Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533
DOI 10.1007/s00445-011-0525-5
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Heterogeneous pumice populations in the 2.08-Ma Cerro
Galán Ignimbrite: implications for magma recharge
and ascent preceding a large-volume silicic eruption
Heather M. N. Wright & Chris B. Folkes &
Raymond A. F. Cas & Katharine V. Cashman
Received: 16 May 2009 / Accepted: 14 June 2011 / Published online: 2 October 2011
# Springer-Verlag 2011
Abstract Triggering mechanisms of large silicic eruptions
remain a critical unsolved problem. We address this
question for the ~2.08-Ma caldera-forming eruption of
Cerro Galán volcano, Argentina, which produced distinct
pumice populations of two colors: grey (5%) and white
(95%) that we believe may hold clues to the onset of
eruptive activity. We demonstrate that the color variations
correspond to both textural and compositional variations
between the clast types. Both pumice types have bulk
compositions of high-K, high-silica dacite to low-silica
rhyolite, but there are sufficient compositional differences
(e.g., ~150 ppm lower Ba at equivalent SiO2 content and
0.03 wt.% higher TiO2 in white pumice than grey) to
Editorial responsibility: J. Stix
This paper constitutes part of a special issue:
Cas RAF, Cashman K (eds) The Cerro Galan Ignimbrite and Caldera:
characteristics and origins of a very large-volume ignimbrite and its
magma system.
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article
(doi:10.1007/s00445-011-0525-5) contains supplementary material,
which is available to authorized users.
H. M. N. Wright : C. B. Folkes : R. A. F. Cas
School of Geosciences, Monash University,
Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
K. V. Cashman
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Oregon,
Eugene, OR 97403-1272, USA
Present Address:
H. M. N. Wright (*)
U.S. Geological Survey,
345 Middlefield Rd,
Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
e-mail: hwright@usgs.gov
suggest that the two pumice populations are not related by
simple fractionation. Trace element concentrations in
crystals mimic bulk variations between clast types, with
grey pumice containing elevated Ba, Cu, Pb, and Zn
concentrations in both bulk samples (average Cu, Pb, and
Zn concentrations are 27, 35, and 82 in grey pumice vs. 11,
19, and 60 in white pumice) and biotite phenocrysts and
white pumice showing elevated Li concentrations in biotite
and plagioclase phenocrysts. White and grey clasts are also
texturally distinct: White pumice clasts contain abundant
phenocrysts (44–57%), lack microlites, and have highly
evolved groundmass glass compositions (76.4–79.6 wt.%
SiO2), whereas grey pumice clasts contain a lower
percentage of phenocrysts/microphenocrysts (35–49%),
have abundant microlites, and have less evolved ground-
mass glass compositions (69.4–73.8 wt.% SiO2). There is
also evidence for crystal transfer between magma produc-
ing white and grey pumice. Thin highly evolved melt rims
surround some fragmental crystals in grey pumice clasts
and appear to have come from magma that produced white
pumice. Furthermore, based on crystal compositions, white
bands within banded pumice contain crystals originating in
grey magma. Finally, only grey pumice clasts form
breadcrusted surface textures. We interpret these composi-
tional and textural variations to indicate distinct magma
batches, where grey pumice originated from an originally
deeper, more volatile-rich dacite recharge magma that
ascended through and mingled with the volumetrically
dominant, more highly crystalline chamber that produced
white pumice. Shortly before eruption, the grey pumice
magma stalled within shallow fractures, forming a van-
guard magma phase whose ascent may have provided a
trigger for eruption of the highly crystalline rhyodacite
magma. We suggest that in the case of the Cerro Galán
eruption, grey pumice provides evidence not only for
1514
cryptic silicic recharge in a large caldera system but also a
probable trigger for the eruption.
Keywords Caldera . Pumice textures . Shear . Phenocryst
fragments . Magma ascent . Silicic recharge
Introduction
The eruptibility of magma is a fundamental issue in
volcanology. The problem is particularly acute in the case
of high crystallinity magma, where magma ascent is
expected to be very slow, if not completely inhibited. Such
is the case for many large-volume, so-called monotonous
intermediate ignimbrites (Hildreth 1981), for which the
majority of the erupted material is phenocryst-rich and the
bulk compositions are restricted to a narrow range between
63 and 71 wt.% SiO2 (e.g., Fish Canyon Tuff, Lipman et al.
1970; Atana ignimbrite, Lindsay et al. 2000). One
suggested mechanism for magma chamber destabilization
(and eruption triggering) in high crystallinity deposits is
recharge by less crystalline, less evolved, and less viscous
magma into the larger magma chamber, particularly when
such an intrusion releases volatiles into the overlying
chamber, causing convective mixing between magma
bodies and/or transfers heat into the overlying chamber
(Pallister et al. 1992; Venezky and Rutherford 1997;
Bachmann et al. 2002). However, while some eruptions
may contain clear evidence of mafic recharge (mafic
enclaves, compositionally distinct pyroclast populations),
such evidence is not universal. An alternative suggestion is
that the recharge (and triggering) magma is silicic, although
in this case the evidence of recharge is often cryptic,
involving subtle textural variations within eruptive products
(e.g., Eichelberger et al. 2000, 2006; Smith et al. 2004,
2009; Hildreth and Wilson 2007; Kennedy and Stix 2007;
Wiebe et al. 2007; de Silva et al. 2008).
The most commonly observed textural variation between
pumice clasts is clast color, which generally varies from
grey to white within a given eruption. In some cases, clast
color corresponds with bulk composition, particularly when
the compositional difference between the resident and
recharge magma is large (e.g., andesite to rhyodacite,
Bacon and Druitt 1988; tephriphonolite to phonolite, Cioni
et al. 1995). In contrast, pumice color may not correlate
with bulk composition but instead reflect variations in syn-
eruptive rates of decompression and degassing. For exam-
ple, at Mount St Helens volcano, clast color varies with
vesicle size and the presence or absence of microlites, small
crystals that formed during ascent in response to decom-
pression and degassing (Klug and Cashman 1994). Alter-
natively, at Pinatubo and Quilotoa volcanoes, color
differences record the presence of abundant, small crystal
Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533
fragments in the grey pumice (Pallister et al. 1996; Rosi et
al. 2004) that are interpreted to result from high strain rates
along conduit margins during periods of rapid magma
ascent (Polacci et al. 2001; Rosi et al. 2004). Because clast
color can be attributed to different processes, it is important
to identify variations between clast populations beyond
simple color observations.
The most recent, climactic eruption of Cerro Galán
caldera, Argentina, at 2.08±0.02 Ma (average 40Ar/39Ar
sanidine age from samples north and west of the caldera,
Kay et al. 2011), produced both dominant coarsely
crystalline and coarsely vesicular white pumice and
proportionally subordinate finely crystalline and finely
vesicular grey pumice. Here we relate chemical and textural
characteristics of pumice to conditions of magma storage
and ascent that precede a cataclysmic, caldera-forming
eruption. We then consider these results in the context of
similar textural variations in other caldera-forming pyro-
clastic deposits.
Cerro Galán Ignimbrite
Cerro Galán is located in the Central Volcanic Zone of
northwestern Argentina (Fig. 1). The Cerro Galán volcanic
system has erupted a sequence of nine major ignimbrites
since ~6 Ma (Folkes et al. 2011b). In addition, small
volume dacitic eruptions within the caldera produced
domes, block and ash flows, and pyroclastic flows
throughout this interval. The climactic eruption of the
volcanic sequence produced the Cerro Galán Ignimbrite
(CGI) at ~2.08±0.02 Ma. The large deposit volume,
~630 km3 (dense-rock equivalent; Folkes et al. 2011b),
makes this eruption one of the largest in the world (Mason
et al. 2004). Trap-door style collapse occurred along a
rectilinear set of faults, producing a piecemeal collapse
block ~27×16 km in dimension. The CGI is generally
pumice-poor, lithic-poor (average 10% pumice and 5%
lithics, based on field approximation), and crystal-rich. The
pyroclastic flow deposit lacks an associated precursory fall
deposit, forming a single depositional unit through much of
its areal distribution, with the exception of distal deposi-
tional localities where multiple flow units are observed,
separated by thin pyroclastic surge layers (Cas et al. 2011).
We have identified three distinct juvenile clast types:
white pumice, grey pumice (which includes grey/white
banded varieties), and crystal-rich juvenile clasts. Propor-
tionally minor, crystal-rich dense juvenile clasts represent
cognate material, inferred to have formed part of a crystal
mush (Folkes et al. 2011a) and will not be discussed here.
We focus instead on differences between white and grey
pumice. Grey pumice commonly contains microscopic
bands of white pumice but can be macroscopically banded
Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533 1515

Fig. 1 Location map of Cerro

Galán caldera, Argentina. Loca-
tions of samples used in this
study are shown with small
circles. Topographic caldera rim
is shown with a solid line;
inferred caldera-bounding faults
are shown with dashed lines

(Fig. 2). While white pumice clasts are sometimes found
within grey pumice, the reverse is not observed. Further-
more, the only clasts to exhibit breadcrusted surfaces are
grey and banded clasts. Small plagioclase-phyric dacite
lithic clasts, inferred to originate from shallow wall rock,
are present in many grey pumice clasts. Grey pumice forms
~5% of the total pumice population, varying between 1%
and 10% at any given locality. However, grey pumice forms
a slightly higher percentage of large-pumice clasts than of
small clasts, and in rare large-pumice concentration
horizons, proportions of grey pumice are as high as 75%.
In some distal localities, these pumice concentration
horizons form the tops of topography-induced depositional
subunits.
Using these macroscopic textural variations as a basis for
classification, we collected samples of white and grey
1516
Fig. 2 Photographs of pumice textures. a White (left) and banded (right) pumice textures in outcrop. b Breadcrusted grey pumice clasts. c Grey
pumice clast containing white pumice core
pumice (including banded, breadcrusted, and white pumice-
cored samples) for detailed textural and chemical study. We
use the coupled textural and chemical variations to better
constrain interpretation of the eruption trigger and ascent
history of the CGI magma.
Methods
Pumice samples from each textural group were collected for
chemical and textural analyses from sample localities
distributed both around the caldera (Fig. 1) and at a range
of stratigraphic levels within the ignimbrite. To determine
chemical variations between pumice clasts, we analyzed
bulk pumice, groundmass glass, and individual crystal
compositions. Bulk compositions were determined at
Washington State University using X-ray fluorescence
(XRF) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
(ICP-MS) of 22 white and 13 grey crushed pumice samples
using the protocol of Johnson et al. (1999) and Knaack et
al. (1994), respectively. Groundmass glass and mineral
compositions were analyzed in 13 samples using the
Cameca SX100 electron microprobe at the University of
Oregon. A 12-keV electron beam at 20 nA with a 2–10-μm-
diameter defocused beam was used to analyze groundmass
glass compositions, whereas a focused beam was used for
feldspar, biotite, and oxide crystal analyses. Volatile
migration through glass due to sample bombardment (and
heating) by the electron beam was corrected using an
extrapolation method in the software package Probe for
Windows (Donovan 2007). Trace element concentrations in
individual minerals were analyzed by LA-ICP-MS (laser
ablation ICP-MS) in the W.M. Keck Collaboratory for
Plasma Spectrometry, Oregon State University using a
NewWave DUV 193-mm ArF Excimer laser and VG PQ
ExCell Quadrupole ICP-MS. Plagioclase and biotite crys-
tals were ablated for 45 s using a 40-μm spot size and 4-Hz
pulse rate, following the methods of Kent et al. (2004).
Care was taken to avoid intersecting inclusions in the
analyses by visual inspection, although we cannot entirely
Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533
eliminate this possibility in all cases. 29Si was used as an
internal standard in conjunction with SiO2 contents mea-
sured by electron microprobe. The trace element composi-
tions of individual phenocrysts were analyzed in one white,
one grey, and two grey clasts with white cores, with a single
analysis performed on each crystal. Modal proportions of
crystal phases and groundmass glass were determined by
point counting crystals on petrographic thin sections. A
minimum of 500 counts (usually 1,000 counts) were made
on a total of 24 white and 13 grey samples. Cathodolumi-
nescence (CL) images of quartz crystals were taken using
an external Gatan cathodoluminescence detector attached to
the JEOL scanning electron microscope (SEM) at the
University of Melbourne, using a 30-keV beam with a spot
size of 8. The maximum imaging aperture available was
~1 mm, and where grains were >1 mm, multiple images
were stitched together.
To determine variations in vesicle textures, we analyzed
porosities (vesicularities), permeabilities, and vesicle tex-
tures of selected clasts. Connected porosities were deter-
mined using cores drilled from individual pumice clasts.
Clasts were cored with a 2.5-cm-diameter drill bit, cut to
2.5 cm length, weighed, and core volume was measured.
Connected porosity (ϕc) was determined by comparing the
He-accessible volume of the core with the bulk core
volume, measured using a micromeritic multi-volume He-
pycnometer at the University of Oregon (e.g., Wright et al.
2007). At least three measurements were made per sample;
resultant precision is ±0.2% (1σ) of porosity value. Darcian
permeability was measured using a top-down permeameter
at the University of Oregon according to Rust and Cashman
(2004). At least two measurements were made per sample.
Qualitative characterization of vesicle shapes, sizes,
and crystal orientations was made using backscatter
electron (BSE) images and crossed polarized light
(XPL) images of polished thin sections of pumice. BSE
images were obtained on the FEI Quanta 200 FEG SEM
at the University of Oregon using a 10-keV electron
beam at 5–10 nA sample current and a 10-mm working
distance and on the JEOL JSM 840A SEM at the Centre
Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533
for Electron Microscopy at Monash University using a
15-keV electron beam at 3–10 nA current and a 15-mm
working distance on carbon-coated thin sections.
To determine water and CO2 concentrations in melt
inclusions trapped in quartz crystals in white pumice,
inclusions were doubly intersected and polished for Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopic (FTIR) analyses. Only
white pumice samples were analyzed because of a general
paucity of intact melt inclusions within grey pumice. In
addition, wafers of matrix glass from pumice clast margins
and a breadcrust bomb rind were doubly polished according
to the method of Wright et al. (2007). Transmission spectra
were obtained using a Thermo Nicolet Nexus 670 FTIR
spectrometer interfaced with a continuum IR microscope at
the University of Oregon. Absorptions (peak heights) were
measured by subtracting background fits using straight line
fits and were used to determine species concentration
through Beer’s law (e.g., Wallace et al. 1999). We used
εCO2 =1,214 l/mol cm based on measurements of synthe-
sized rhyolitic samples (Behrens et al. 2004). We iteratively
calculated εH2O =73 l/mol cm by minimizing error to a
linear least-squares fit between cH2O from the 3,550-cm−1
peak and combined water concentration from individual
species peaks at 5,230 and 4,520 cm−1 using the calibration
of Zhang et al. (1997). This value is consistent with the
range of values calculated by Newman et al. (1986). Based
on a comparison between 5,230 and 4,520 cm−1 calculated
water contents and 3,550 cm−1 water contents and
including error in thickness measurements, we calculate a
maximum error of ±0.4 wt.% H2O and ±10 ppm CO2 for
melt inclusion data. Matrix glass water and CO2 concen-
trations are calculated using the same absorption peaks and
absorption coefficients as melt inclusions but are analyzed
using a wider aperture (>100 μm) and corrected for average
vesicularity, as in Wright et al. (2007). At least three sets of
measurements on different glassy wafers were made per
sample. Standard deviation was calculated between average
values for each glass wafer.
Results
Bulk composition
White and grey pumice populations are geochemically
similar. Both pumice types are high-K high-silica dacites to
low-silica rhyolites (hereafter called rhyodacites) with
broadly similar bulk compositions (Table 1; Sup. Table 1;
Fig. 3a). Compositional variation between pumice clast
types does not correlate with geographic or stratigraphic
level in the ignimbrite. Variations of some minor and trace
element abundances demonstrate, however, that the two
pumice populations are chemically distinct. For example,
1517
Ba concentrations in grey pumice are ~150 ppm higher at
equal SiO2 content than in white pumice (Fig. 3c).
Similarly, slightly higher Ti contents (0.03 wt.% TiO2) in
white pumice than grey produces an offset between the two
pumice types in a plot of FeO vs. TiO2 (Fig. 3d). Offset
trends cannot be explained simply by differences in degree
of crystal fractionation of a single fractionating assemblage,
as illustrated by the constant Sr/Ba ratio with changing Ba
in the grey pumice, which contrasts with the Sr/Ba
fractionation signal preserved in the white pumice samples
(Fig. 3b).
Crystal content, glass composition, and mineral
composition
Modal proportions of phenocryst phases also vary
between pumice types (Table 2). Both white and grey
pumice contain plagioclase, biotite, quartz, sanidine,
apatite, ilmenite, and magnetite, with trace amounts of
zircon, monazite, and titanite. Differences between the
pumice types include the presence of trace hornblende
(small and variably broken down) in some grey pumice
samples and textural contrasts. One obvious textural
difference is crystal size: The maximum dimensions of
feldspar and quartz are <8 mm in the white pumice as
opposed to <1.6 mm in the grey. Similarly, biotite crystals
are <4 mm in white pumice but <1.2 mm in the grey
pumice. In general, the size and proportion of crystals in
grey pumice is less than in grey bands mingled with white
pumice (Fig. 4). However, grey pumice clasts are not
homogeneous; local bands with higher and lower crystal-
linities are present in some grey clasts. Furthermore, the
range in point-counted crystallinities between clasts is
large within both pumice types (from 35% to 49% in grey
pumice; 44% to 57% in white pumice; Fig. 5).
The most striking feature of grey pumice clasts is the
pervasive fracturing of all microphenocrysts and rare
phenocrysts (Fig. 6). Fractures form margin-parallel,
length-parallel, and cross-hatched sets (Fig. 6a–c). Highly
fractured quartz and feldspar crystals are also present but
not common in white pumice clasts; crystal fractures are
generally more widely spaced than in grey clasts (Fig. 6d).
Grey pumice clasts also contain microlites (crystals <30 μm
in size) and tiny (<1 μm) Fe–Ti oxides, whereas white
pumice clasts do not. Figure 7 shows biotite, plagioclase,
and quartz microlites in the glassy groundmass of grey
pumice. Plagioclase microlite shapes vary from angular,
commonly triangular 2-D shapes grouped in clusters to
irregular, multi-pointed, and rounded varieties. Quartz
microlites are rounded and commonly surrounded by cracks
in the groundmass glass. BSE images show that ground-
mass glass in the grey pumice is inhomogeneous and often
complexly mingled; thin (<5 μm) rims of evolved (white
Table 1 Selected bulk compositions of white and grey pumice; SiO2 to Cu analyses are XRF results; Nd to Eu analyses are ICPMS results
1518

White Grey

Sample number CG257 CG267 CG338 CG142a CG121a CG287 CG163 CG140 CG218 CG337 CG216 CG219 CG327 CG125 CG256 CG1a2 CG122

SiO2 69.07 69.07 69.25 68.99 69.50 69.50 70.24 69.87 70.38 70.12 69.52 68.32 69.53 70.04 70.13 69.87 69.93
TiO2 0.62 0.59 0.61 0.63 0.56 0.64 0.63 0.61 0.59 0.52 0.60 0.57 0.58 0.54 0.57 0.56 0.56
Al2O3 15.45 15.33 15.14 15.30 14.92 15.23 14.61 14.82 14.65 15.09 15.32 15.86 15.23 14.86 15.59 15.01 14.95
FeOT 3.05 2.95 3.04 3.14 2.75 3.20 3.10 3.03 2.92 2.66 3.06 2.80 3.04 2.80 2.93 2.84 2.97
MnO 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.05
MgO 1.26 1.23 1.19 1.19 1.14 1.14 1.27 1.19 1.16 0.99 0.69 1.08 0.77 1.11 1.06 1.06 1.17
CaO 2.59 2.81 2.67 2.73 3.18 2.56 2.66 2.79 2.56 2.40 2.61 2.91 2.63 2.66 2.17 2.56 2.49
Na2O 3.13 2.73 3.28 3.46 3.39 3.18 3.05 3.42 3.31 3.26 3.51 3.62 3.44 3.14 2.79 3.41 3.24
K2O 4.58 5.02 4.56 4.27 4.29 4.19 4.17 3.98 4.16 4.74 4.45 4.57 4.50 4.62 4.50 4.43 4.45
P2O5 0.20 0.21 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.29 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.18 0.21 0.23 0.24 0.20 0.21 0.19 0.19
Raw sum (XRF) 97.16 96.07 97.76 96.81 96.76 97.88 97.06 97.35 97.39 97.63 98.25 98.39 98.48 96.79 96.11 97.15 97.14
Ni 0.7 1.6 0.7 8.1 7.5 4.0 b.d. 7.1 b.d. 1.3 b.d. b.d. 1.1 4.6 b.d. 7.0 8.5
Cr 15.6 12.5 14.4 15.4 13.3 15.4 15.2 14.0 13.6 13.0 43.8 13.8 25.9 14.3 13.5 13.1 15.0
V 68 60 68 67 58 74 64 65 63 59 62 63 64 56 60 57 61
Ba 511 459 389 383 362 358 265 282 252 485 547 604 516 504 494 488 516
Rb 258 303 292 260 259 261 256 258 323 296 265 247 260 259 261 263 255
Sr 294 311 274 280 265 275 249 266 244 268 295 328 297 273 268 277 266
Zn 64 56 64 65 61 58 62 63 59 50 63 64 65 93 79 132 133
Ga 24 22 23 23 22 23 24 23 22 22 23 23 21 21 22 22 22
Cu 16.9 5.5 22.6 8.6 9.7 22.4 6.9 7.0 15.7 22.5 9.7 11.7 23.1 25.3 26.5 21.6 39.5
La 49 49 51 56 42 59 44 43 44 48 49 42 54 46 46 45 43
Ce 99 98 103 111 84 118 89 88 89 96 97 84 107 92 92 90 86
Pr 11 11 12 13 10 13 10 10 10 11 11 10 12 11 11 11 10
Nd 41 41 42 45 36 47 39 38 38 39 40 35 43 39 39 38 36
Sm 7.8 7.6 8.1 8.2 7.2 8.6 7.6 7.4 7.9 7.5 7.6 7.0 8.1 7.6 7.7 7.4 7.1
Eu 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.2
Gd 5.7 5.5 6.0 6.0 5.4 6.2 5.8 5.8 6.0 5.4 5.7 5.3 6.0 5.8 5.8 5.6 5.4
Tb 0.77 0.77 0.82 0.82 0.78 0.86 0.82 0.79 0.86 0.75 0.79 0.76 0.81 0.82 0.82 0.78 0.75
Dy 4.0 4.0 4.3 4.2 4.1 4.3 4.2 4.1 4.5 3.8 4.1 3.9 4.1 4.3 4.3 4.1 4.0
Ho 0.69 0.72 0.73 0.72 0.70 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.78 0.66 0.70 0.71 0.72 0.75 0.76 0.74 0.69
Er 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.8 2.0 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.7
Tm 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.26 0.27 0.24 0.28 0.23 0.25 0.25 0.24 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.24
Yb 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.7 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.5
Lu 0.21 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.24 0.24 0.23 0.26 0.22 0.23 0.23 0.22 0.26 0.24 0.24 0.22
Th 31 29 31 31 29 34 31 31 31 30 29 25 31 29 30 29 29
Nb 18 18 20 20 19 21 21 20 21 19 19 18 19 19 19 18 19
Y 18 19 20 19 19 20 20 19 21 18 19 19 19 21 20 20 18
Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533
Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533 1519

Major elements are normalized to 100% on a volatile-free basis. T Total Fe is expressed as FeO. All oxides normalized to 100% on a volatile-free basis. Eu* is the ratio between chondrite
normalized Eu and the geometric mean between chondrite normalized Sm and Gd (normalized to chondrite of Anders and Ebihara 1982). Oxides are listed in weight percent and trace elements in
CG122

0.59
5.1
2.1

6.5
pumice) glass form veneers around some plagioclase and

11
35
30
170
quartz microlites, demonstrating that mingling included
CG1a2
exchange of crystals (Fig. 8).

0.56
5.0
1.8

6.5
As anticipated from BSE imaging, groundmass glass

171
8
32
24
compositions differ for the two clast types, with white pumice
glass compositions more evolved (more silica-rich and Fe-
CG256

0.56
5.6
2.2

6.4
13 poor) than those of grey pumice (Fig. 9). Among white pumice
45
29
185
and white portions of banded or mingled pumice clasts, the
groundmass glass composition ranges from 76.4 to 79.6 wt.%
CG125

0.54
5.5
2.2

6.8
11
34
18
179
SiO2. Within single clasts, heterogeneity in glass compositions
includes up to 1.8 wt.% variation in SiO2 (e.g., CG405;
CG327

0.55
Table 3). Glass compositions in grey pumice are more varied
5.2
2.2

6.4
27
14
173
11

and less evolved than in white pumice (69.4–73.8 wt.%

SiO2), except in sparse, thin high-silica bands in grey pumice
CG219

0.64

(77–78 wt.% SiO2). We interpret the latter to be microscopic

5.5
2.1

6.6
10
31
12
183

bands of white pumice within grey pumice (Table 3).

Plagioclase crystals in grey and white pumice clasts have
CG216

0.59
5.7
2.1

6.7

overlapping compositions, although grey pumice clasts

11
27
17
188

contain a more restricted compositional range than white

pumice clasts. Plagioclase core compositions in white
CG337

0.57

pumice are variable (An29–An69), whereas rims are homo-

5.2
2.2

5.5
Grey

12
27
32
169

geneous (An31–An39). In contrast, plagioclase core compo-

sitions of An34–An50 in the grey pumice overlap with
CG218

0.49
5.6
2.6

6.8

compositions of rims and microlites (Fig. 10; Table 4).

9
14

29
180

Preliminary analyses of trace elements in plagioclase for

one white, two grey and one grey clast with a white core
CG140

0.54
5.1
2.3

6.7
12
23
27
169

suggest that trace element concentrations are also broadly

similar in the two pumice types with the exception of Li,
which is substantially higher in white pumice (maximum=
CG163

0.52
5.8
2.4

7.3

62 μg/g) than in grey (maximum=12 μg/g; Fig. 11a;

13
19
20
192

Table 4).
CG287

0.50

Biotite compositions also differ between grey and white

5.9
2.4

7.4
11
24
17
196

pumice clasts. Although we have analyzed only four

samples (one grey, one white, and two grey clasts with
CG121a

0.54

white cores), there is a small contrast in both average Fe/

5.2
2.4

6.3
12
23
19
172

(Fe+Mg) (= 0.43, 0.40, 0.41, and 0.41) and average Ti

content per formula unit (= 0.50, 0.48, 0.50, and 0.49) in
CG142a

white, grey, and white and grey portions of mingled clasts,

0.54
5.8
2.3

6.9
11
23
19
192

respectively (Fig. 11b). Trace element concentration varia-

tions in biotite crystals parallel bulk compositional varia-
CG338

0.53

tions; grey pumice biotites have higher Ba, Pb, and Cu

5.6
2.4

6.4
12
27
27
185

concentrations than in white pumice (average Ba, Pb, and

Cu concentrations, respectively—891, 18, and 60 μg/g in
grey pumice vs. 418, 6, and 15 μg/g in white; Fig. 11c).
CG267

0.60
5.5
2.0

6.4
10
17
105
184

Additionally, white pumice biotites have higher Li concen-

trations than do grey pumice (maximum 713 μg/g in white
b.d. below detection limits
CG257

0.56

pumice vs. 129 μg/g in grey pumice; Fig. 11d; Table 4).
White

5.7
2.0

6.4
10
23
23
192
Table 1 (continued)

Both white and grey pumice clasts contain co-existing

magnetite and ilmenite crystals. The sizes (80–320 μm) and
parts per million
Sample number

compositions of analyzed oxides are similar for the two

Eu/Eu*

pumice types. If we assume that neighboring oxide crystals

Pb
Cs
Hf

Sc
Ta

Zr
U

(touching or in close proximity) are in equilibrium, using

the criteria of Bacon and Metz 1984 and Bacon and
1520 Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533

Fig. 3 Bulk compositions of

grey and white pumice samples
(open symbols are white pumice;
closed symbols are grey and
banded pumice). Grey and white
pumice samples contain over-
lapping bulk concentrations of a
Na2O+K2O vs. SiO2 (composi-
tional fields as in Le Bas et al.
1992), but form distinct trends
in b Sr/Ba vs. Ba, c Ba vs. SiO2,
and d FeOT vs. TiO2; e Pb, Cu,
and Zn concentrations are higher
in grey pumice than white pum-
ice samples; f Eu anomaly var-
iation with Ba concentration; g
Ba vs. K2O—note covariation in
white pumice, but not in grey
pumice population concentra-
tions; and h Y/Ba vs. TiO2
values of grey pumice are more
geochemically similar to older
Toconquis ignimbrite units than
to white pumice clasts. Error
bars show maximum relative
error calculated from repeat
bead analyses; where error bars
are not shown, they are smaller
than the symbol size; error is
generally less than 3% (relative)
of major element and 10% (rel-
ative) of trace element concen-
trations; error is propagated for
ratios and sums

Hirschmann 1988, application of the geothermometer of
Andersen and Lindsley (1988) gives crystallization temper-
atures of 796–806°C and 796–809°C and log10 oxygen
fugacities of −11.8 and −11.7 for white and grey pumice,
respectively (Fig. 12; Table 4). However, at these
relatively oxidizing conditions (~NNO +1.5 log units),
these temperatures are probably overestimates of the
actual temperature (cf. Pinatubo temperature estimates,
Geschwind and Rutherford 2002). Using the calibration of
Ghiorso and Evans (2008), calculated temperatures are
much lower—682–698°C and 705–709°C, for white and
grey pumice, respectively, at oxygen fugacities >1.5 log
units above the nickel–nickel oxide buffer (cf. Folkes et al.
2011a). At high oxygen fugacity, calculated temperatures
using the Ghiorso and Evans (2008) model can be in error
by as much as 100°C, due to analytical error. Therefore,
actual temperatures likely like somewhere between the
two estimates, with some overlap or slight offset between
white and grey pumice (where grey pumice is slightly
hotter); we suggest that eruption temperature was <780°C.
Vesicle content
Bulk porosity (vesicularity) is highly varied but mostly
overlaps in the two pumice types. For a solid density of
2,700 kg/m3, the bulk porosity of grey pumice ranges from
Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533 1521

Table 2 Modal phase percentages of grey and white pumice clasts

Grey White

Min Max Ave Min Max Ave

Quartz 7.4 15.3 10.3 5.5 13.3 8.7

Plag 13.8 21.8 17.5 13.4 26.1 20.6
Biotite 6.5 12.3 9.3 10.7 15.6 13.2
Oxides 0.5 6.6 2.4 0.0 7.3 3.2
Sanidine 0.1 1.5 0.9 0.8 2.2 1.5
Apatite – 2.8 0.9 0.1 2.8 1.5
Hornblende – 0.20 0.03 – – –
Accessory minerals 0.5 1.1 0.7 0.2 2.2 1.0
Crystallinity 34.8 48.8 42.1 43.9 57.1 49.6

Note that phase abundances do not strictly co-vary (i.e., the sample
with the minimum percentage of quartz is not necessarily the exact
same sample as that with the minimum overall crystallinity, e.g.,
Fig. 5) Fig. 5 Plagioclase crystallinity (left axis, circles) and biotite crystal-
linity (right axis, diamonds) vs. overall phenocryst and micro-
phenocryst crystallinity for all point-counted samples; grey pumice
33% to 71%; bulk porosity of white pumice ranges from is shown with filled symbols; white pumice is shown with open
24% to 69%. The connected porosities of white and grey symbols
pumice populations cover a similar range, between 21%
and 69% (Fig. 13). The measured permeability of grey and
white pumice clasts also overlaps and ranges from 1.0× tube pumice in white clasts, although tube pumice is
10−14 to 5.3×10−12 m2. This range is typical for pumice subordinate to white pumice with isotropic structure.
clasts from pyroclastic flow deposits (e.g., Wright et al. Breadcrusted varieties exist of both tube and isotropic grey
2009) and reflects the anisotropy of vesicle textures in these pumice clasts; breadcrusting is absent in white pumice
samples (perpendicular clasts are shown with tie lines in clasts. Vesicle sizes vary between clasts, with vesicles in
Fig. 13). Anisotropy is manifested by a predominance of grey pumice generally smaller than those in white pumice
parallel, elongated vesicles in grey pumice clasts and true (e.g., Fig. 14).

Fig. 4 a Plane polarized and b

crossed polarized light image of
banded pumice clast. Note the
predominance of broken quartz
and feldspar crystals in grey
bands (grey phases in b) as
opposed to large quartz and
feldspar phenocrysts and higher
percentage of biotite phenoc-
rysts (dark phases in a) in white
bands
1522 Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533

Fig. 6 Plane polarized light

images of crystal textures, in-
cluding a two of the largest
quartz crystals in a grey pumice
sample; both are fractured, but
the crystal on the right is only
fractured around its outer mar-
gins; b parallel fractures in
plagioclase; and c common,
pervasively fractured quartz
crystals in grey pumice. d Typ-
ical crystal fractures in quartz in
white pumice. Fractures are not
due to thin section preparation;
fracture surfaces are commonly
slightly altered and can be cov-
ered by a thin glassy film

Volatile content
Melt inclusions are common in quartz and plagioclase
phenocrysts in white pumice but are extremely rare in grey
pumice due largely to the smaller crystal size and
fragmental nature of crystals in grey pumice. Measured
melt inclusions in white pumice clasts contain up to one co-
existing vapor bubble with a total volume less than 20% of
the total inclusion volume. Measured volatile contents
range between 2.4 and 6.6 wt.% H2O and 0 and 296 ppm
CO2 (Fig. 15; Sup. Fig. 1). These values correspond to
between 36 and 245 MPa at 750°C (Newman and Low-

Fig. 7 a, c SEM BSE images of

microlite phases in grey pumice:
Black areas are vesicles, dark
grey is quartz, light grey is
feldspar, white is biotite (or
oxide phases where <1 μm in
diameter), and medium grey is
glass; b, d sketches of crystal
phases: Quartz crystals are filled
in dark grey, feldspar crystals
are filled in light grey; biotite is
outlined in black and filled with
white. Note angular and irregu-
lar morphologies of feldspar
fragments and rounded, resorbed
morphologies of quartz
microlites
Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533 1523

Fig. 8 SEM BSE image of grey

pumice clast. Sketches fill and
outline colors as in Fig. 7. Note
the presence of a dark (lower
average atomic number) veneer
of glass around the feldspar
crystal shown in the inset panel

enstern 2002). Interestingly, groundmass glass volatile
contents reach within 0.4 wt.% H2O of the lower limit of
melt inclusions (0.85–2 wt.% H2O; 5–26 MPa at 750 C).
The lowest water content was measured in the dense bomb
rind of a breadcrusted grey pumice clast; the highest value
is from the margin of an expanded white pumice clast.
These elevated values are supported by elevated volatiles-
by-difference estimates of water content from electron
microprobe analyses of groundmass glass compositions
(using the iterative water-by-difference program in Probe
for Windows software, e.g., Roman et al. 2006). The
evolution of volatile contents in the melt is indicated by CL
images of quartz crystals. Many crystals show concentric
oscillatory CL zoning in quartz crystals, where bright zones
often have flame-like outer margins (Fig. 15b). Melt
inclusions are common in these zones. In addition, some
crystals contain cores separated from rims by truncations in
CL zonation (Fig. 15b; cf. Renou 2009). Volatile content
does not systematically increase or decrease with distance
from cores; furthermore, while melt inclusions within
recycled cores commonly do not contain CO2, not all
CO2-absent inclusions are within the cores of crystals.
Discussion
Here we use the physical and chemical data presented
above to address the origin of the two prominent pumice
populations (grey and white) and their relationship to the
large CGI eruption. In particular, we examine ways in
which characterization of the two pumice types can inform
our understanding of possible triggers for this eruption, as
well as for the eruption of crystal-rich “monotonous
intermediate” (e.g., Hildreth 1981) magmas, in general.

Fig. 9 Bulk and groundmass

glass compositions of pumice
clasts in the Cerro Galán
Ignimbrite. Each symbol repre-
sents a distinct clast; error bars
represent standard deviation of
analyses for each clast. Grey
pumice glass compositions plot
between bulk and white pumice
glass compositions
Table 3 Selected glass compositions of white and grey pumice
1524

Sample Number SiO2 σ TiO2 Al2O3 σ FeO σ MgO CaO σ Na2O σ K2O σ P2O5 Cl Raw total

CG128a White 13 77.2 0.25 0.10 13.4 0.26 0.57 0.03 0.06 0.91 0.02 2.4 0.19 5.2 0.13 0.01 0.16 95.91
CG131b White 24 79.5 0.42 0.10 13.9 0.20 0.38 0.13 0.03 0.75 0.07 1.1 0.19 4.1 0.26 b.d. 0.20 95.15
CG140b White 6 77.8 0.25 0.11 13.2 0.17 0.51 0.16 0.06 0.51 0.16 1.9 0.10 5.3 0.22 0.02 0.19 97.64
CG142b-b White 9 78.4 0.81 0.11 13.1 0.28 0.55 0.08 0.07 0.89 0.04 2.0 0.26 4.7 0.35 b.d. 0.19 92.91
CG142b-b White 4 77.4 0.30 0.09 12.6 0.20 0.51 0.12 0.07 0.94 0.02 2.7 0.20 5.5 0.20 b.d. 0.18 94.01
CG405 White 10 76.6 0.34 0.12 13.0 0.20 0.32 0.14 0.04 0.96 0.04 3.1 0.13 5.7 0.30 b.d. b.d. 98.33
CG405 White 4 78.4 0.21 0.03 12.6 0.50 0.55 0.21 0.09 0.88 0.02 1.9 0.16 5.3 0.46 b.d. b.d. 96.80

CG1a1a Grey 2 75.8 0.60 0.23 13.7 0.04 0.49 0.15 0.05 1.42 0.17 2.2 0.64 5.9 0.32 0.02 b.d. 94.30
CG62a Grey 2 69.6 0.17 0.66 17.7 0.03 1.11 1.03 0.82 1.84 0.28 3.9 0.40 4.9 1.31 0.06 0.03 94.08
CG122a Grey 2 71.7 1.68 0.38 15.9 0.34 0.98 0.59 0.34 2.62 0.97 3.3 0.23 4.7 1.60 0.05 0.13 93.33
CG256 g Grey 9 70.1 0.72 0.53 16.1 0.43 2.25 0.16 1.03 1.84 0.30 2.8 0.27 5.2 0.24 0.41 b.d. 97.59

CG2a-a White band 3 77.9 0.74 0.17 14.6 0.19 0.20 0.06 0.02 1.17 0.27 1.5 0.27 4.3 0.30 0.01 0.13 95.79
CG2a-a Grey band 5 73.8 0.66 0.44 16.2 0.63 1.24 0.53 0.37 1.65 0.17 1.7 0.37 4.2 0.31 0.06 0.24 96.58
CG119b White band 3 78.7 0.93 0.13 13.9 0.25 0.19 0.01 0.03 0.91 0.05 1.4 0.34 4.6 0.30 b.d. 0.05 95.89
CG119b White band 3 77.5 1.48 0.11 14.3 0.69 0.20 0.04 0.03 1.19 0.33 2.0 0.79 4.6 0.40 b.d. 0.03 97.87
CG119b Grey band 2 73.8 0.30 0.31 15.9 0.11 0.64 0.57 0.06 1.61 0.18 2.6 1.07 4.9 0.02 0.07 0.06 97.68
CG119b Grey band 6 72.5 1.38 0.51 16.3 0.38 2.23 1.11 0.20 1.90 0.14 1.8 0.23 4.3 0.27 0.11 0.09 96.12
CG125a White band 5 77.3 0.36 0.17 13.2 0.14 0.51 0.07 0.10 0.96 0.04 1.9 0.26 5.9 0.22 b.d. 0.02 95.93
CG125a Grey band 3 71.1 1.74 0.60 16.6 0.28 1.11 0.59 0.44 2.04 0.19 2.3 0.45 5.7 0.78 0.08 0.03 95.38
CG136aa White band 7 78.6 1.23 0.12 13.6 0.43 0.25 0.03 0.03 1.00 0.48 1.7 0.45 4.5 0.23 b.d. 0.12 96.78
CG136aa Grey band 13 71.1 0.68 0.53 16.3 0.18 2.52 0.15 1.14 2.15 0.11 2.0 0.29 4.1 0.26 0.11 0.10 96.28

CG476 LM white 15 77.9 0.58 0.11 12.2 0.42 0.68 0.07 0.08 0.92 0.11 2.6 0.31 5.3 0.16 b.d. 98.08
CG476 LM white 4 78.1 0.28 0.05 12.8 0.29 0.67 0.05 0.08 0.92 0.03 2.1 0.22 5.1 0.20 b.d. 97.36
CG87a-b MM white 7 77.7 0.72 0.15 13.1 0.24 0.34 0.14 0.06 0.94 0.02 2.3 0.48 5.4 0.35 b.d. 96.52
CG481 MM grey 4 78.9 0.29 0.11 12.4 0.13 0.31 0.09 0.04 0.77 0.07 1.7 0.32 5.7 0.10 b.d. 96.59
CG483 UM grey 2 77.3 0.12 0.11 13.4 0.23 0.64 0.08 0.14 0.82 0.12 1.9 0.12 5.4 0.24 b.d. 96.71
CG98a-a Pitas white 13 77.4 0.25 0.12 12.8 0.21 0.24 0.04 0.04 0.85 0.07 2.6 0.31 5.9 0.14 b.d. 96.57
CG137a-b RG white 17 77.2 0.69 0.15 12.5 0.43 0.75 0.09 0.11 0.85 0.04 2.3 0.32 5.8 0.19 b.d. 95.35
CG68bb-b RG banded 10 78.0 0.60 0.16 12.8 0.44 0.31 0.15 0.06 0.75 0.04 1.9 0.31 5.9 0.28 0.01 96.59

Analyses of Toconquis white and grey pumice are also included

LM Lower Merihuaca, MM Middle Merihuaca, UM Upper Merihuaca, RG Real Grande ignimbrites of Folkes et al. (2011b), b.d. below detection limits
Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533
Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533
Fig. 10 Plagioclase core compositions (a) and rim or microlite
compositions (b) in white and grey pumice. An anorthite, Ab albite
We pay particular attention to the origin of the grey pumice,
as subordinate grey pumice is a common feature in many
silicic eruptions. Generation of grey pumice has been
attributed to a variety of processes that are either syn-
eruptive or active during precursory and/or intra-eruptive
periods (i.e., associated with eruptive processes).
Geochemical distinction between pumice types
Grey and white pumices are found as both discrete clasts
and as complexly mingled clasts (e.g., Fig. 2a). It is not
uncommon to see either white pumice clasts or mingled
pumice clasts as inclusions with subangular and in some
cases slightly concave margins in grey pumice (e.g.,
Fig. 2c). The presence of subangular, vesicular inclusions
requires vesiculation followed by brittle breakage. Further-
more, the existence of mingled clasts within grey pumice
requires formation of grey magma prior to mingling; these
observations would seem to rule out formation of grey
pumice solely by high strain rates created by rapid magma
ascent and decompression (e.g., Polacci et al. 2001; Rosi et
al. 2004). Geochemical data support this interpretation, as
variations in minor and trace elements between clast types
require that grey and white pumice samples formed from
distinct, though geochemically similar, magma batches. For
example, the observed co-variations between Ba and SiO2,
and FeO and TiO2 (Fig. 3) contents in each suite, in
addition to trace element concentration variations in
phenocrysts, cannot be explained by simple fractionation,
by simple mixing of two end-member compositions, or by
shear-induced melting during eruption. Instead, it appears
that grey and white pumice were produced from distinct
magma bodies that mingled shortly prior to eruption.
Dominant chamber storage region
Questions of magma storage are most easily addressed for
the white pumice, which has a limited compositional range
1525
and phenocrysts that preserve melt inclusions. Composi-
tional and modal crystal phase variations within the white
pumice population can be adequately explained by sanidine
fractionation in a large magma chamber. In particular,
correlative variation between decreasing Ba, K, Sr, and Eu
and increasing SiO2 support the interpretation of variable
separation of sanidine from the melt (sanidine fractionation;
Fig. 3b, f, g; Table 1). The presence of sanidine and the
absence of hornblende can be used to infer magma storage
at relatively low pressures. In comparison, experimentally
determined phase relations for the geochemically similar
Fish Canyon rhyodacitic magma show that sanidine is
present and hornblende is absent at <100 MPa at 800°C
(Johnson and Rutherford 1989). Crystallization at these
pressures at Cerro Galán is confirmed by the presence of
melt inclusions trapped at pressures <100 MPa (Fig. 15)
and the range of white pumice glass compositions (e.g.,
Blundy and Cashman 2001, 2008). If the >630 km3 of
erupted magma (D.R.E.) resided in a sill-like body with
areal dimensions of the resulting caldera (~450 km2), then
the sill thickness would have been 1.4 km (ΔP>35 MPa,
depending on magma density). This thickness corresponds
well with inferred subsidence, based on the maximum
observed intracaldera thickness of the CGI (1.4 km; Sparks
et al. 1985). However, the wider observed range of melt
inclusion pressures (~200 MPa) suggests a more vertically
extensive magma body (~8.5 km), the presence of a mush
column or a feeder dike system below the large sill-like
body or a distinct origin for higher volatile content
inclusions.
High volatile content melt inclusions could have
formed in a deeper portion of a more vertically
extensive magma chamber that produced white pumice
(hereafter called white magma) and could be antecrysts
from older Galán ignimbrite-forming magma chambers,
or could be xenocrysts. Truncated CL zonation patterns
in crystal interiors support the interpretation that some
degree of quartz recycling has taken place, such that
melt inclusion entrapment pressures should be viewed
with caution (Fig. 14). High An cores in plagioclase
crystals in white pumice may similarly indicate either
vertically extensive crystallization or xenocrysts (Fig. 10).
Xenocrystic zircons of basement age in the CGI (517–
539 Ma) and antecrystic zircons of Tonconquis age (5.60±
0.20 to 4.51±0.11 Ma 40Ar/39Ar biotite age) in the Cueva
Negra ignimbrite (3.77±0.08 Ma 40Ar/39Ar biotite age)
provide evidence for zircon recycling in the Galán system
(C. Folkes, unpublished data). Therefore, it seems plausi-
ble that at least some of the inclusions with high H2O
contents may not have been trapped in the climactic
magma chamber. However, the dichotomy between inclu-
sions that contain CO2 and those that do not, in addition to
the large range in entrapment pressures, present the
Table 4 Selected plagioclase, biotite, and oxide compositions in white and grey pumice
1526

Plagioclase Sanidine Biotite

CG122 mic CG140 core CG140 rim CG483 mic CG462 rim CG140 rim
Grey White White Grey Grey White
SiO2 59.7 59.6 58.8 64.0 SiO2 36.81 36.43
Al2O3 25.1 25.3 25.7 18.7 TiO2 4.13 4.33
FeO 0.24 0.18 0.19 0.09 Al2O3 14.35 14.11
CaO 7.05 6.46 7.36 0.16 MnO 0.21 0.25
Na2O 7.20 6.78 6.52 2.45 FeO 16.55 17.49
K2O 0.74 0.73 0.62 13.2 MgO 14.07 13.38
Total 100.04 99.08 99.23 98.7 Na2O 0.37 0.39
Ab 62.1 62.6 59.3 21.8 K2O 9.07 9.31
An 33.6 32.9 37.0 0.8 Total 95.56 95.68
Or 4.2 4.5 3.7 77.4
Plagioclase Biotite
CG428 CG140 CG428 CG140
Grey Grey White White Grey Grey White White
SiO2 calib 59.5 59.5 58.0 58.0 SiO2 calib 36.5 36.5 37.0 37.0
Li 3.82 9.19 7.58 62.13 Li 48 62 634 53
Ti 89.2 34.6 34.8 29.8 Ti 23363 13523 19724 21803
Sr 134 753 567 549 Cu 76.0 31.1 23.7 4.8
Zn 2.44 5.95 19.93 6.28 Zn 417 300 496 494
Rb 21 3 2 2 Y 3.20 1.60 0.86 0.12
Ba 157 93 61 75 Ba 2147 429 307 459
Nd 1.42 4.03 4.63 1.67 Nd 5.60 2.16 0.92 0.15
Pb 5.72 15.95 16.77 15.12 Pb 56.17 11.27 6.91 3.61
Oxides
CG428 mt CG428 ilm CG140 mt CG140 ilm
Grey Grey White White
SiO2 0.04 0.00 0.04 0.02
TiO2 4.01 36.57 3.74 35.97
Al2O3 1.31 0.06 1.33 0.15
MnO 0.26 0.75 0.90 1.23
FeO 83.31 54.87 83.68 54.58
MgO 0.51 1.29 1.15 1.34
Total 89.50 93.56 91.51 93.73
size (um) 90 190 120 120
log fO2 -11.62 -11.80
Temp (°C) 809 798

Values listed in percent of each component. Oxides are listed in weight percent; trace elements are listed in micrograms per gram. Trace element concentrations calibrated based on electron
microprobe SiO2 contents (listed). External errors (2σ) for ICP-MS trace element concentrations are ±5%, except for Pb, which is ±10%
Ab albite, An anorthite, Or orthoclase, Mic microlite, core phenocryst core, rim phenocryst rim
Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533
Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533 1527

Fig. 11 Plagioclase and biotite

compositions of grey (filled
symbols), white (open symbols),
and grey pumice clasts with
white cores (grey portions filled
in dark grey, white portions
filled in light grey). a Li con-
centrations are higher in plagio-
clase crystals in white pumice, b
Fe/(Fe+Mg) and Ti concentra-
tions are lower in biotites in
grey pumice, and c Li concen-
trations are higher in biotite in
white pumice, but Ba, d Pb and
Cu are higher in biotite in grey
pumice than in white

possibility that some inclusions have leaked. Although
inclusions were carefully selected to be free from cracks or
thin glass septa connected to the matrix, we cannot rule
out the possibility of leakage in any of the samples.
Volatile fluxing
Volatile and fluid-mobile trace element data may indicate
spatially variable volatile fluxing prior to eruption. Quartz-
hosted melt inclusions contain two distinct populations, one
with CO2 and one without CO2 (Fig. 15). Although some
CO2-absent inclusions are found within recycled crystal
cores, this is not universally the case. If the variation in
CO2 is real (i.e., the CO2-absent values are not due to post-
entrapment volatile loss), the CO2-absent inclusions can be
explained by open-system degassing and the resulting rapid
loss of CO2 (Newman and Lowenstern 2002; Papale 1999),
although we do not see inclusions with variable CO2
contents at the highest water content that record this CO2
loss. Alternatively, these inclusions could indicate lack of
CO2 in the original melt. Elevated CO2 contents across a
range of H2O contents, although common (e.g., linear H2O–
CO2 trends, Newman et al. 1988; Spilliaert et al. 2006;
Wright et al. 2007; Vigouroux et al. 2008), are more
difficult to explain. Suggested processes for preserving
elevated CO2 contents during degassing include (1) very
high and variable CO2 in the original magma (Newman et
al. 1988), (2) non-equilibrium vesiculation (Gonnermann
and Manga 2005), or (3) gas fluxing (Rust et al. 2004;
Blundy et al. 2010). Here, we favor pre-eruptive gas
fluxing of selected portions of the white magma reservoir,
particularly given both CO2-absent and CO2-present
volatile content (combined H2O–CO2) trends (which seem
to rule out disequilibrium degassing).

Fig. 12 fO2 vs. temperature of co-existing Fe–Ti oxide pairs in white
(open symbols) and grey (filled symbols) pumice, calculated using the
geothermometers of Andersen and Lindsley (1988) and Ghiorso and
Evans (2008). The nickel–nickel oxide buffer is shown for compar-
ison, calculated at 200 bars from Frost (1991)
Fig. 13 Connected porosity vs. permeability of Cerro Galán pumice
(grey pumice in filled symbols; white pumice in open symbols; small
symbols are data for other rhyodacitic to rhyolitic pyroclastic flow
samples from Klug and Cashman 1996, Nakamura et al. 2008, de
Maisonneuve et al. 2009, and Wright et al. 2009)
1528 Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533

Fig. 14 SEM BSE image of

grey and white pumice clasts,
demonstrating variations in
bubble textures; white pumice
commonly has larger bubbles
(a) than grey pumice (b)

Boyce and Hervig (2008) inferred that a volatile
recharge event preceded the climactic eruption of the CGI
by days to months, based on OH and Cl zonation of apatite
rims (which would not be preserved over long timescales
due to rapid diffusion rates). Variable, elevated lithium
concentrations in plagioclase and biotite in white pumice
may support spatially variable volatile fluxing, if Li was
partitioned from a deeper source into the vapor phase (e.g.,
as inferred for Mt. St. Helens; Berlo et al. 2004; Blundy et
al. 2008). However, we have not measured lithium
concentration profiles in crystals to verify that lithium
concentrations are higher in crystal rims than in cores, as
expected for diffusive Li gain.
Depth of origin of the grey pumice
Geochemical data suggest that the magma that produced
grey pumice (hereafter called grey magma) represents
rhyodacitic magma that fed the growing Cerro Galán
magmatic system through time (the “recharge magma”).
Such “cryptic” recharge has been identified elsewhere by
examination of trace elements in plagioclase (Smith et al.
2009). We see evidence in both bulk and mineral chemistry
of the grey and white magma, which are sufficiently
different that they cannot be related by any simple physical
process such as fractionation, assimilation, or shear-induced
melting.
Determination of absolute depths for grey magma
residence is hindered by the absence of melt-inclusion-
bearing phenocrysts and large errors on Al-in-hornblende
geobarometers (e.g., Blundy and Cashman 2008). A deeper
origin for the grey magma relative to the white is suggested
by the less evolved glass composition of grey magma (and
is inferred based on Al-in-hornblende geobarometry for
older Toconquis grey magma as well; Folkes et al. 2011a).
The position of the cotectic in the haplogranitic ternary
system Qz–Ab–Or moves progressively Qz-ward with
decreasing pressure (Tuttle and Bowen 1958). Rare horn-

Fig. 15 Water vs. CO2 content

of melt inclusions and ground-
mass glass from Cerro Galán
Ignimbrite determined using
FTIR spectroscopy. Open circles
are white pumice groundmass
glass, and filled circles are grey
pumice groundmass glass. Dia-
monds are melt inclusions in
quartz phenocrysts hosted in
white pumice. Error bars are
smaller than symbols where not
shown. Saturation pressures are
calculated using VolatileCalc
at 750°C (Newman and
Lowenstern 2002). Cathodolu-
minescence images of represen-
tative quartz crystals are shown
with arrows linking melt inclu-
sions and their respective mea-
sured H2O and CO2
concentrations
Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533
blende and modest amounts of sanidine in grey pumice,
which could potentially have originated in white pumice
(positive and negative Clapeyron slope to hornblende and
sanidine, respectively; e.g., Johnson and Rutherford 1989),
are consistent with a deeper origin to grey pumice than
white. However, taking into account the errors associated
with the geobarometers and geothermometers applied to the
CGI pumice clasts, we cannot rule out that the grey magma
could have been stored at depths equivalent to portions of
the white chamber.
Migration of grey magma through white magma
The textural association between white and grey pumice
indicate that the two magmas having different compositions
mingled prior to eruption, although the physical conditions
of mingling appear to have been highly variable. White
pumice occurs in macroscopic bands, as cores to larger grey
pumice clasts and as bands of white pumice glass
compositions within grey pumice clasts (Table 3); however,
the opposite of all of these cases is not true. The white
pumice cores can be subangular in shape, which suggests
brittle behavior during interaction of the two magma types.
In contrast, thin rinds of evolved melt that surround some
crystals in grey pumice provide evidence for transfer of
crystals from white magma into grey magma when the two
magmas were intimately (and ductilely) mingled (Fig. 8).
Evidence for additional transfer of material from grey
magma to white can also be found: White bands in grey
pumice contain plagioclase and biotite crystals with high
Ba and low Li, similar to uniformly grey pumice (Fig. 11)
and white pumice cores, have wispy and thinly banded
margins (Fig. 2c). We therefore suggest that the grey
magma must have traveled through the volumetrically
dominant (and higher viscosity) white magma chamber
(Fig. 16).
Shallow residence of grey magma
Both textural and compositional characteristics of grey
pumice suggest that the grey magma resided at shallower
levels than the white magma immediately prior to eruption.
Macroscopic evidence of shallow residence is provided by
breadcrusting of some grey clasts and associated low water
contents (<1 wt.% H2O) of breadcrust bomb rinds (e.g.,
Wright et al. 2007). Microtextural evidence for shallow
magma residence includes both vesicle and crystal charac-
teristics of grey pumice.
Vesicles are smaller and have a higher number density in
the grey pumice than in the white (compare a and b of
Fig. 14). Although these characteristics could result from
much higher supersaturations in the grey relative to the
white magma, they are also anticipated for vesiculation
1529
Fig. 16 Eruption sequence schematic: white pumice originated from a
volumetrically dominant, large magma chamber, which was fluxed by
volatiles; grey pumice originated from originally deeper recharge
magma, with higher Cu, Zn, and Pb contents and lower Li contents in
crystals; less viscous grey magma ascended through the larger magma
chamber, fracturing the overlying country rock, and stalling in
vanguard fractures at shallow levels, priming the system for eruption
from a more viscous, degassed melt (i.e., with lower
diffusivity, e.g., Zhang and Behrens 2000), particularly
when there are abundant microlites to limit bubble
coalescence (Klug and Cashman 1994).
Grey pumice clasts contain microlites that appear to be the
products of both phenocryst fragmentation and degassing-
induced crystallization (i.e., they exhibit both breakage and
growth textures). To form microlites as a result of degassing,
the grey magma must have resided at shallow depths long
enough to degas, nucleate, and grow crystals, suggesting
shallow residence for at least hours (e.g., Hammer and
Rutherford 2002). A timescale of hours to days would also
have been sufficient to partially resorb the margins of small
quartz fragments, where resorption occurs due to a shift in
the position of the cotectic with decreasing pressure (Tuttle
and Bowen 1958; e.g., Fig. 7). Luhr and Melson (1996)
suggested that timescales of hours to months were necessary
to produce similar resorption features in Pinatubo pumice.
Together, these textural data suggest that the grey magma
formed a vanguard phase that stalled temporarily at shallow
levels prior to the onset of the caldera-forming eruption.
Additional evidence for the grey magma as a vanguard phase
includes the presence of dacite lithics (wall rock) within
some grey pumice clasts.
There is also clear evidence, however, that grey magma
batches resided at different depths and stalled for different
amounts of time. Most striking is the range in grey magma
matrix glass compositions, which span nearly the full range
from the most evolved bulk compositions (of both grey and
1530
white magma) to the lowest silica white pumice glass
composition and require variable degrees of crystallization
that we infer to have taken place at different depths of
storage, though some of this spread in composition could
be due to diffusive mixing during mingling. This variation
in equilibration depths would have allowed variable
amounts of shallow decompression-induced crystallization
(of plagioclase and oxides) and crystal breakdown and/or
resorption (of less stable phases, such as hornblende and
quartz; e.g., Blundy and Cashman 2001; Fig. 9). Moreover,
if elevated Li concentrations at Cerro Galán reflect late
stage volatile enrichment, we can infer from its absence that
the shallow grey pumice magma was not fluxed by vapor
prior to eruption; this was also true of vanguard crypto-
dome magma at Mount St. Helens (Berlo et al. 2004, 2006).
Triggering of the Cerro Galán eruption
A heuristic model of grey magma traversing and interacting
with white magma rising at upper crustal levels raises
questions about the physical mechanism by which this
occurred. Critical to answering this question are observa-
tions of both mingling textures and phenocryst morphology.
Entrainment of brittlely broken white pumice clasts within
grey requires that the grey magma intruded into already
vesiculated white magma, or that brittle behavior preceded
simultaneous vesiculation in both. In contrast, intimate
mingling of white and grey glass compositions and crystal
cargo demands interaction when both magmas were fluid
and not fully vesiculated. Furthermore, the fine scale of
compositional banding in glasses (Figs. 2 and 8) and large
variation in Li concentrations in crystals (Fig. 11) argue for
relatively short post-mingling timescales based on diffusiv-
ities at magmatic temperatures (e.g., Li diffusivity in
plagioclase and biotite, Raussel-Colom et al. 1965; Giletti
and Shanahan 1997). Therefore, we infer that interactions
between the two magma types occurred over a large vertical
extent, prior to eruption, with the shallowest interactions
being at low pressures (to account for vesicular angular
pumice).
Thin section observations show that quartz and feldspar
crystals in the grey pumice are both marginally and
pervasively fractured. Some fractured crystals have not been
disaggregated (Figs. 6 and 7), others occur in elongate bands
(Fig. 4), and others form isotropic crystal clusters (Fig. 7).
Possible breakage mechanisms include shear created by the
movement of grey magma through the white magma body
and into vanguard fractures above the white magma chamber
(e.g., high strain rate fragmentation of highly viscous magma,
Gonnermann and Manga 2003; Tuffen et al. 2003), rupture of
volatile-rich, phenocryst-hosted melt inclusions (as is com-
mon for volatile-rich melt inclusions, Tait 1992; Best and
Christiansen 1997; Bindeman 2005), and brittle fragmenta-
Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533
tion due to shock wave propagation during eruption (e.g.,
Pallister et al. 1996). Textures are consistent with any of
these fracture mechanisms (Figs. 4, 6, and 7). The intrusion
of grey magma through crystal-rich white magma and into
vanguard shallow fractures is equally likely to cause shallow
shear-induced fracture, to trigger rupture of trapped melt
inclusions and shock-induced fracture. We suggest, therefore,
that all of these mechanisms may have contributed to crystal
disruption in the grey magma as it ascended to shallow
levels.
Eruption conditions can be inferred from the range of
connected porosities and permeabilities of the two clast
types, as well as from the overall characteristics of the
deposit. Connected porosities of both clast types range from
40% to 70%. Although these porosities appear low, when
corrected for the high observed crystallinities of these
samples (up to 45% for the grey, up to 55% for the white
pumice), the range of melt vesicularities is ~60–80%, as
observed in other silicic eruptions. Cerro Galán deposits are
pumice-poor (<10% by volume), which suggests that only
pumice with sufficient permeability was preserved. Pumice
preservation will be determined by the overpressure
experienced during fragmentation and the clast permeability
(e.g., Klug and Cashman 1996). Our data show that this
critical permeability was ~10−12 m2, as seen in other silicic
eruptions (e.g., Klug and Cashman 1996). Grey magma
stored at the shallowest levels would have experienced
smaller pressure drops than in white magma, which
explains breadcrusting of these clasts (from delayed
vesiculation; Wright et al. 2007).
Cryptic silicic recharge
We can also use our observations of the most recent
caldera-forming eruptive deposits of Cerro Galán to
speculate on longer-term processes related to generation
and storage of magma in that system. It seems reasonable to
suggest that grey pumice may provide evidence of silicic
recharge in the Cerro Galán system. Textural support for the
recharge hypothesis includes evidence for crystal transfer
from white into grey magma. Such transfer may indicate
that measured crystallinities in grey pumice are much
higher than the crystallinity of the original grey magma.
Furthermore, coupled resorption and growth (quartz resorp-
tion, microlite growth) is not surprising in rejuvenated
magma (e.g., Couch et al. 2001; Bachmann et al. 2002).
Therefore, we interpret the grey magma as a higher volatile
content, lower viscosity magma (due to lower crystallinities
prior to mingling-induced crystal transfer) that ascended
through the rigid white magma, propagating into newly
opened fractures that became the Cerro Galán collapse
caldera block-bounding fractures (Fig. 16). These grey
magma-lined shallow fractures became the network of
Bull Volcanol (2011) 73:1513–1533
faults that bound individual piecemeal blocks in the Cerro
Galán system (Folkes et al. 2011b).
Evidence for silicic recharge has recently been identified
at a number of volcanoes (Eichelberger et al. 2006; Hildreth
and Wilson 2007; Kennedy and Stix 2007; Wiebe et al.
2007; de Silva et al. 2008; Smith et al. 2009). Our model,
whereby silica-rich recharge magma may also ascend
through a large crystal-rich chamber to trigger an eruption,
is a logical extension of these recharge models. Importantly,
we suggest that triggering of eruptions by recharge magma
does not require the intrusion of mafic (e.g., basaltic)
material into the shallow chamber (as at Pinatubo, Pallister
et al. 1992; Soufriere Hills, Murphy et al. 1998; or Mt.
Rainier, Venezky and Rutherford 1997). Instead, we infer
that the recharge batch is buoyant (e.g., volatile-rich) and
mobile. Grey magma potentially had higher temperature (in
older Toconquis magma as well, cf. Folkes et al. 2011a);
however, we do not see the signature of this temperature
difference at Cerro Galán, probably because the grey
magma had thermally equilibrated by the time it traversed
the magma reservoir or because oxides in the grey magma
were transferred from white magma. Such silicic recharge
likely occurs multiple times over the period of chamber
growth. The repeated CL bright growth zones in quartz
(with coincident preferential melt inclusion entrapment)
provide textural evidence of repeated recharge (Wark et al.
2007). Importantly, we do not dismiss the possible role of
mafic recharge anywhere in the system; instead, we suggest
that mafic melt is likely to remain at depth (lower to mid-
crustal levels). Furthermore, we suggest that this process of
silicic recharge, likely originating from a mid-crustal
reservoir, has occurred within pre-CGI magma chambers
as well, producing the same textural variations (white and
grey pumice) in Toconquis ignimbrites, although with
different chemical differences (cf. Folkes et al. 2011a).
Parallel textural variations in pumice clasts are found
from several other caldera-forming eruptions worldwide.
We note the remarkable similarities between grey and white
pumice in Cerro Galán and the dark/swirly and normal
pumice in the Bishop Tuff (Hildreth and Wilson 2007),
although absolute crystallinities in the Bishop Tuff are
much lower. In the Bishop Tuff, volumetrically minor, less
evolved rhyolite clasts (dark/swirly) were found to be less
crystalline and richer in Ba, Sr, and Ti than normal pumice
and are also interpreted as silicic recharge products. Dark
pumice in the Bishop Tuff contains the only hornblende
crystals present, and crystallization in dark pumice was
deeper than in the dominant chamber; Fe–Ti oxide temper-
atures overlap with those measured in normal pumice (at
the high T end), and only dark pumice forms breadcrusted
surface textures. The textural and compositional similarity
is striking; we suggest that the formation mechanism is
similar and the hallmark of recharge processes during
1531
protracted, upper crustal chamber growth leading to large
silicic eruption (Hildreth and Wilson 2007). Furthermore,
our results suggest that abundant broken crystal fragments
and variations in groundmass glass compositions are not
necessarily indicative of syn-eruptive shear along conduit
boundaries (e.g., Polacci et al. 2001; Rosi et al. 2004), but
may instead represent recharge magma (e.g., at Pinatubo
and Quilotoa volcanoes).
Conclusions
Using a combination of bulk, glass, and crystal chemistries
and textural variations, we interpret the grey and white
pumice populations of the CGI to represent distinct magma
batches that mingled prior to and during eruption. Grey
pumice is interpreted as originally deeper, more volatile-
rich, recharge magma, whereas white pumice is interpreted
to represent a volumetrically dominant, overlying magma.
Grey magma then ascended through white magma, filling
shallow vanguard fractures and stalling at shallow depths
prior to eruption. As a combined result of shear-induced
fracture, melt inclusion rupture, and shock-induced frag-
mentation, most crystals in grey magma were broken, to
varying degrees. Furthermore, a spatially variable volatile-
fluxing event caused elevated volatile (CO2) and fluid-
mobile (Li) concentrations in portions of the large magma
chamber and may have contributed volatiles critical to
triggering the eruption.
Acknowledgments This work was funded by ARC grant
DP0663560 to Cas. The authors would like to thank Jake Lowenstern,
editor John Stix, and an anonymous reviewer for helpful suggestions
to improve the manuscript.
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