ADOPTION OF HYDRAFORM - INTERLOCKING STABILIZED SOIL

BLOCKS (ISSBs), ROBERT OGARA ABBOTT SANGORI

A Hydraform block is produced from a soil and cement mixture with soil type classified as a sandy-
loam, with a clay proportion ranging from 15-35 per cent (Hydraform training manual, revised
2009).
Hydraform-ISSBs technology complies with the South African National Building Regulations,
satisfying the requirements for structural performance, rainwater penetration, fire protection,
thermal performance and durability, and is nationally approved for use under certificate № 96/237
(Hydraform manual, 2005).

In the stabilization process, soils that do not possess the desired characteristics for a particular
construction could be improved by adding one or more stabilizers. According to UN-habitat (1988),
stabilizer (s) fulfilled one (or at the most two) of the following functions; increase the comprehensive
strength and impact resistance of the soil construction, and reduce its tendency to swell and shrink,
by binding the particles of soil together; reduce or completely exclude water absorption (causing
swelling, shrinking and abrasion) by sealing all voids and pores, and covering the clay particles with a
watering proofing film; reduce cracking by imparting flexibility which allows the soil to expand and
contract to some extent; and reduce excessive expansion and contraction by reinforcing the soil with
fibrous
material. The stabilization process was not an exact science and it was up to the builder to make trial
blocks with various kinds and amounts of stabilizers for testing.

The best soil for production of quality Hydraform-ISSBs was classified as Sandy-Loam soil. The soil
should contain more sand than clay and silt (fines). If the results of the suitability test found high clay
content, then soil should be blended with sand. Blocks could also be produced with higher clay and
silt contents, but there was need to determine the plasticity index for suitability (Hydraform, 2009).

The Hydraform instruction manual highlighted a number of ways of performing soil suitability tests
namely; Visual test, wash test, jar test and shrinkage test (Hydraform, 2005). These tests may
however, not determine with 100% precision the suitability of soil.

The soil test was noted to allow for mixture proportions to be adequately worked out in terms of the
Soil: Cement : Sand quantities and applied in the block production process. The mixture ratios
however, would differ from one soil type to the other. The soil type would also influence the colour,
strength and quantity of blending materials to be used. For soils of high clay content, more sand
proportion or any other alternative coarse materials would be added and vice versa. The cement
proportion in mixture could be apportioned either at 5% or at 8% with 5% cement mix yielding
blocks of about 4 Mpa in the compressive strength and 8% cement mix noted to produce blocks of
about 7 Mpa in strength. In one of the Hydraform-ISSBs production sites visited during the study, the
mix ratios for Cement : Sand : Soil were 1 : 4 : 7, that implied, One Wheelbarrow Portion of Cement :
Four Wheelbarrow portions of Sand : Seven Wheelbarrow Portions of Soil. Each mixture comprising
these
proportions yielded an average of 60 blocks. There would however, be variations on the mix
proportions of materials depending on the soil type available for use. In practice, the 8% cement
mixture should yield an average of 45 blocks and exhibit high compressive strength of about 7Mpa.

4.2.7.1 Hydraform-ISSBs Production (Material Batching and Mixing) Process

The sieving process and assembling of all the materials required was followed by mixture
preparation.
The mixture ratio were gauged on standard measurement, especially on part number of
Wheelbarrows or Buckets of soil against one part number of cement required to attain good mix and
eventual resultant quality blocks. Material batching was succeeded by actual mixing done in two
phases, that is, dry mixing and wet mixing. For Hydraform Machines that had no Mechanical Pan
Mixer installation, manual labour intensive mixing was applied while Pan Mixers were used in the
case of Machines that were fitted with such devices. A point to note was that ready/well prepared
mix was recommended for use within one hour of preparation.

Walling : 1 : 17
Foundation : 1 : 12
Coping : 1 : 12 or 1 : 10
Perimeter Fence : 1 : 17
Topping Perimeter Walling : 1 : 12 of ISSBs or Coping (1 : 12)

Double Storey :
Foundation 1 : 12
First Floor 1 : 12 or Second Floor 1 : 17

The standard Bucket used in this case implied 10 Liter Bucket as a unit of measurement. This
therefore resulted to 5 % cement use in the case of ratio of 1 : 17 and 8 % cement use in the ratio of
1 : 12 which would yield block strength of 4Mpa and 7Mpa respectively. The mixture ratios provided
above would however, vary from one soil type to the other depending on the Clay : Sand content of
such soils as guided by the soil suitability test results that precedes such exercise. Some Hydraform-
ISSBs applicants indicated that they commenced construction with blocks upon attaining
compressive strength in the range of 2.5Mpa. In the event that such situations of using block
products with compressive strength below 4Mpa arouse, then it would be recommended that
completed buildings and other related
structures be uniformly finished by plastering both the interior and exterior wall surfaces.

In the overall, majority of technology users preferred Red Volcanic Soil in block production as the
resultant blocks colour was more appealing. This soil type also yielded heavy blocks that gained high
strength within a shorter period.

93404-1 pdf
Building in Nakuru - low cost housing improvement for Nakuru Town (Kenya)
Page 51 – 56

Design of interlocking blocks – final Nov 09

The stability of the wall built from the Hydraform blocks is
not provided by the locking mechanism but by the width and weight (massiveness) of the
block. In production they require considerable power to mould (compress) due to their large
volume, 30% more soil is used compared to the other five reported types.
A powerful (moulding pressure 4MPa to 10MPa) and expensive motorised machine (Hydraform
Manual, 2004) is required to compact such a volume of soil. This can be compared to the cheaper
manual presses (with pressures under 2MPa) used to produce Bamba, Tanzanian and Thai types
(VITA 1975, Weinhuber 1995). Apart from being stacked dry all other wall construction operations
are as conventional bricklaying i.e. any compensation blocks are cut manually at site.

Because there is no mortar to bind them, dry-stacked bricks are vulnerable to shaking during
construction. They require strengthening to achieve tolerable plumbness and straightness in walls
over 3m long (Figure 4.5) or over 2.5m high.
In Tanzania, cheap farmers’ stores are built using concrete partial frames with a centre-to-centre
distance of 4.5m to 6.0m and height more than 3.5m. To build a masonry wall to infill the spaces,
requires the formation of buttressing piers

A pier is a localised wall thickening, designed to increase a wall’s vertical and horizontal
stability and lateral strength. Wall length between piers – 3m

HYDRAFORM – INFO about STABILIZED SOIL BLOCKS

Hydraform machines can produce ‘stabilized soil blocks’. The ideal ‘stabilizer’ is Ordinary
Portland Cement (OPC), this is mixed with subsoil and about 5%-10 % water to produce a mix which
feels slightly moist.
Soil with ph value less than 7.0, soil containing more than 0.5% organic matter are avoided.

SELECTING SOIL: Dig a hole 1 m deep and examine soil taken from the bottom. If cracked lumps
appear, the soil has high clay content. If it is very sandy, dig deeper to see if there is more clay.
SOIL TESTS: The most commonly-used test is to compress a ‘sausage’ of slightly moist (not wet) soil
in the hand, then open the hand; if the sausage does not feel ‘sticky’ from high clay, and breaks
cleanly under thumb pressure, the soil is probably suitable for making blocks. However to have
better quality of soil, for block production, the soil to be used should be got tested from reputed labs
for PARTICAL SIZE DISTRIBUTION ANALYSIS and the normal range of ingredients of soils, if falls in the
range shown below can be used for block production.

TEST BLOCKS:
Once you have selected your soil, make four or five test blocks without cement, cover them with
polythene and inspect closely after two hours; if there is no cracking on the block surface, the soil is
suitable.

QUALITY OF MATERIAL
Sand shall generally confirm to the requirement of IS: 2116 – 1980 or IS: 383 – 1970. (Except for the
particles size grading which shall confirm IS: 2116 - 1980)
Cement shall confirm to IS: 269 – 1976 or IS: 455 – 1976 or IS: 1489 – 1991 for ordinary Portland
cement (OPC).
Water shall be potable IS: 456 – 2000.

MIX RATIOS OF RAW MATERIALS

HYDRAFORM BLOCK TESTER
It measures the compressive strength of blocks, easily and efficiently.
Casted block which has been cured for a period of 7-14 days and after 3 to 4 weeks can be tested to
ascertain the Wet and Dry field compressive strength resp.
Block gains maximum strength after 28 days hence it should be tested after 28 days to ascertain the
Block strength. Clean the two crushing pads before testing a block, and ensure that they lie
absolutely flat against the block surfaces, other- wise a falsely (low) reading may be indicated by the
block tester. Block gains full strength after 28 days and thus be tested for full strength after 28 days
and when dry.

issb.pdf
The basic material, however, required to manufacture compressed stabilized earth building blocks is
a soil containing a minimum quantity of silt and clay to facilitate cohesion.

Soil Testing Methods

Laboratory analysis of the raw material is constantly vital for large-scale production of compressed
stabilized earth blocks. For small-scale production however, it is not fundamental to utilize
sophisticated tests to set up the suitability of a soil. Straightforward field tests can be performed to
get a sign of the composition and these methods include:
Smell test, Nibble test, Touch Test, Sedimentation test, Adhesion Test, Washing Test, Linear
Shrinkage mould test, Dry Strength test, Water Retention test, Consistency test and cohesion test.
One or more of test would be employed in most cases to help determine the suitability of the soil
for the Moulding of compressed stabilized earth blocks.

Jonathan Chew – Dissertation- Water resistance

Water absorption is a characteristic of clay and cement content and is often related to the strength
and durability of earth blocks, consequently it is important to identify the rate of water absorption of
earth blocks (Riza, Rahman and Zaidi, 2011). According to Oti, Kinuthia and Bai. (2009), water
absorption rate decreases with increasing age of earth blocks.
Low Cost House Construction Manual Final 071109
The longer the blocks are cured, the higher the final strength of the wall will be.

Structural House Design

The following considerations are important in designing a structurally adequate and durable house:
 Interlocking blocks are recommended, although they may take more experience to use properly
 No vertical joint should be positioned above another vertical joint.
 bamboo or steel reinforcing, in a concrete matrix. Sliced bamboo pieces are sufficient for a one
story
 construction.
 Additional reinforcement in and around corners within the bond beam.
 A lightweight roof relative to the entire structure.
 length.
Windows and doors should not be near corners if not necessary.
 No openings should be greater than 1.2m width.
 At least 1.2m of wall should exist between all doors or windows to maintain vertical wall
strength.
 Interior walls in both directions which are load-bearing and similar in design and construction to
exterior walls.
 Square or nearly square floor plan (not 'L' shaped or other irregular shapes).
 Strong lintels above all windows and doors which will prevent collapse at these locations.
 Good protection of the wall against water by constructing a big overhang, good drainage and
splash protection on the base of the wall.

Place a plastic sheet above the foundation to prevent water and termites from entering the walls.
Window openings should also be located in the middle of the wall, away from corners, to make the
structure more stable.

The bond beam is an important part of the structure, as it ties the walls together at the weak
openings. The bond beam should be made of high quality 1:2:4 (cement: sand: gravel) concrete with
either bamboo or steel reinforcement.

COMPRESSED EARTH BLOCKS: MANUAL OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

The main problems to resolve - two categories:
structural problems which force one to respect the principles of good
compressive strength and, by contrast, the poor tensile and shearing strength of earth as a
building material. In respecting these principles, the designer must choose between appropriate
structural designs and construction details.

problems of water and humidity, resulting from what is know as the "drop of water system":
erosion, streaming water, splash-back, infiltration, absorption. These problems
make the designer respect certain fundamental principals: protecting the top and the base of the
walls ("a good hat and good shoes"), allowing the earth building material to breathe and
incorporating suitable details into the design principles.

Solutions
For non-loadbearing walls, infill masonry (of a concrete framework of wooden lattice) limits the risk
of crushing occuring.

For loadbearing walls, there are several solutions which enable the forces of excentric loads, of
buckling or of horizontal loads to be reduced.
These include:
- using the thickness of the walls;
- improving the stability of thin walls by using buttresses;
- improving the stability of thin walls by using ring-beams;
- adding horizontal and vertical reinforcement to the masonry, (earthquake-resistant systems).

Ring-beam at foundation level

When building on poor soils which are unstable and which may cause differential settling, a
foundation ring-beam is recommended. This will stabilize the sides against potential movement in
the foundations.

Structural weaknesses of openings

It is important to compensate for shearing stress loads to the lower edge which is transmitted
directly down the jambs of the reveals from the lintels.
The following classic mistakes should be avoided:
- making openings too big, placing too great load a on the lintel;
- too many openings of too many different sizes on the same wall, which weakens the wall;
- locating an opening immediately next to the corner of a building, making the corner buckle;
- two openings too close together with too slender an intermediate pier, making the pier buckle;
- insufficiently strong frame jambs, leading to buckling;
- insufficient anchoring of the lintel or of the supporting base into the wall, leading to shearing;
- poor earth block bonding patterns near the openings, leading to cracking through superimposed
vertical joints.

Lintel
The lintel is subjected to the high load exerted by the masonry it supports and which it transmits
through the frame jambs towards the sill or the threshold of the opening. To eliminate the danger of
shearing, it is therefore preferable to increase the length of the part of the lintel which is held in the
wall, allowing a minimum of 20 cm for small openings. The jambs must have high compressive
strength and care should be taken with this by using earth blocks of equal strength. The construction
materials used for lintels include wood or reinforced concrete or even, to preserve the structural
homogeneity of the wall, various forms of earth block arches (Dutch, depressed or other) which
replace the lintel by helping to transmit loads to the jambs.
Vulnerability to humidity at openings
Structural weakness, most often marked by cracking, leaves the way open for the erosion of
openings as a result of vulnerability to humidity. This vulnerability near the frames of openings
occurs as a result of the "drop of water system" which refers to the combined effect of water
streaming, splashing-back or stagnating.

The weak spots are the bond between the lintel, the jambs, the sill and the masonry. Particular care
must be taken with toothings, anchor-points and masonry fixings. Similarly, with rebates and
embrasures, as well as with all the fixings of frames, hinges, and sockets.
The following are recommended:
- a drip under the lintel and under the sille, or a system of fillets to project water away. All
projections must be avoided;
- solutions to problems of condensation which could arise at thermal bridges;
- reinforced stabilization, rendering, or covering joints in the external facade, flush with the sides
of the openings (in high rainfall regions);
- water-proofing under the sill.

Dimensioning the openings

There are certain rules for dimensioning the openings in an earth masonry structure, which do not
preclude variety in the design of their shape and size.
- In any one wall, the ratio of voids to total surface area should not exceed 1:3 and voids should
be evenly spaced. Too great a concentration of voids or openings which are too large should be
avoided, unless the structure has been designed with these in mind.
- The overall length of openings should not exceed 35% of the length of the wall.
- Standard opening spans should be restricted to 1.20 m for standard section lintels. For wider
openings, the lintel must be increased in size and it must be more deeply anchored into the wall.
- The minimal distance between an opening and the corner of a building should be 1 m. This
distance can, however, be reduced by taking appropriate measures in the construction.
- The width of a pier common to two openings should not be less that the thickness of the wall
and should be equivalent to a minimum of 60 cm (two standard blocks). The pier is not
loadbearing unless it exceeds 1 m in width (lintel common to two openings for a less wide pier).
- The height of the masonry above the lintel and of the breast below the supporting base should
respect a balanced ratio depending on the width of the opening.

NOCMAT_09_Bath_Uni___Gordon_Browne_paper_final
Surface treatments:
Not only can the durability of a block be improved by stabilisation, the application of
various coatings will also improve them.
Table 1: League table of drip testing results
Cement stabilised rammed soil blocks were the most moisture resistant and with an
additional coating of oil (old engine oil) or animal fat this was significantly improved.

Sustainable Dry Interlocking Block Masonry Construction

3.7 Suitability of Interlocking Block Works In
3.7.1 Load Bearing Masonry
Since blocks are 220 mm width and can be made of block strength > 75 MPa, same can be safely
used for load bearing construction. Depending on structural requirements of the building,
appropriate RCC bands can be used. Extensive tests have been conducted from time to time for
conformity of dry stacked masonry in G+2 storey building. Fly Ash based interlocking blocks can be
made of higher compressive strength to suit the load bearing construction requirements beyond
ground floor to suit structural requirements. In terms of IS 1905, masonry can be done with thin
mortar slurry of 1:3 to satisfy this requirement.

3.7.2 Framed Structure Masonry

Framed construction mainly require brick / block work to be used as an infill only, therefore dry
stacked interlocking block work can be used in out walls of 220/230 mm thickness. For block work of
lesser width it is recommended to use cement mortar slurry/grout. Blocks have standard height of
115 mm, makes it easier to design the beam height for required number of courses.

3.7.3 Reinforced Masonry

Interlocking blocks with horizontal and vertical cavity provide and ideal solution for using
reinforcements to suit the structural design requirements, of reinforced masonry.

Research Work Report - Hydraform dry-stack construction system

Erection of Hydraform wall starts after a concrete strip foundation has hardened. The first course is
laid in mortar. Blocks used on super- structure courses are completely dry-stack until lintel level. The
top three courses used above lintel level are laid on mortar to form a ring beam (Agrément SA,
1996).
A normal roof structure is tied to the ring beam using galvanized wires to prevent wind uplift. Above
doors and windows openings, normal concrete lintels are placed.
To prevent rainwater penetration on external walls, it is recommended to have them plastered and
painted on interior face. Plastering and painting interior walls also improve thermal and sound
insulation between house partitions.
Building with Interlocking Blocks
Almost any type of building can be constructed with interlocking blocks, the main design constraints
being that the plan should be rectangular and all wall dimensions and openings must be multi pies of
the width of the block type used.
All other principles of design and construction, such as dimensioning of foundations, protection
against rain and ground moisture, construction of ceilings and roofs, and the like, are the same as for
other standard building types.

Structural Guidance Note – ARUP

Table 8. Typical structural properties.
Durability
In order to achieve durability, it is important that the limitations of unfired earth block construction
are understood and considered by both the architect and the engineer, If used correctly there is no
reason why they cannot satisfy the typical 50–year design life.
Methods of damage include:
Water:
loss of cohesion – earth construction is soluble in water
splitting due to freeze/thaw cycles
salt deposits which may break down the clay matrix
Impact:
from people, animals, etc
Vegetation:
undermining of wall
plant growth on the surface as a result of damp facilitating
infestation from rodents and insects.

The overarching principle is to protect against water. Earth masonry should never be allowed to sit
in water. The “hat and shoes” approach should be followed — the parts of a wall most vulnerable to
water are the top and the bottom. Refer to Appendix A: Case studies and Appendix B: Typical details.

Orientation
Walls facing the prevailing wind direction are at greater risk from wind-driven rain and should be
well protected. Consider orientating gable ends away as they tend to be more exposed.

Surroundings
A veranda or covered walkway provides additional protection, and should be designed to drain away
from the wall.

Vegetation should be kept away from walls.

Drainage
Water must not be allowed to pool at the base of a wall.
The surrounding area should be well drained and graded to prevent surface water collecting.
Consider that hard surfaces cause more splashing.
Gutters and pipes carrying water should be located away from walls if possible in case of leaks.
Alternatively they should be checked regularly to ensure speedy repair as part of a maintenance
regime (refer to Section 4.7).

Foundations
Earth blocks should only be considered for foundations for very dry, well-drained sites. In this case
the blocks should always be stabilised.

Damp-proof course
Earth masonry must be isolated from groundwater and so a damp-proof course should always be
included, even when the masonry is located on top of a concrete or fired earth brick foundation.
The damp-proof course should be continuous with the slab protection and generally at least 150mm
above ground level.
The material chosen should be flexible in order to accommodate shrinkage of the wall. Suitable
materials include bitumen-coated aluminium, copper and copper alloys, lead and zinc, or heavy-duty
plastic sheeting.
Base protection
The base of a wall is especially prone to water erosion by splash, standing or pore water. To this end
the base of the wall may either be raised up on a base course or protected by a wearing layer.
A base course could consist of fired brick or concrete.
A wearing layer could consist of a stone/cement render as employed at Pajule School, Uganda. Refer
to Appendix A: Case studies.

The height of the base course may also depend upon the roof overhang provided.

Roof overhang
Roof overhangs should normally be provided to prevent water impacting on and running down the
face of the wall. The length of projection required will vary according to the climate. In areas with
extreme weather where wind-driven rain may impact the wall at shallow angles, roof overhangs
become less effective. In this case additional measures such as surface protection should be
provided.

Surface protection
The requirement for a protective coat or finish may depend on several factors:
1. climate
2. architectural detailing and aesthetic requirements
3. building use
4. acceptable level of maintenance.
Surface protection may be applied internally and externally. It is vital that it is vapour permeable.
Refer to Section 3.8.1 for more information.

Corner details
The stability of earth masonry structures depends largely on the stability of their corners. Consider
that corners and openings are especially prone to impact damage.
Corners may be strengthened by substituting a harder material, such as stone or burnt brick, for the
earth blocks. Alternatively surface protection may be applied.

block production
“Holdback time” between mixing and block production should be kept below one hour at the most
where soil is cement-stabilised, as strength can reduce. Where lime is used, strength may increase
with holdback time.

CURING
This section covers the steps required to cure stabilised blocks.
Like concrete, earth construction gains strength with age.
It is important that earth blocks are not allowed to dry out too quickly as this may cause cracking.
Blocks should be protected against rain and sun.
Curing requires time and storage space.
Curing should be located close to the press to reduce the carrying distance and minimise the risk of
damage to uncured blocks.
Blocks should be raised up or placed on plastic sheet to prevent loss of moisture to the ground.
Blocks should be covered over with plastic sheet or cloth to prevent evaporation and protect against
rain.
Blocks should be kept damp for several days by sprinkling with a watering can or similar.
Blocks may initially be stored flat before being stacked into piles.
Blocks stabilised with cement should ideally be cured for a minimum of 14 days, ideally 30 days.
Blocks stabilised with lime should ideally be cured for at least 30 days.
CASSO Orphanage, Uganda
Key data
double interlocking stabilised soil blocks (ISSBs)
imported murram
reinforced concrete ring-beam at roof level to provide a structural tie during a seismic event
piers formed from ISSBs at regular intervals to provide lateral restraint
load-bearing single-storey construction.
Malawi schools

Key data
compressed stabilised soil blocks, Cinva–ram block press,
site-won soil
290mm×140mm×100mm
load-bearing single-storey
reinforced concrete floor slab with fired brick foundation
Damp-proof course and termite nib.

Pajule Secondary School, Uganda

Key data
double interlocking stabilised soil blocks with mortar in every fourth bed typically, site-won soil
290mm×140mm×115mm
large roof overhang – building surrounded by a veranda
600mm high stone cladding at base
concealed reinforced concrete ring beam formed through modified block type.
STABILITY of DRY-STACKED MASONRY
Page 94

Nonconventional and vernacular construction materials

It is advisable to mix sufficient materials to allow for

1-h production output of the block-making equipment. The time between mixing of the cement and
water and the final finishing is an important factor in the compaction of the mixture. Remixing the
materials after about 2 h or more breaks the cementitious bonds through the compacting process.

Though not technically difficult, making construction blocks with a manual press or ram is a labour
intensive operation and the amount of pressure exerted on the handle is not usually uniform as it is
dependent on the operator at a given time. Four adults working in an organised assembly line with
the aid of a manual cement mixer can produce only about 50 blocks an hour. With a mechanised
press (see Fig. 8.14), about five times that amount can be produced with the same number of
workers.

Curing of CSEBs
Stabilised soil blocks must be kept in a humid environment for at least 7 days after production. The
surface of the blocks should not be allowed to dry out too quickly, as this causes shrinkage cracks.
The blocks must be sheltered from direct sun and wind and kept in conditions of RH exceeding 80%
by covering them with waterproof plastic sheets as shown in Fig. 8.16, ideally for up to 21 days. After
28 days, there will be no further significant increase in the strength. High temperatures combined
with high humidity gives the best results. Covering with black plastic sheeting helps retain the
temperature inside the curing chamber.

The base course is bonded with mortar up to one course above the floor level. The middle courses
are dry-stack up to lintel level. The top three courses are again bonded with mortar to form a ring
beam at the top of structure as shown in Fig. 8.17. Alternatively, a reinforced concrete ring
beam could be cast at the top.
The CSEB material starts from about 0.5 m above ground level. The best practice for CSEB is to keep
it permanently dry.
The absence of a bonding agent in the joints between masonry units makes the wall structure
flexible and assists in alignment during construction.

Hydraform Headquarter South Africa

ASIA - Hydraform building specs - simple rules

HYDRAFORM AFRICA – LOADBEARING WALLS

GUIDE ON SOIL SELECTION FOR BLOCK PRODUCTION

A Best Practices Manual for Using Compressed Earth Blocks - Indian Country