Enzymes have unique three-dimensional shapes
so they can fit onto their specific substrate
•Shapes determine function and which chemical
reactions they can perform
•All related to their 3-D folding pattern born
from?
 Factors Which Affect Enzyme Activity:
• Temperature, salt concentration, pH, inhibitors
• Enzyme inhibitors can alter enzyme function:
– Competitive inhibitor: blocks active site, substrate can’t attach and remains
unchanged
– Non-competitive inhibitor: alters enzyme’s function by changing its shape
– Many poisons, pesticides, and drugs are enzyme inhibitors

Some food for thought:

1.Why do we put lemon juice on apples?
2.What is the purpose of a fever?
3.What happens when a raw egg hits a hot fry pan?
4.Why do we put produce/perishables in the fridge?
5.How does a Siamese cat get it’s color pattern?
GENES = Sequences of DNA
– DNA sequences spell out the amino acid sequences
of proteins
– Mutations in the DNA sequence à wrong amino
acid sequence à wrong protein shape à no
function
– Ex: Lactose Intolerance :
Mutations in lactase geneà
mutations in lactase amino acid chain sequence à
defective lactase shapeà
enzyme can’t fit onto lactose substrate à
lactose does not get digested.
Q: Why is it a big deal? Lactase enzyme
A: If YOU don’t digest the lactose in your
digestive tract, all the E.coli will…all of
their waste made from eating all this
food will leave you with cramps, bloating,
and diarrhea…not fun!