Environmental Management (2012) 50:478–489
DOI 10.1007/s00267-012-9889-3
Spatial Variation of Soil Salinity in the Mexicali Valley, Mexico:
Application of a Practical Method for Agricultural Monitoring
Gabriel Judkins • Soe Myint
Received: 24 September 2010 / Accepted: 22 May 2012 / Published online: 29 June 2012
Ó Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
Abstract The degradation of irrigated lands through the
process of soil salinization, or the buildup of salts in the
soil, has hampered recent increases in agricultural pro-
ductivity and threatens the sustainability of large-scale
cultivation in critical agricultural regions of the world.
Rapid detection of soil salinity on a regional basis has been
identified as key for effective mitigation of such land
degradation. The ability to detect regional patterns of soil
salinity at an accuracy sufficient for regional-scale resource
management is demonstrated using Landsat 5 Thematic
Mapper (TM) imagery. A case study of the Mexicali Valley
of Baja California, Mexico was selected due to the region’s
agricultural significance and concern for future soil salinity
increases. Surface soil salinity was mapped using geore-
ferenced field measurements of electrical conductivity
(EC), collected concurrently with Landsat 5 TM imagery.
Correlations between EC measurements and common
indices derived from the satellite imagery were used to
produce a model of soil salinity through regression analy-
sis. Landsat band 7, TNDVI, PCA 1, Tasseled Cap 3 and
Tasseled Cap 5 were found to offer the most promising
correlations with surface soil salinity. Generally low levels
of soil salinity were detected, however, distinct areas of
elevated surface salinity were detected at levels potentially
impacting sensitive crops cultivated within the region. The
difficulty detecting low levels of salinity and the mid-range
spatial resolution of Landsat 5 TM imagery restrict the
G. Judkins (&)
Department of Geoscience, University of Nevada Las Vegas,
4505 Maryland Parkway, Las Vegas, NV 89154-4010, USA
e-mail: gabriel.judkins@unlv.edu; gabejudkins@gmail.com
S. Myint
School of Geographical Sciences and Urban Planning,
Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
123
applicability of this methodology to the study of broad
regional patterns of degradation most appropriate for use
by regional resource managers.
Keywords Remote sensing  Soil salinization 
Land degradation  Agriculture  Produce  Onion  Mexico
Introduction
The contribution of irrigation to the expansion and increased
productivity of the world’s agriculture has been significant as
over 40 % of the food and fiber crops are currently cultivated
on irrigated lands occupying only 17 % of the world’s agri-
cultural land area (Rhoades 1990; Scheumann 1997). Meeting
future demands of a growing and increasingly affluent pop-
ulation for year-round access to fresh produce will require an
even greater contribution from irrigation, particularly in arid
regions as their climates are favorable for winter produce
cultivation (Redman 1999). However, irrigated agricultural
lands face a number of challenges including rising capital
costs, relatively low food prices, and the degradation of land
and water resources (Scheumann 1997). One of the most
significant threats to the future productivity of irrigated agri-
culture is the degradation of irrigated soils through the process
of soil salinization. Already, one out of five hectares of irri-
gated land is affected by soil salinization, stagnating the
productivity of the world’s agriculture since as much land is
lost to degradation as is being gained through the opening of
new irrigated lands (Rhoades 1990; Postel 1999). Soil sali-
nization is a land degradation problem specifically affecting
the critical agricultural regions of the Lower Colorado River
area of the U.S. and Mexico, where two-thirds of the agri-
cultural land within this region is believed to be afflicted to
varying degrees (Postel 1999).
Environmental Management (2012) 50:478–489
Elevated levels of salts in the soil inhibit the uptake of
water and nutrients by plants, may result in the deteriora-
tion of the soil structure and can lead to increased toxicity
experienced by these plants (Keren 2000). Soil salinity
generally stunts the growth of vegetation and results in
decreases in agricultural yields that are dependent on the
level of salinity, the sensitivity of the plant, and other
influential environmental conditions (Gerrard 2000).
Human-induced or secondary soil salinization is prevalent
in irrigated agricultural lands as high rates of evapotrans-
piration and low annual precipitation allows mineral sol-
utes such as dissociated cations Na?, Ca?, Mg?, and K?;
and anions Cl-, SO42-, CO32-, HCO3-, and NO3-, to
collect and concentrate within the soil through the appli-
cation of irrigation water (Hillel 2008). The solubility of
such salts means that they are commonly dissolved within
irrigation water and the act of irrigating arid soils has the
tendency to mobilize any salts that are already present
(Rhoades 1990). Additionally, excessive watering and
leaky irrigation systems lead to the movement of salts into
the water table, which can later result in the salinization of
surface soils in the case of a rising water table that
approaches the surface (Rhoades 1990; Keren 2000).
Salinity values can vary with soil depth, directly affecting
plants based on their root zone exposure and presence of
groundwater, however the shallow roots of most seasonal
crops means that their exposure to surface soil salinity can
be of greater concern. Furthermore, the timing of salinity
exposure can be even more critical of a factor to consider
as the sensitivity of plants varies at different life stages
during its growth (Rhoades 1990). Surface soil salinity,
referring to that within the average root zone of cultivated
plants, is frequently advanced as the typical soil reference
for monitoring soil salinity due to its obvious applicability
for agriculture (Keren 2000). However, the surface salinity
of the soil may also refer to the formation of visible, typ-
ically bright white, salt crusts or non-visible concentrations
of salts present within the first few cm of the soil. It is this
usage of the term surface soil salinity, referring to the
surficial deposition of salts with other soil constituents, that
is relevant to a discussion of employing multi-spectral
remotely sensed data for the monitoring of salt affected
soils.
Despite the magnitude of land degradation from soil
salinization and its implication for future agricultural pro-
ductivity, insufficient attention has been paid to the
regional mapping of salinity affected agricultural soils. The
expense and time required for conventional field mapping
based on soil samples, as well as a lack of concerted
attention to the problem, has inhibited monitoring of this
growing land degradation problem. For instance, the
monitoring of soil salinity within the Mexicali Valley of
Mexico has occurred irregularly over the last twenty years,
479
focusing primarily on the high soil salinity levels that have
damage the periphery of the agricultural area. Benefits
from such inconsistent monitoring efforts are diminished
by the fact that soil salinity is a dynamic threat, typically
experiencing significant spatial and temporal variations.
Such variability may even occur seasonally depending on
environmental conditions such as precipitation events that
mobilize salts and physical disturbances such as tilling that
tend to disperse salt crusts through the physical mixing of
the soil. What is needed to assist in addressing this land
degradation threat to productive agricultural lands is the
capability to monitor, on a regional scale, low levels of
salinity with sufficient consistency to facilitate the study of
temporal variations and identify trends. Satellite-based
remote sensing platforms and their multi-spectral data
offers the best chance of tackling this difficult land deg-
radation problem. The opportunity for deploying remotely
sensed imagery for the direct detection and monitoring of
surface soil salinity is particularly enhance in environ-
mental settings where there is sparse vegetation and at
times following the high evaporation rates of the summer
but prior to the arrival of rains or other factors that might
disturb salt crusts and other surface salt deposits (Howari
2003b; Nield and others 2007).
Remotely sensed imagery has been utilized to study soil
salinization for several decades due to its ability to detect
changes in surficial conditions as a result of differences in
the electromagnetic energy reflected or emitted by the
ground and vegetation (Huete 2004; Howari and Goodell
2009). Salt affected soils typically exhibit surface salt
crusts or depositional efflorescence altering the reflectance
of the exposed soil surface based on the specific absorption
features of the salts present and their arrangement or other
characteristics (Howari and others 2002; Howari 2003a).
The molecular vibration process is the basis for the dis-
tinctive spectral reflectance and absorption features of
various salt crusts, as limited wavelengths of electromag-
netic energy are absorbed in the vibrational stretching and
bending of certain chemical bonds (Howari and others
2002; Howari 2003a). Howari and others (2002) examined
the spectral reflectance and absorption features for various
types of salt crust, demonstrating the variability in spectral
responses of different salt crusts as well as identifying the
impact of other factors such as grain size that could affect
the resulting spectral reflectance curves. In addition, the
likelihood of having mixed salt crusts within a single pixel
of a remotely sensed image has driven the need to explore
the use of spectral endmembers to unmix such pixel values,
while acknowledging that other physical factors may also
affect the observed spectral signatures (Dehaan and Taylor
2003; Howari and Goodell 2009). The complexity of
dealing with the variability among salt types and their
occurrence amid the influences of other soil properties has
123
480
Fig. 1 Study area, locating the
area of interest (92,072.11 ha)
within the Mexicali Valley of
Baja California and its
borderlands environment
led some to declare that there are no known narrow
absorption bands distinctive to salinity in general (Huete
2004). This ignores the advances that have been made
using hyperspectral sensors to hone in on the various
absorption features of specific salt crusts (Dehaan and
Taylor 2003; Ghrefat and others 2007; Howari and Goodell
2009). However, practical limitations including the avail-
ability, complexity and costs associated with hyperspectral
imagery still limit its potential to serve as the basis for
widespread, iterative, regional monitoring of surface soil
salinity in affected critical agricultural regions of the
world.
A practical method for detecting soil salinity for regional
agricultural resources managers must provide sufficiently
accurate measurements across a large agricultural area and
must be easily repeated without excessive costs or com-
plexity given the high temporal and spatial variability of
soil salinization. This research explores one such method-
ology through a case study on salinity affected soils within
the agricultural region of the Mexicali Valley of Baja
California, Mexico (Fig. 1). An innovated approach to
quantifying soil salinity on agricultural lands at the regional
scale is proposed through the use of Landsat 5 Thematic
Mapper (TM) imagery, concurrent field measurements of
soil salinity, and a regression analysis of several commonly
available spectral indices to model the extent of soil sali-
nization in the Mexicali Valley. While this methodology is
limited by the spectral and spatial resolution of Landsat 5
TM imagery and the fundamental difficulty in detecting low
levels of surface soil salinity, this study demonstrates that
123
Environmental Management (2012) 50:478–489
this free and widely available imagery can be used effec-
tively to assist in monitoring regional patterns of surface
soil salinity impacting productive agricultural lands.
Methods
Study Area Background
The Mexicali Valley is located in the Municipality of
Mexicali and the Mexican State of Baja California, with
the international border defining its northern boundary with
Southern California and the Colorado River delineating its
eastern border with Southern Arizona. The Colorado River
serves not only to define the international border with
Arizona but also is critical to the agricultural success of the
region as it supplies the majority of its irrigation water.
Centered at 31° North latitude, the valley’s climate is
defined by clear skies and plenty of sunlight, with little
precipitation given the atmospheric dominance of high
pressure. Average monthly high temperatures in July are
42 °C and the lowest average monthly high of 21 °C
occurs in December (Weather 2011). The yearly average
precipitation is 72.5 mm, with monthly average precipita-
tion values averaging 0 mm in June and 12.4 mm in
January (Weather 2011). This examination of surface soil
salinity utilizes a study area of approximately 92,000 ha,
centered on the prime agricultural lands in the center of the
Mexicali Valley. The specific dimensions of the study area
were designated based on the known extent of produce
Environmental Management (2012) 50:478–489
cultivation and the characteristics of available satellite
imagery, with the extreme southeast corner including a
portion of the Colorado River and the Mexican state of
Sonora.
Soils in the valley are generally classified under the
principle soil order of Aridisols, according to the soil
taxonomy developed by the United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA). The defining characteristics of such
soils are their lack of sufficient moisture for mesophytic
plants and limited soil horizon development. Entisols are
also present in the valley given its original formation as the
flood plain of the Colorado River (Hillel 2008). While
localized variations do exist across the valley, the soil
texture is generally a sandy loam, with limited areas on the
western edge of the valley having a greater concentration
of clay as a result of erosion associated with the Sierra
Cucapa and Sierra Mayor mountains.
Agriculture within the Mexicali Valley has developed
over time to specialize in high value, fall/winter export-
oriented produce cultivation. The two principal agricultural
seasons include a summer (May to September) season
during which field grains, cotton and oil seed crops dom-
inate, and a fall/winter season (October to May) during
which a range of very high-value produce crops are culti-
vated for export markets alongside some field grains. Far
fewer hectares (averaging around 9,000 ha) of land are
cultivated in produce than in field grains during the fall/
winter season due to the limited supply of available irri-
gation water during that time of year and the generally
higher water demands of these crops. The month of Sep-
tember is a particularly favorable time to examine salinity-
affected soils given its timing at the close of the summer
agricultural season and the relatively little agricultural
activity that occurs during this month. The fact that little
active cultivation is ongoing at this time of year is partic-
ularly advantageous for remote sensing of surface soil
salinity as a majority of fields are bare and there is a
minimal amount of physical disturbance to the surface of
the soils as tilling has not yet commenced for the fall/
winter season. The end of the summer agricultural season is
the optimal time to study the salinity content of surface
soils as they should be at their peak as a result of the
extensive irrigation undertaken during the heat of the
summer agricultural season (Metternicht and Zinck 2003).
Interviews with produce operations in the Mexicali
Valley indicate that soil salinization is a prime concern
influencing the land-use decisions of agriculturalists as
they select parcels to rent for the cultivation of valuable
produce crops. The concern for soil salinization has forced
cultivators to move operations to lands perceived to be less
affected in order to minimize crop losses due declining
harvest yields (Judkins 2005, 2009). However such deci-
sions on land-use have been undertaken with limited
481
regional understanding of magnitude and pattern of soil
salinization affecting the valley due to the lack of consis-
tent mapping of salt-affected soils. Mexico’s National
Water Commission (CNA) has undertaken 2 years (1995
and 2004) of quantitative regional analysis of the extent
and magnitude of soil salinization, however, these analyses
are dated and were conducted at a level of precision
insufficient to accurately project the effects on specific
crops cultivated in the valley. Additionally, these results
have not been widely disseminated among agriculturalists.
A questionable collective perception of soil salinization has
emerged from this lacuna of understanding, leading to
various poorly substantiated assertions regarding the
extent, severity and pattern of salinity-affected soils in the
Mexicali Valley (Judkins 2005, 2009).
Remote Sensing Background
The complexity and cost of traditional field sampling
approaches for regional monitoring of soil salinity has
driven the exploration of various remote sensing tech-
niques and several studies have demonstrated their capa-
bility for detecting and mapping variations in surface soil
salinity (Metternicht and Zinck 2003). Unfortunately, the
successful application of satellite imagery for the accurate
detection of salinity has proven difficult as the range of salt
types associated with soil salinity share no single identi-
fying spectral signature and soil, mineral and land-cover
conditions can interfere with the spectral responses asso-
ciated with surface salt deposits (Dwivedi and Rao 1992;
Howari and Goodell 2009). The complexity and difficulty
in detecting surface soil salinity has lead some to focus on
the detection of salinity affected soils at moderate to high
EC levels in non-agricultural settings (Dwivedi and Rao
1992; Metternicht and Zinck 1997). Interest in assisting
individual cultivators has also motivated research on pre-
cise sub-field level monitoring of surface soil salinity
(Corwin and Leach 2005). Recently, the focus has centered
on the use of hyperspectral imagery and subpixel analysis
using image-derived spectral endmembers as promising
improved accuracies (Dehaan and Taylor 2003). This
imagery and processing technique also holds the potential
for distinguishing among various salt types in the presence
of a few dominant salt crusts (Howari and others 2002). A
review of these approaches is provided by Metternicht and
Zinck (2003) and Howari and Goodell (2009). However,
the complexity of classification techniques and the limited
availability of hyperspectral imagery presents a challenge
to their general use in applied agricultural research (Csillag
and others 1993; Dehaan and Taylor 2003).
Valuable information on surface soil characteristics for
regional resource managers can yet be gleaned from tra-
ditional medium-resolution multispectral imagery. While
123
482
lacking the fine spectral resolution of hyperspectral imag-
ery, and limited to regional analysis by its medium-spatial
scale, Landsat 5 TM imagery is widely available
throughout the world and is now provided free for down-
load by the United States Geological Survey (USGS).
Additionally, several studies have identified promising
spectral bands, ratios and classification techniques utilizing
Landsat imagery for the detection of surface soil salinity
(Dwivedi and Rao 1992; Metternicht 2003; Metternicht
and Zinck 2003; Nield and others 2007). These studies
indicate that there remains much that can still be accom-
plished utilizing Landsat 5 TM imagery. This is particu-
larly true when one considers the longstanding call for an
approach to monitoring regional patterns of surface soil
salinity appropriate for resource managers seeking to
address the socio-environmental drivers of soil salinization
at the regional scale (FAO 1995; Judkins 2009). Such an
approach to monitoring salt-affected soils may therefore
tolerate the sacrifice of some spatial and spectral precision
for a regional perspective, capable of identifying the extent,
magnitude and the general patterns of salt-affected soils
and how they change through time.
Research Design
The spatial variation of surface soil salinity in the Mexicali
Valley was mapped using multispectral imagery and a
simple, yet effective method based on the combination of
several common spectral indices that exhibited correlations
with field measurements of surface soil salinity. The
research project comprised three stages: data acquisition
and preparation, model generation and selection, and final
image processing. The acquisition of new Landsat 5 TM
imagery from the USGS was necessary as both agricultural
land-cover and soil salinity can be highly variable over
time. We measured the level of soil salinity using a tem-
perature standardized Field Scout Electrical Conductivity
(EC) meter and the Saturated Media Extract method pre-
scribed by Spectrum Technologies (2006). The final pre-
cise location of sample sites was recorded using a handheld
Magellan Meridian Gold Global Positioning Service (GPS)
device. EC, in mS/cm, was used as the standard measure of
soil salinity given its prevalence in soil salinization studies
(Corwin and Leach 2005). We used the ERDAS Image
software package to perform the image processing work
and ESRI’s ArcGIS software package to bring together the
GPS waypoints with the satellite imagery. Correlations
between the pixel values generated by various spectral
indices and the averaged EC measurements of the field
sample sites provided the basis for a regression analysis
that produced a model of soil salinity characterized by a
relatively high degree of sensitivity and an acceptable level
of accuracy for regional mapping of surface soil salinity.
123
Environmental Management (2012) 50:478–489
Data Acquisition and Processing
Landsat 5 TM imagery from the USGS, path 38 and row
38, was purchased shortly after its acquisition date on 13
September 2007 to allow for accurate field measurements
of soil salinity concurrent with the satellite imagery. This
imagery having 28.5 m resolution with 7 channels—blue
(0.45–0.52 lm), green (0.52–0.60 lm), red (0.63–0.69 lm),
near infrared (0.75–0.90 lm), mid infrared (1.55–
1.75 lm), thermal infrared (10.4–2.50 lm) and mid infra-
red (2.09–2.35 lm) was used to generate a basic land-use
and land-cover (LULC) map of the study area based on a
modified Anderson level one and two classification system
(Anderson and others 1976; Table 1). An unsupervised
classification method was employed using the Iterative Self
Organizing Data Analysis (ISODATA) algorithm of
ERDAS Imagine with 70 clusters, a convergence threshold
of 0.97 and defined maximum number of iterations set for
15. The classes generated by the unsupervised classifica-
tion were then recoded into the desired general LULC
classes need for the research based on expert experience
with the study area developed over the previous 3 years of
field work and reference to available aerial imagery
(Table 2). The selected LULC classes include: urban/built-
up, irrigated agricultural land, non-irrigated agricultural
land, sandy areas, transitional areas, mixed barren land, and
unclassified lands (Fig. 2). Extensive fieldwork experience
within the region informed the selection of LULC classes,
which were intended to be general enough to reflect the
dynamic nature of the system of short-term agricultural
land leases that predominate within the study area. An
accuracy assessment employing aerial imagery and field
verification performed during the field soil sampling con-
firmed that the classification had been successful in iden-
tifying agricultural land-uses with an acceptable range of
Table 1 Land-use and land-cover categories modified slightly from
Anderson and others (1976)
LULC class Definition
Urban or built-up Areas dominated by human settlements and
structures
Irrigated agricultural Agricultural lands with green vegetation,
land indicating active irrigation
Non-irrigated Agricultural lands without green vegetation,
agricultural land indicating no active application of irrigation
water
Sandy areas other Areas dominated by sand and lacking
than beaches significant vegetation
Transitional areas Areas in transition from agricultural lands to
other land categories, including multiple
season fallow land
Mixed barren land Areas defined by the presence of some natural
vegetation
Environmental Management (2012) 50:478–489 483

Table 2 Land-use and land-cover classification distribution within accuracy, however, classification confusion between sandy
study area and barren lands is evident (Table 3). The lower accuracies
Class name Histogram Hectares Percent of these two classes were viewed as acceptable given their
similar broad classification as non-agricultural lands.
Unclassified 3,462 281.20 0.31
Within 8 days of imagery acquisition, soil salinity field
Urban/built-up 13,895 1128.62 1.23 measurements were collected over a two day period from a
Irrigated agricultural land 242,068 19661.97 21.35 stratified random selection of sites that avoided urban or
Non-irrigated agricultural land 513,829 41735.76 45.33 built-up areas and other restricted lands. Additionally, any
Sandy areas 56,454 4585.48 4.98 actively cultivated fields were also avoided, given the
Transitional areas 197,623 16051.93 17.43 sanitary restrictions on accessing cultivated fields due to
Mixed Barren Land 106,213 8627.15 9.37 public health concerns. Avoiding actively cultivated lands
Total 1133,544 92072.11 100.00 does introduce a limitation to the study, however, it was not
deemed significant as only actively cultivated lands were
avoided and this represented a very small fraction of those
lands classified as irrigated agricultural lands due to the
timing of the study between the major agricultural seasons.
We have high confidence that significant changes in sur-
face soil salinity did not occur during the 7–8 days prior to
field work as the region did not experience any precipita-
tion or other atmospheric instability and little agricultural
work is typically undertaken at the close of the summer
agricultural season. Specifically, no major tilling opera-
tions, nor active irrigation of agricultural fields were wit-
nessed during the field work portion of this study.
Salinity measurements from 50 sites, were taken using
the Field Scout Soil & Water EC Meter and the Saturated
Media Extract (SME) method of standardization, following
the protocol dictated by Spectrum Technologies (2006).
Each sample site consisted of a column of surface soils
approximately 10 cm in diameter and 20 cm in depth that
was mixed and saturated with distilled water. Following ten
minutes of time, four temperature standardized measure-
ments of EC were taken, each at a depth of approximately
ten cm. The average of these readings was then recorded as
the official surface soil salinity of the field site. Locations
of the sample sites were mapped using a Magellan
Meridian Gold global positioning device with an accuracy
of around one meter, and ArcGIS was used to generate a
single point Geographic Information System (GIS) layer
with the associated EC attribute data.

Model Generation and Selection

Fourteen indices, including the seven Landsat 5 TM bands

Fig. 2 An unsupervised classification of the area of interest derived
from the Landsat Thematic Mapper 5 imagery, scene Path 38 and
Row 38, acquired 13 September 2007. Image width is approximately
24.9 km. The land-use and land-cover classes include agricultural,
natural, and urbanized areas within this largely rural agricultural
region
and several types of image algebra and transformations
(hereafter referred to as indices), were selected for analysis
as part of the model generation process. The indices
employed were selected in consultation with the relevant
literature based on their likelihood for exhibiting correla-
tions with variations in surface soil salinity (Dwivedi and
Rao 1992; Csillag and others 1993; Metternicht and Zinck
1997; Metternicht 2003; Metternicht and Zinck 2003;
Huete 2004). These indices included some common

123
484
Table 3 Accuracy assessment of the land-use and land-cover classification
Class name Reference Classified
Urban/built-up 9 4
Irrigated agricultural land 63 64
Non-irrigated agricultural land 138 136
Sandy areas 18 15
Transitional areas 44 52
Mixed barren land 27 28
Overall accuracy 72.24 %
Kappa coefficient 0.61
vegetation indices, principle components one through
three, tasseled cap index one through six, and the common
iron oxide and clay mineral indices. Following their gen-
eration, these indices were then combined with the seven
spectral bands of a Landsat 5 TM image into a single image
file comprised of 21 bands (Table 4). The correlation
between the pixel value of each band and the average of the
salinity measurements falling within that pixel informed
the selection of the nine bands with the strongest correla-
tion with soil salinity. Various permutations, comprising
sets of two, three, four, five and six bands (avoiding
combining highly correlated independent variables) were
undertaken using linear regression analysis to study which
model would yield the strongest correlation to the sampled
surface soil salinity values. Models were generated for the
ten combinations yielding the best R statistic and their
accuracies were determined using the root mean square
(RMS) errors between their predicted salinity values and
the sample surface soil salinity (Table 5). The band com-
bination 7, 9, 11, 16, 18 was ultimately selected based on it
having the highest R statistic and yielding the most realistic
map of predicted surface soil salinity values. The RMS
error of this model (0.631) implies that the average surface
soil salinity values predicted for each pixel should be
within approximately two thirds of one unit of EC.
Final Image Processing
ERDAS Imagine’s Spatial Modeler was used to implement
the selected model and produce a map of predicted average
soil salinity. The image generated by this model displayed
predicted salinity levels in EC units for every pixel
according to the constants and band coefficients produced
as part of model generation process. In addition to the
selected model, several other well performing models were
also tested. While the variation in predicted values was
small, some generated small negative EC values and were
therefore disqualified from consideration. Importantly, this
123
Environmental Management (2012) 50:478–489
Number Producers Users Kappa
accuracy (%) accuracy (%)
3 33.33 75.00 0.7423
52 82.54 81.25 0.7627
116 84.06 85.29 0.7277
9 50.00 60.00 0.5745
28 63.64 53.85 0.4591
8 29.63 28.57 0.2151
process confirmed the selection of the previously identified
preferred model, yielding the final model as follows:
y ¼ 2:326 þ ð0:039  Band 7Þ
þ ð0:287  Band 9Þ  ð0:014  Band 11Þ
þ ð0:016  Band 16Þ þ ð0:036  Band 18Þ
The continuous data of the selected model output, showing
increasing soil salinity with brightness, was converted to a
thematic map using the Subset function of ERDAS Image.
This process divided the data into thematic categories by
rounding down all salinity measurements to their integer base.
Salinity readings were then categorized into half EC ranges,
roughly corresponding to the RMS accuracy of the selected
model, producing a map of soil salinity for the Mexicali
Valley appropriate for agriculturalists (Fig. 3). The predicted
soil salinity data were also used to examine variations across
the study area that correspond to the LULC classification
(Table 6). The results of this last step yielded some interesting
insights that serves to demonstrate the usefulness of this
regional approach to surface soil salinity detection for
resource managers.
Results
Surface soil salinity values across the study area were
found to be generally low with distinct areas of elevated
salinity appearing in clusters throughout the Mexicali
Valley (Fig. 3). Variations in predicted soil salinity across
the study area were limited mostly to the low end of the EC
spectrum, with no areas qualifying as having truly saline
soils (those with EC readings above four). This finding was
not unexpected given the yet productive nature of agri-
culture in the valley and confirmed the previous soil
salinity mapping work conducted by Mexico’s irrigation
water authority. Little to no salinity (0.0–0.4 EC) was
attributed by the model to only 0.1 % of the total land
study area. Lands with some minor salinity (0.5–0.9 EC)
Environmental Management (2012) 50:478–489 485

Table 4 Indices and assigned

Band Index variables
band numbers
number

Band 1 Landsat band 1

Band 2 Landsat band 2
Band 3 Landsat band 3
Band 4 Landsat band 4
Band 5 Landsat band 5
Band 6 Landsat band 6
Band 7 Landsat band 7
Band 8 NDVI
Band 9 TNDVI
Band 10 Vegetation
index
Band 11 PCA 1
Band 12 PCA 2
Band 13 PCA 3
Band 14 Tasseled cap 1
Band 15 Tasseled cap 2
Band 16 Tasseled cap 3
Band 17 Tasseled cap 4
Band 18 Tasseled cap 5
Band 19 Tasseled cap 6
Band 20 Iron oxide
Band 21 Clay mineral

were mapped across 29.6 % of the study area. Most of the

land in the study area showed slightly elevated levels of
salinity (1.0–1.4 EC) as the model attributed this range to
68.3 % of the area, echoing concerns about soil salinization
as voiced by agriculturalists. Elevated levels of salinity
(1.5–1.9 EC) were modeled over 2.0 % of the study area, Fig. 3 Modeled average soil salinity values based on the area of
however the clustered pattern of these salt-affected soils interest derived from Landsat Thematic Mapper 5 imagery, scene
presents an increased likelihood for adverse impacts on Path 38 and Row 38, acquired 13 September 2007. Image width is
approximately 24.9 km. Each 28.5 m2 pixel is classified according to
individual farming operations while also suggesting that
its projected average surface soil salinity and showing the total area
these elevated levels of salinity are most likely the result of within each class
specific resource management practices. It is important to
note that the soil salinity values represent average predicted
values estimated for each pixel, likely concealing fine-scale higher soil salinity readings than those mapped by this
variations in the location and magnitude of salt-affected model, no areas were modeled to be large enough to
soils within each pixel. While there are certainly areas with influence average pixel values above those discussed.

Table 5 Band combinations with best statistical performance in modeling soil salinity
Bands employed R R2 Adjusted R2 SEE F RMS error Bias

7, 9, 11, 16, 18 0.402 0.162 0.057 0.675 1.543 0.631 -2.010

5, 9, 11, 21 0.400 0.160 0.078 0.668 1.950 0.630 -0.370
5, 9, 11 0.400 0.160 0.100 0.660 2.663 0.631 1.190
5, 9, 18, 21 0.400 0.160 0.078 0.668 1.948 0.631 1.300
5, 9, 11, 18 0.400 0.160 0.078 0.668 1.951 0.631 -1.470
5, 9, 16, 18, 21 0.400 0.160 0.055 0.676 1.521 0.632 -1.640
5, 9, 11, 18, 21 0.400 0.160 0.055 0.676 1.523 0.632 -1.940

123
486
Table 6 Soil salinity (EC) distribution by land-use and land-cover classification for the winter 2007 fresh produce agricultural season
Land-use/land-cover 0.0–0.4 EC
% Area (ha)
Irrigated agricultural land
Non-irrigated agricultural land
sandy areas 2.2 98.3
Transitional areas
Mixed barren land
Total 0.1 98.3
The elevated levels of surface soil salinity mapped in
Fig. 3 are clear evidence that surface soil salinity occurs
throughout the study area at levels sufficient to cause
immediate impacts to produce cultivation. These findings
contradict the assertion that soil salinization is only a
concern for the future due to its relatively low EC level at
the present time, as the clusters of elevated EC coincide
with irrigated lands considered prime lands for produce
cultivation (Table 6). Summarizing the occurrence of soil
salinity by LULC reveals the propensity of agricultural
lands and those most recently cultivated to have elevated
levels of surface soil salinity, likely as a result of the
application of irrigation water during the previous agri-
cultural seasons (Table 6). Irrigated agricultural lands have
the largest percentage of its area in the second highest
category of soil salinity (1.0–1.4 EC) at 94.2 %. Addi-
tionally, these lands account for the majority of the area
experiencing elevated levels of soil salinity (1.5–1.9 EC),
with almost double the frequency of non-irrigated lands.
Non-agricultural lands, including sandy areas and mixed
barren land, had the lowest level of soil salinity as pre-
dicted by the model employed in this research. The
majority of both of these lands registered at the 0.5–0.9 EC
level, indicating a tendency toward lower surface soil
salinization than those lands defined by their agricultural
land-use. The LULC category of transitional areas also
showed increased levels of soil salinity similar to the
agricultural lands, with 82.3 % of this LULC category
falling in the range of 1.0–1.4 EC. As this LULC category
represents agricultural lands not recently cultivated but in
the process of transition either from or to agricultural land,
it is to be expected that increased levels of soil salinity
would still be detectable in those lands previously
employed as irrigated agricultural land. Lastly, the distri-
bution of soil salinity by land-use and its clustered pattern
is consistent with the anticipated characteristics of irriga-
tion-induced soil salinization and does not seem to support
the notion that the low levels of surface soil salinity are the
result of its natural occurrence in a low lying delta region.
123
Environmental Management (2012) 50:478–489
0.5–0.9 EC 1.0–1.4 EC 1.5–1.9 EC
% Area (ha) % Area (ha) % Area (ha)
1.2 94.2 18500.3 5.8 1147.1
29.8 12406.1 68.6 28626.0 1.6 673.0
97.9 4483.1
17.7 2839.1 82.3 13204.7
84.8 7302.8 15.2 1310.3
29.6 27032.3 68.3 61641.3 2.0 1820.1
Discussion
Directly detecting salinity-affected soils utilizing satellite
imagery is founded on the premise that surface salt crusts,
as well as other non-crustal salt deposits, would influence
the spectral reflectance of the soil. Several researchers have
undertaken studies of the spectral response of salt crusts
and other deposits and identified specific, narrow bands
that yield distinctive spectral signatures that would allow
for the discernment of salt-affected soils (Dwivedi and Roa
1992; Csillag and others 1993; Howari and others 2002;
Howari 2003a; Howari and Goodell 2009). While not
directly applicable to Landsat 5 TM imagery, given the
broader spectral range of its image bands, these findings
underpin the justification for why certain Landsat bands
and indices of bands have the potential for being respon-
sive to variations in surface soil salinity.
Our study identifies Landsat 5 TM band 7, TNDVI, PCA 1,
Tasseled Cap 3 and Tasseled Cap 5 as exhibiting the most
promising correlations with surface soil salinity. These
findings are in line with the work of other researchers that
likewise found similar bands and indices as possessing
promising spectral responsiveness to variations in the EC of
surface soils. In studies published by both Dwivedi and Rao
(1992) and Metternicht and Zinck (1997), Landsat TM band
7 in combination with other bands was shown to be par-
ticularly helpful in identifying salt-affected soils. Addi-
tionally, Metternicht and Zinck (2003) cite several studies
that demonstrate high correlations between vegetation
indices and soil EC, lending support to our inclusion of
TNDVI within our model of soil salinization. In the same
paper, the authors also note the ability of principal com-
ponents analysis to be used in the separation of saline and
nonsaline soils (Metternicht and Zinck 2003). Lastly, our
findings regarding the correlation of the tasseled cap index
with soil salinity is also generally supported by the pub-
lished literature on the usefulness of image transformations,
although we found no specific reference to its use in pre-
vious studies (Metternicht and Zinck 2003). Our approach
Environmental Management (2012) 50:478–489
takes these findings further by demonstrating that mixing
these bands and indices yields meaningful results when
combined into a model of surface soil salinity. While many
combinations of varying numbers of bands and indices were
possible, the model selected both maximizes the strength of
the correlation with surface soil salinity and minimized its
RMS error to yield a map deemed to best predict average
surface soil salinity values at a regional scale.
Application of this practical method of detecting soil
salinity through remote sensing confirms the widespread
concern that this area of the lower Colorado River is
experiencing some problems with soil salinization. It
should be noted that much of the study area (29.7 %) was
found to be either unaffected or having only minor levels of
detectable salinity (0.0–0.9 EC) in the soil. While this
result might be construed to dissuade concern for salinity-
driven land degradation in the Mexicali Valley, one must
recall that even low levels of salinity can result in a loss of
crop productivity and thus impact the economic viability of
an agricultural region (Postel 1999; Hillel 2000). The
general prevalence of slightly elevated levels of salinity
(1.0–1.4 EC) and the existence of wide-spread clusters of
elevated levels of salinity (1.5–1.9 EC) confirms the
assertion of agriculturalists that soil salinization is a real
problem for agricultural operations. While it is interesting
to note that no pixels registered above two EC, this result is
understandable given the current productive nature of
agriculture in the valley. Salinity EC readings above three
or four have the potential to seriously impact the vitality of
a wide range of produce and would thus quickly endanger
the agricultural viability of winter produce in the entire
region. Additionally, the values mapped are averaged over
a pixel covering an area of 812.25 m2, almost certainly
concealing higher levels of soil salinity occurring over
small areas such as a section of one agricultural field.
Clusters of elevated salinity (1.5–1.9 EC) occur
throughout the study area, raising the question of what
biophysical and/or land management practices might be
tied to their occurrence. Additional investigation of these
clusters is needed in order to explain their occurrence rel-
ative to land and water management and the types of
produce cultivated in these areas. Examining the occur-
rence of soil salinity by LULC offers strong evidence of the
agricultural impact on soil salinity in the Mexicali Valley,
suggesting that active cultivation is a primary factor in the
salinization of the soils in the valley. This finding is con-
sistent with the process of soil salinization as cultivated
agricultural lands in this arid environment requires repe-
ated irrigation for produce cultivation, during which time
the lands experience little to no tillage of the surface soils.
Salts thus accumulate in the top layers of the soil as a result
of the very high rates of evapotranspiration during the
summer season.
487
A final determination of the degree to which soil salinity
is driving land degradation in the Mexicali Valley must
consider the mix of agricultural crops cultivated in addition
to variations in EC and correlations with prevalent LULC
classifications. The predominant produce crop cultivated
immediately following the summer agricultural season is
green onions with other crops including carrots, cilantro,
radish, garlic and lettuce. Green onions occupy an area that
is around three times greater than the next most prevalent
type of produce, averaging around 3,500 ha (Judkins
2005). While only a fraction of the total irrigated agricul-
tural land during the fall/winter season, green onions
account for approximately 13 % of the total harvested
value of crops during the agricultural season (Judkins
2009). All types of produce when combined typically
accounts for around 31 % of the total harvest value of all
crops cultivated during the fall/winter season, demon-
strating the outsized importance of produce crops to the
viability of agriculture within the Mexicali Valley.
Increasing levels of soil salinity, while low in absolute
terms, endangers current pattern of agricultural activity as
green onions and many of the other types of fresh winter
produce cultivated in the area are known to be sensitive to
salinity. With regard to green onions, it is known that all
types of onions are highly sensitive to soil salinity and
therefore it is asserted to hold true for green onions as well
as bulb onions (Shannon and Grieve 1999). In tests on
several types of onions, Berstein and Aers (1953) found a
consistent measurable decline in yield (above 15 %) if soil
salinity levels reached even 1.4 EC. This sensitivity to
salinity also resulted in a 50 % decline in onion yield when
salinity reached 4.1 EC. The fact that declines in yield
occur at even the low levels of soil salinization (those
above 1.4 EC), predicted to occur in clusters throughout the
study area, suggests that crop losses may already be
impacting produce cultivation within the Mexicali Valley.
It is, however, notoriously difficult to determine the exact
impact of salinity on crops as other factors, not the least is
the timing and harvest practices of each crops, can impact
the total agricultural losses (Chhabra 1996). We contend
that the magnitude and spatial extend of salt-affected soils
is demonstrated to exist at a level appropriate to consider
the surface soils of the Mexicali Valley as degraded by soil
salinization.
Conclusions
This research successfully demonstrates an innovative
method for mapping the spatial variations in soil salinity in
the Mexicali Valley utilizing Landsat 5 TM satellite
imagery and concurrent field sampling of soil salinity. The
regression analysis of field salinity measures and imagery
123
488
allows surface soil salinity to be modeled across a large
agricultural region with an adequate level of sensitivity to
varying levels of salinity for agricultural applications.
Through this study, we identified Landsat band 7, TNDVI,
PCA 1, Tasseled Cap 3 and Tasseled Cap 5 as possessing
the strongest correlation to variations in surface soil
salinity. By combining these indices into a single model,
we were able to generate a map of predicted average sur-
face soil salinity values, possessing an error value of
around two thirds of one unit of EC across a pixel covering
812.25 m2. While of limited value to individual agricult-
uralists seeking to address variations in salinity occurring
across a single cultivated parcel, such results present an
opportunity for regional resource managers to better
monitor variations in soil salinity across a large agricultural
area over time. This finding is all the more important as we
are beginning to realize that many of the driving factors of
land degradation are best addressed at the regional scale
rather than through remediation actions focused on indi-
vidual situations (Judkins 2009).
While this approach and the model it generates are not
without limitations, including spectral and spatial resolu-
tion, its simplicity and degree of acceptable accuracy makes
it a promising tool for continuous region-wide salinity
monitoring. The reliance on field sampling of soil saliniza-
tion may be viewed as a significant weakness by those
seeking a remote sensing solution that does not require
extensive field sampling, however, to date that approach has
struggled to yield the level of detail necessary for land
managers, without resorting to the complexity and costs
associated with hyperspectral remote sensing approaches. It
is anticipated that the application of this innovative method
for quantifying soil salinization at the regional scale has the
potential to assist resource managers to better understand
this widespread form of land degradation and ultimately
facilitate the development of improved policies and
practices for the mitigation of salinity-driven land
degradation.
Acknowledgments This project’s field work was funded by the
Melvin G. Marcus Scholarship Award administered by the School of
Geographical Science and Urban Planning at Arizona State University.
Thanks to the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments to
improve this manuscript.
References
Anderson JR, Hardy EE, Roach JT, Witmer RE (1976) A land use and
land cover classification system for use with remote sensor data.
Geological survey paper 964: a revision of the land use
classification system as presented in the U.S. geological survey
circular 671. United States Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC
123
Environmental Management (2012) 50:478–489
Berstein L, Aers AD (1953) Salt tolerance of five varieties of onions.
Proceedings of the American Society of Horticultural Science
62:367–370
Chhabra R (1996) Soil salinity and water quality. AA Balkema,
Brookfield
Corwin DL, Leach MS (2005) Apparent soil electrical conductivity
measurements in agriculture. Computers and Electronics in
Agriculture 46:11–43
Csillag F, Pásztor L, Biehl LL (1993) Spectral band selection for the
characterization of salinity status of soils. Remote Sensing of
Environment 43(3):231–242
Dehaan R, Taylor GR (2003) Image-derived spectral endmembers as
indicators of salinisation. International Journal of Remote
Sensing 24(4):775–794
Dwivedi RS, Rao BRM (1992) The selection of the best possible
Landsat TM band combination for delineating salt-affected soils.
International Journal of Remote Sensing 13(11):2051–2058
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and
French Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering
Research (1995) Use of remote sensing techniques in irrigation
and drainage. In: Proceedings of the Expert Consultation,
Montpellier, France, 2–4 November 1993, FAO, Rome, Italy
Gerrard J (2000) Soil degradation. Fundamentals of soils, Chapt 8.
Routledge, New York, pp 177–199
Ghrefat HA, Goodell PC, Hubbard BE, Langford RB, Aldouri RE
(2007) Modeling grain size variations for aeolian gypsum
deposits at white sands, New Mexico, using AVIRIS imagery.
Geomorphology 88:57–68
Hillel D (2000) Salinity management for sustainable irrigation:
integrating science, environment, and economics. The Interna-
tional Bank for Reconstruction, Washington
Hillel D (2008) Soil chemical attributes and processes. Soil in the
environment: crucible of terrestrial life, Chapt 10. Academic
Press, San Diego, pp 135–150
Howari FM (2003a) Comparison of spectral matching algorithms for
identifying natural salt crusts. Journal of Applied Spectroscopy
70(5):782–787
Howari FM (2003b) The use of remote sensing data to extract
information from agricultural land with emphasis on soil salinity.
Australian Journal of Soil Research 41:1243–1253
Howari FM, Goodell PC (2009) Characterization of salt-crust build-
up and soil salinization in the United Arab Emirates by means of
field and remote sensing techniques, Chapt 8. In: Metternicht GI,
Zinck JA (eds) Remote sensing of soil salinization: impact on
land management. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 141–154
Howari FM, Goodell PC, Miyamoto S (2002) Spectral properties of
salt crusts formed on saline soils. Journal of Environmental
Quality 31:1453–1461
Huete A (2004) Remote sensing of soils and soil processes, Chapt 1.
In: Ustin SL (ed) Remote sensing for natural resource manage-
ment and environmental monitoring. Wiley, New York, pp 3–52
Judkins GL (2005) Mexican produce agriculture: an investigation of
NAFTA’s influence. Masters Thesis, Arizona State University
Judkins GL (2009) Mexican produce agriculture and land degrada-
tion: a study of soil salinization in the Mexicali Valley, Mexico.
PhD Dissertation, Arizona State University
Keren R (2000) Salinity, Chapt 1. In: Sumner ME (ed) Handbook of
soil science. CRC Press, New York, pp G3–G25
Metternicht GI (2003) Categorical fuzziness: a comparison between
crisp and fuzzy class boundary modeling for mapping salt-
affected soils using landsat tm data and a classification based on
anion ratios. Ecological Modeling 168:371–389
Metternicht GI, Zinck JA (1997) Spatial discrimination of salt-and-
sodium-affected soil surfaces. International Journal of Remote
Sensing 18(12):2571–2586
Environmental Management (2012) 50:478–489
Metternicht GI, Zinck JA (2003) Remote sensing of soil salinity:
potentials and constraints. Remote Sensing of Environment
85:1–20
Nield SJ, Boettinger JL, Ramsey RD (2007) Digitally mapping gypsic
and natric soil areas using Landsat ETM data. Soil Science
Society of America Journal 71(1):245–252
Postel S (1999) Pillar of sand: can the irrigation miracle last?. WW
Norton & Company, New York
Redman CL (1999) Human impacts on ancient environments.
University of Arizona Press, Tucson
Rhoades JD (1990) Soil salinity—causes and controls, Chapt 4.
In: Goudie AS (ed) Techniques for desert reclamation. Wiley,
New York, pp 109–134
489
Scheumann W (1997) Managing salinization: irrigation analysis of
public irrigation systems. Springer, New York
Shannon MC, Grieve CM (1999) Tolerance of vegetable crops to
salinity. Scientia Horticulturae 78:5–38
Technologies Spectrum (2006) Field scout soil & water EC meter:
catalog #2265FS. Spectrum Technologies, Plainfield
Weather.com (2011) Monthly Weather for Mexicali, Mexico. http://
www.weather.com/outlook/travel/businesstraveler/wxclimatology/
monthly/graph/MXBC0004. Accessed 24 Sept 2011
123