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Systematic position
Kingdom Plantae
Division
Pteridophyta
Sub-division
Sphenopsida
Class
Filicophyta
Order
Equisetales
Family
Equisetaceae
Genus
Equisetum Linn.

Morphology of Equisetum
Commonly known as horse-tail or scouring rush,
Equisetum is represented by some 30 species. They are
distributed all over the world, except Australia and New
Zealand, and grow in a variety of habitats. Some species
prefer damp and shady places (e.g. E. pratense), while
others grow in marshy places, ponds or along the sandy
river banks (e.g. E. palustre). E. arvense is found in
diverse habitats, such as open grasslands, along
roadsides and railway tracks. Some common Indian
species of the genus are E. arvense, E. debile, E.
diffusum, E. ramosissimum and E. elongatum. Of these,
E. debile is found in plains along the river banks, while
E. arvense is common in the western Himalayan ranges.
Species of Equisetum are used as indicators for
minerals in the soil. Some species accumulate gold from
the soil. There is a deposition of silica on the outer walls
of the epidermal cells, due to which the plants become
rough (just like sand paper) in texture and are used as
abrasive. Silica also provides a protective covering to
these plants against predators and pathogens. Some
species of Equisetum are also used in ayurvedic
medicines as diuretic.
Sporophyte
The sporophyte of Equisetum has a perennial, branched
and creeping underground rhizome, which gives annual
erect aerial branches (Fig. 1). The aerial branches are
herbaceous and usually grow to a height of 10-60 cm,
but they attain a height of 2-3 meters in E. telmateia,
and about 4 meters in E. ramosissimum. E. giganteum,
the largest species of Equisetum, which grows in the
tropics of South America, has stem up to 13 meters long,
but since the stem is relatively thin (1.5 to 2.0 cm in
diameter), it is vine-like in habit and climbs with adjacent
trees.
External morphology
The sporophyte of Equisetum is differentiated into stem,
root and leaves.
Stem: The main stem is underground, creeping and
perennial rhizome. It often lies more than a meter below
the surface of the soil. It is differentiated into nodes and
internodes. There is a whorl of small scaly leaves at each
node. The leaves of a whorl are joined at their bases,
forming sheath around the node. A branch bud is formed
alternate to each scale leaf at the node, and these buds
develop into erect aerial branches. In species like E.
arvense and E. telmateia some branch buds, instead of
developing into aerial branches, form small subterranean
tubers. The tuber is a perennating organ, and it develops
into a new plant on the return of favourable conditions.
Fig. 1 Equisetum arvense: External features, the
sporophyte showing rhizome, roots, tubers, sterile
and fertile branches.
The rhizome bears two types of aerial shoots,
vegetative shoots and fertile shoots. Both these types of
shoots are differentiated into nodes and internodes. The
vegetative shoots are usually branched, green and
photosynthetic. The fertile shoots are unbranched and
achlorophyllous, each terminating into a cone or
strobilus. In some species (e.g. E. debile and E.
diffusum) there is no distinction between sterile and
fertile shoots, and all the aerial shoots bear strobili.
 A whorl of lateral branches is present at each node of
the vegetative shoot. Their number corresponds to the
number of leaves at the node. These branches are of the
following two types.
(a) Branches of unlimited growth. They are further
branched like the main vegetative shoot, and are
differentiated into nodes and internodes.
(b) Branches of limited growth. They are also
differentiated into nodes and internodes like vegetative
shoots, but remain unbranched.
The rhizome as well as the aerial shoots of
Equisetum present articulated or jointed appearance due
to the presence of distinct nodes and internodes. The
internodes are hollow and have longitudinal ridges and
grooves. The ridges of the successive internodes
alternate with each other (Fig. 2). The number of ridges
is equal to the number of leaves at the node.
Leaves: The leaves are minute, scaly and isophyllous.
They arise in whorls at the nodes of both the
underground rhizome and aerial branch. They are fused
at their bases to form a distinct sheath, and their distal
free ends give a frill-like appearance (Fig. 2). The degree
of fusion between the leaves and the number of leaves at
a node varies considerably not only among different
species of Equisetum, but also within the same species.
The species with narrow stems usually have few leaves
(e.g. 2-3 in E. scirpoides), and those with thick stems
have many leaves (up to 40 in E. schaffneri) at each
node. The leaves at the successive nodes alternate with
each other.
The leaves of Equisetum are non- photosynthetic,
and their main function is to protect the branch buds at
the node.
 Fig. 2 Equisetum: A part of aerial stem.

Internal structure (Anatomy)

Aerial shoot: The anatomy of the stem of Equisetum is
interesting as it shows a combination of hydrophytic and
xerophytic characters. The nodes and internodes have
different internal structures.
Internode: A transverse section of the internode is
wavy in outline due to the presence of ridges and
grooves (Fig. 3). It has a distinct epidermis, a well-
developed cortex, a stele with a ring of vascular bundles
and a large central pith cavity.
The epidermis is composed of a single layer of cells, with
a heavy incrustation of silica on their outer and radial
walls. Silica provides mechanical strength to the shoot.
The epidermis is interrupted by stomata, which are
usually confined to the grooves. A stomatal apparatus is
composed of four cells arranged in two tiers of two cells
each (Fig. 4 A). The cells of the lower tier are guard cells
and those of the upper tier, subsidiary or accessory cells.
Crescent-shaped accessory cells completely cover the
guard cells. A series of transversely thickening bands of
siliceous matter develops on the lower surface of the
accessory cells, and they appear to radiate from the
stomatal openings (Fig. 4 B). The stomata are usually
sunken, but in species like E. pratense and E. palustre
they are at the level of the epidermis.
The cortex is differentiated into an outer and an
inner region (Fig. 3). The outer cortex consists of
sclerenchymatous and chlorenchymatous cells. The
sclerenchyma lies just below the epidermis and provides
mechanical strength to the shoot. It is many layered
below the ridges but in the region of the grooves it is
only 1-2 layered.

Fig. 3 Equisetum: Transverse section of

aerial shoot; a part cellular
However, there is no sclerenchyma beneath the stomata.
The sclerenchyma is followed by a band of chlorenchyma,
which forms photosynthetic region of the shoot. The
chlorenchyma is thicker below the ridges. Conspicuous
intercellular spaces are present in chlorenchyma just
beneath the stomata. The inner cortex is composed of
thin walled, parenchymatous cells. It has large
schizolysigenous canals, known as vallecular canals,
below the furrows. These canals extend throughout the
length of the internode and form distinct aerating
system. The cortex is delimited from the stele by an
endodermis, which varies in its position in different
species.
The endodermis is followed by a single layer of
parenchymatous pericycle. The vascular cyIinder is a
siphonostele, where vascular bundles are arranged in a
ring around the large pith. The vascular bundles lie
opposite to the ridges, in positions alternate to the
vallecular canals. Thus, the number of vascular bundles
corresponds with the number of ridges. The vascular
bundles are conjoint, collateral and endarch. The xylem
of a bundle is in the form of two lateral and a median
group of tracheids. In a very young vascular bundle, the
protoxylem is represented by tracheids with annular or
spiral thickenings. But in the mature bundle, the
protoxylem elements disintegrate to form a conspicuous
protoxylem lacuna, called carinal canal. Some protoxylem
elements, however, can be seen along the periphery of
the carinal canal. The metaxylem tracheids have
scalariform, reticulate or pitted thickenings.
Fig. 4 Equisetum: Structure of stomata- A, Stoma in
vertical section, B, Thickening band in
stomata
The phloem lies outside the xylem and in radial alignment
with the carinal canal. It is composed of phloem
parenchyma and sieve tubes with sieve areas on radial
walls.
The carinal canals are filled with water and help in
conduction of water. Thus they are different from the
vallecular canals which contain air only.
The central part of the internode of the aerial shoot is
occupied by a large pith cavity. Node: The internal
structure of node differs from that of the internode in the
following features.
1. The pith is not hollow at the node, but instead a solid
diaphragm, called nodal diaphragm, is present (Fig. 5 A).
2. Vallecular canals are usually not present in the node.
3. The vascular bundles fuse together and form a
vascular cylinder around the nodal diaphragm.
4. Carinal canals are absent in the nodal region.
5. Leaf and branch traces arise from the vascular cylinder
of the node (Fig. 5 B).

Fig. 5 Equisetum: Internal structure of node; A.

Transverse section of aerial shoot through node
(diagrammatic representation); B. Longitudinal
section of node showing vascular supply.
Rhizome: The internal structure of the rhizome differs
from the aerial shoot in the following features.
1. The epidermis of rhizome is without stomata.
2. The outer cortex of rhizome is less sclerenchymatous.
3. Chlorophyllous cells are not found in the cortex.
4. The vallecular, carinal and central canals are narrow in
comparison to those in the aerial shoots.
Root: A transverse section of the root shows epiblema,
cortex, and stele (Fig. 6).
The single-layered epiblema forms the outer most
protective covering of the root. Some cells of epiblema
elongate to form root hairs. The epiblema is followed by a
wide cortex, usually differentiated into an outer
sclerenchymatous and an inner parenchymatous region.
The latter has intercellular spaces. The sclerenchymatous
outer cortex is also known as exodermis.

Fig. 6 Equisetum: Transverse section of root; a part

cellular
A characteristic feature of the root of Equisetum is
the presence of a two layered endodermis. The cells of
the outer endodermal layer are larger and have casparian
bands but those of the inner endodermis are smaller and
without casparian bands. Pericycle is absent and lateral
roots arise from the inner endodermis.
A protostele is present in the centre of the root with
diarch to tetrarch xylem. The number of xylem strands
usually increases with the diameter of the root. A large
metaxylem tracheid is present in the centre of the stele
and the protoxylem strands lie around it. The phloem is
present in between the protoxylem strands.
Reproduction
Equisetum reproduces by vegetative and asexual
methods.
Vegetative reproduction: The underground rhizomes of
some species of Equisetum (e.g., E. arvense and E.
telmateia) form tubers, which help in vegetative
propagation. The tubers develop due to irregular growth
of some branch buds at the nodes of the rhizome. They
are oval (E. arvense) or pear-shaped (E. telmateia). The
tuber has a central parenchymatous region, rich in starch
grains, and it is surrounded by 2-3 layers of
sclerenchyma. Several collateral vascular bundles are
present in the central region. Each bundle is individually
surrounded by its endodermal layer. After detachment
from the parent plant, the tubers remain in the soil, and
on the return of favourable conditions they grow into new
plants.
Reproduction by spores (spore formation):
Equisetum is a homosporous pteridophyte. The spores
develop within sporangia borne on sporangiophores. The
sporangiophores are aggregated into a compact cone or
strobilus.
Position and structure of strobilus: In most species,
strobili are borne terminally on the vegetative shoots. But
in some species (e.g. E. arvense) they are borne on
special fertile shoots (Fig. 7 A), which are short-lived and
die soon after the spores are shed.
The strobilus has a central massive axis called
strobilus axis, and large number of sporangiophores. The
sporangiophores project at right angles in successive
alternate whorls from the strobilus axis (Fig. 7 D). Each
sporangiophore is a stalked structure with a hexagonal
peltate disc at its distal end (Fig. 7 B, C). On the
underside of the sporangiophore disc 5-10 sac-like
sporangia are borne near its periphery in a ring. The free,
round apices of sporangia face the strobilus axis.
 In some species, a whorl of scaIe-Iike outgrowths,
called annulus, is present at the base of the strobilus
(Fig. 7 A).

Fig. 7 Equisetum: Structure of strobilus, A, A fertile

shoot; B, A sporangiophore with sporangia; C,
Transverse section of strobilus; D,
Longitudinal section of strobilus; E, Transverse
section of spore showing various wall layers; F-H,
Spores with elaters

Development of sporangium: The apical growth of the

shoot, which is destined to bear strobilus, is slowed down
and it assumes a conical shape. This conical apex now
functions as strobilus axis. The primordia of
sporangiophore are formed on this axis in an acropetal
succession, in positions of leaf primordia. Initially, the
primordium is hemispherical but soon it becomes peltate
due to the formation of a constriction near a base.
Sporangia are initiated on the apical dome of the
sporangiophore.
The development of sporangium is eusporangiate,
i.e. a sporangium develops from a group of initials (Fig. 8
A). Sporangia are initiated near the centre of the apical
dome of the sporangiophore (Fig. 8 F). But later the
dome expands laterally (due to rapid growth of the
central part of the dome), and as such the sporangia are
pushed to the margins and finally to the underside of the
peltate disc (Fig. 8 G-I).
The first division of the sporangial initial is periclinal,
establishing an outer and an inner daughter cell (Fig. 8
A). The inner daughter cell forms sporogenous tissue by
repeated divisions in all possible planes, whereas the
outer daughter cell divides both anticlinally and
periclinally and forms 2-7 layered sporangial wall (Fig. 8
B-D). The innermost layer of the sporangial wall functions
as tapetum. The cells of the tapetum are irregular, thick-
walled and nutritive in function. The cells of the outer
wall layer develop thin bands of helicoid secondary wall
thickening, which presumably help in the dehiscence of
the sporangium.
Fig. 8 Diagrams showing successive stages in the
development of sporangium of Equisetum sp.
As the sporangium matures, all out of the two outermost
wall layers disintegrate and form a periplasmodial liquid.
At this stage, the sporogenous cells separate from each
other and function as spore mother cells. Before meiosis,
about 30% spore mother cells also disintegrate and form
plasmodial fluid. The remaining spore mother cells
remain active and float freely in the periplasmodial fluid.
Each spore mother cell undergoes a reduction division
and forms four spores. The spores soon become
spherical.
Structure of the mature sporangium: The mature
sporangia are sac-like structure attached to the
underside of the peltate disc of the sporangiophore (Fig.
7 B). The wall of the mature sporangium is only two-
layered. All spores in a sporangium are alike.
Dehiscence of sporangium: As the sporangia mature,
the strobilus axis elongates.
Consequently, the compactly arranged sporangiophores
separate from each other and the sporangia are exposed.
As the sporangium dries, the helicoid thickening bands
present in the outer wall layer shrink and the sporangium
ruptures.
Spores: The spores of Equisetum are spherical,
uninucleate, green and contain numerous chloroplasts.
The spore wall is differentiated into four concentric
layers, the outermost perispore, the second middle layer,
the third exospore and the innermost endospore (Fig. 7
E). The perispore, also known as epispore, splits into four
strips or bands (Fig. 7 F). Although these bands are
separate from one another, they are attached to a
common point on the spore. Initially, these bands are
wrapped around the spherical spore but as the spore
dries the bands are uncoiled (Fig. 7 G, H). These bands
are known as elaters and they have expanded spoon-like
tips. The elaters are hygroscopic and respond to change
in humidity. Although their definite function is not known,
they probably help in the dehiscence of the sporangium
by expanding and contracting. More often they seem to
keep spore groups entangled. They also act as parachute
and help spores to float in air.
Gametophyte
Germination of spore and development of the
gametophyte: The spores of Equisetum germinate
shortly after shedding. They are short-lived and remain
viable for 1-48 hours after shedding. Such a short
duration of viability of Equisetum spores is perhaps due
to their high rate of respiration. The spores germinate on
a suitable substratum. They swell by absorbing water and
shed the outer coat (Fig. 9 A). The first division of the
spore is asymmetrical, producing a rhizoidal cell and a
larger cell (Fig. 9). The former develops into the first
rhizoid, whereas the latter eventually gives rise to
prothallus (Fig. 9 C-F). The shape and size of prothallus
depends on prevailing conditions; if a number of spores
germinate within a Iimited space, the prothalli formed
are usually filamentous (Fig. 9 G), whereas some
germinating spores usually form relatively thick and
cushion-shaped prothalli.
Fig. 9 Equisetum: Development of prothallus: A-F,
Successive stages in the development of prothallus;
G, Mature prothallus.
Sex organs: Both antheridia and archegonia develop
from the superficial meristematic cells of the prothallus.
Archegonia are confined to the basal cushion region of
the prothallus and antheridia on the lobes of the upright
branches. Usually archegonia develop before antheridia.
Development of archegonium: Any superficial cell
from the margin of the prothallus functions as
archegonial initial (Fig. 10 A). It divides periclinally into
an outer primary cover cell and a central cell (Fig. 10 B).
The primary cell divides by two vertical divisions at right
angles to each other, forming four primary neck cells.
These cells divide further and form 3-4 celled high neck
of the archegonium (Fig. 10 C). In the meantime, the
central cell divides transversely into a primary neck canal
cell and a venter cell (Fig. 10 D). The primary neck canal
by a further transverse division, gives rise to two neck
canal cells (Fig. 10 F). In the meantime, the venter cell
forms two unequal cells by a transverse divison; the
larger basal cell forms egg and the smaller upper cell
functions as venter canal cell (Fig. 10 E).

Fig. 10 Diagrams showing developmental stages of

archegonium of Equisetum sp.
Mature archegonium: The mature archegonium has a
small neck and a swollen base (Fig. 10 G). The neck is
made up of 3-4 tiers of neck cells; each tier usually has
four cells. The neck canal has one or two neck canal cells.
The swollen basal part of the archegonium has a venter
canal cell and an egg. The neck of the archegonium
usually projects above the surface of the prothallus.
Development of antheridium: In monoecious species
antheridia develop after archegonia. There are usually
two types of antheridia : (i) projecting antheridia, and(ii)
embedded antheridia. The projecting antheridia develop
on the margins of the prothallus or on the lobes of the
upright branches, whereas the embedded antheridia
develop in the massive cushion-shaped part of the
prothallus.
The superficial antheridial initial divides periclinally into
an outer jacket initial and an inner androgonial cell (Fig.
11 A-C).

Fig. 11 Equisetum: Development of antheridium; A-

E, successive stages in the development of
antheridium; F, mature antheridium; G, an
antherozoid.
The jacket initial divides only anticlinally and gives
rise to a single-layered antheridial jacket. A large
triangular jacket cell at the apex of the antheridium
differentiates into a cover cell or opercular cell (Fig. 11
E). The nucleus of the androcyte progressively changes in
shape to become helicoid (Fig. 11 F). Then each
androcyte metamorphoses into an antherozoids (Fig. 11
G). The anterior part of the antherozoid is spirally coiled,
and has numerous flagella, whereas the posterior part is
somewhat expanded.
Fertilization: Before fertilization, the neck canal cells
and venter canal cell disintegrate and form a passage for
the entry of antherozoids. The disintegrated mass of
these cells contains malic acid, which attracts freely
swimming antherozoids towards the neck of the
archegonium. Although many antherozoids move towards
an archegonium, only one of them swims into it and
fuses with the egg. Thus zygote is formed. Usually more
than one archegonia are fertilized in a prothallus. In
E. debile as many as 15 young embryos have been
observed in a single prothallus.
Embryo Development: The diploid zygote, formed by
the fusion of male and female gametes, is the mother cell
of the next sporophytic generation. It develops embryo,
which forms a new sporophyte.
The embryogeny of Equisetum show variations in
different species. In most species, the first division of the
zygote is transverse (i.e., at right angles to the neck of
the archegonium), establishing an epibasal and a
hypobasal cell. Both of these cells contribute to embryo.
The second division of the zygote is vertical and as a
result a four-celled embryo is established (Fig. 12 A). All
the four cells of the embryo are of different shape and
size. In E. arvense, 4-celled embryo divides by a second
vertical division at right angles to the first one forming
eight cells arranged in two tiers of four each. The largest
of the four epibasal differentiates as apical cell of the
shoot and the remaining three cells form leaf initials. The
largest of the hypobasal cells functions as root initial and
the remaining three cells give rise to the foot (Fig. 12 C,
D).
Active divisions in the apical cell of the shoot and the
root initial results in the establishment of the shoot and
root. The embryonic root penetrates the prothallus and
enters the soil (Fig. 12 E, F). The first shoot, called
primary stem, bursts through the neck of the
archegonium and grows upright. It is differentiated into
nodes and internodes. Each node of the primary stem has
only three leaves.
The primary stem shows only limited growth. Its
apical growth ceases after 10-15 internodes have been
formed. Then a secondary branch develops at the base of
the primary stem from a bud. It has 1-5 leaves at each
node. The secondary branch also has limited growth and
is replaced by another upright branch arising from its
base. This process may be repeated until 3-4 shoots
appear, and finally a shoot, instead of growing in usual
upright position, grows horizontally and penetrates the
ground forming the underground rhizome. It is perennial
and gives out new aerial shoots regularly.
 Fig. 12 Equisetum: A-E, stages in embryo
development; F, young sporophyte.
Life cycle: In the life cycle of Equisetum, we find
alternation of generations. Equisetum plant is a
sporophyte, which is the dominant phase in the entire life
cycle. The sporophyte comprises rhizome, aerial
branches, roots and leaves. It reproduces asexually, both
vegetatively, as well as by means of spores. Equisetum is
a homospoous pteridophyte. It produces spores which
develop within sporangia borne on sporangiophores. The
sporangiophores are aggregated into a compact cone or
strobilus. Each spore germinates on a suitable
substratum to form a gametophyte which bears
antheridia and archegonia. The life-cycle of Equisetum is
shown in Fig. 13.
Fig. 13 Equisetum: diagrammatic representation of
life cycle.