PROCESS CHARTS The charting of work flows, working processes, systems and procedures is a useful way of recording the essential features of a work situation for subsequent analysis. Process Charts are one of the simpler forms of workflow charting and are still in regular usage but are less common than they once were (see Process Mapping). This is unfortunate since it was the ubiquitous nature of the process chart that made it a common “language” between different groups of people and across different industries. A variety of process charts have been designed to meet the needs of a particular level or stage of analysis; they can be used at a detailed level (recording activity at a specific work station or workplace), but also at the wider system, process or procedure level. The different kinds of process chart share a common core set of symbols, though some have additional symbols for specific and specialized process steps. The common symbols (of which there are only five) were first promulgated by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and have become known as the ASME symbols. OPERATION : a man step where the part, material or product is usually modified or Changed. INSPECTION : indicates a check for quality or Quantity. TRANSPORTATION : the movement of Workers, materials or equipment. STORAGE : controlled storage in which Material is received into or issued from a Store , or an item is retained for reference PurposeDELAY or TEMPORARY STORAGE Indicates a delay in the process, or an Object laid aside until required These symbols are simple linked together in a vertical chart representing the key stages in a process; it is usual to place a commentary in an adjoining column recording contextual / environmental information, e.g. against a Transport symbol would be recorded, start of journey, end of journey, distance and mode of transport The simplest form of process chart is known as an outline process chart and records an overview (or outline) of a process. Only those steps of a process that can be represented by the ASME symbols or operation and inspection are recorded. An outline process chart is often a useful fist step to identify key areas. of concern before recording (Part of) the process in more detail. In a “Full” process chart, where all symbols are used, it is common chart the process from the ‘viewpoint’ of the material being processed, the worker carrying out the work or less commonly, a piece of equipment. Thus, the same symbols can be used in different ways. As a simple example, a piece of equipment can be represented on a equipment-type flow process chart as a “delay” (because it is not in use) while a material type flow process chart (of the same process) would show the material being transported to the next work station, and a man type chart could show the operator involved in another operation on another machine. The chart to be used may be determined by the purpose of the investigation or by the relative costs involved in the process ~ a highly capital — intensive process may focus more attention on the equipment being used. Process charts may also be used at a more micro level of analysis. An example is the two handed process chart which records the motions performed by both hands during a task. The sequence of motion of each hand is charted using the same symbols as before. There are slight changes to the meaning of the symbols, however. The delay symbol is used to indicate that the hand is waiting to carry out is next task. The storage symbol is used to indicate that the hand is holding on to a piece of material or a document. Two handed process charts are usually drawn on a pre-formatted diagram. Their use has generally been superseded by the analysis involved in the use of low level pre-determined motion times systemBasic procedure for work simplification. A complete work simplification technique consists of the following 8 steps. Select - Select the job to be studied. Record- Record all relevant facts about it. Examine- Analyze and critically examine point. Develop- develop the most efficient method of manufacture Measure - the quantum or work Define- define the process so that it can be correctly understood Install - Install the process after standardizing it Maintain- — Maintain the standard practice by occasional check's Selection of job work simplification should be based on the consideration of the following factors. 1] 2) 3 4] Economic consideration — production is repetitive and large, more members are involved. Design and development — raw materials Production planning — selection of machines, tools, jigs, and fixture — speeds feeds depth of cut etc. Human considerations — proper working environment, workers morale, job security, regular payments, incentive scheme, etc. Search of a job is difficult. Following are some situations which should be considered for immediate attention. emeagoe Excessive idle machines. Men remaining idle for a longer time Production cost going high Bottlenecks in production line Frequent break downs of machines Excessive rejection of manufactured goods Higher proportion of accidents. Recording techniques: Use of process charts — graphical representation of process. It shows only operations and inspection. OPERATION STORAGE INSPECTION DECISIONTRANSPORTATION DELAY Critical examination - after preparing the diagrams / charts then analyze and critically examine each point. The critical examination is carried out by asking the primary and secondary questions in systematic manner. The aim of primary questions is to seek into regarding the purpose of activity, place where it is undertaken, sequence in which it is performed, the person performing it and the means used for the same in order to eliminate the unnecessary activity or to combine two or more activities or to simply the activities so that better results can be obtained. The aim of secondary questions is to examine in details the info collected from primary questions with a view to find possible alternatives and develop the best possible method of working. Primary Questions Secondary Questions Active ~ purpose. 1. What is achieved? (What is actually done?) What else can be done? 2. Why is the activity necessary? Eliminate unnecessary Place 1. Where is it done? Where else it can be done 2. Why it is done there? Where should it be done? Combine wherever possible Sequence of activity 1. When it is done? When else it can be done? 2. Why itis done then ? When should it be done? Rearrange the sequence PERSONAL 4. Who does it Who else can do it? 2. Why that person? When should it be done? Identify right person Means 1. How is it achieved? How else could it be achieved? 2. Why that way? What should be done?Develop a new method New methods require knowledge of the possibilities — new machinery, the effects of removing a stage in a process or re-allocating it to another process or persons. Developing solutions requires the designer to have knowledge or new methods and equipment and the technical feasibility, reliability and cost of these. A chart of the new system is a pictorial model which enables others to see the new system and evaluate it. A quality circle (improvement team) can brainstorm ideas on development to method. The improvement team can try the technique or reverse engineering or value analysis. Individual staff can submit suggestions. This can be encouraged by introducing a staff suggestion scheme which offers good rewards to viable suggestions to matter how apparently trivial the suggestions. Even the substitution of a plastic clip-faster for a nut and bolt can bring savings in time and materials expenditure when applied across a year’s production run of thousands of sub-assembles. ‘The development of a work place culture in which staff can contribute and participate is important. People are extremely ingenious and not everyone sees the wood for the trees. Now methods have to be thought through and tested. Giving staff the opportunity for experimentation or enabling people to join with others to work through the detail of a half formed idea can all help in the development of new methods. Some organizations have allows members of staff time and access to equipment to enable them to research the detail of their ideas. There may be effects on the composition of jobs and the ability of staff to maintain earning opportunities — there need urgent looking into. Install / Implement it New methods once agreed and coasted must be installed. Staff consultation, briefing and training are needed. Goodwill requires. sensitivity, planning and resourcing. Installation may require a detailed project plant and budget. A new method could be installed in one depot or one fine whilst the old method continues on other depots / units — this reduce risk and offers time for learning and dissemination of experience. If a new method is installed immediately over an old method — then there needs to be complete certainty that it is going to work. Howe is the problem of staff training for the new method to be resolved if it has not yet been installed.Maintain it ‘A new method needs new sequences of operator action and probably different perspectives, Every member of the operations team needs to be committed to the new method. The process chart needs to be up-dated with the new method and associated documentation modified. If teething troubles do occur a “hit team” needs to be ready to jump into action. The new method should be formally reviewed and its performance compared against benchmark data from the previous method. The methods charts form part of the firm’s ISO 9000 documentation and when changes to the quality assured processes occur — the charts will need up dating. The availability of quality system software with integrated charting facilities makes this readily possible. To all intents and purpose SREDIM is a straight forward, commonsense series of steps. Indeed @ work analyst may make useful contributions to operations management by using the steps in methods improvement projects.Production Management: Work study is a management technique to increase productivity by the application of detailed analysis and critical examination of any work. It consists of to broad divisions. 1. Method study or work simplification 2 Work measurement or time study. The fundamental objective of work study is to obtain the optimum use of human and material resources available with an organization for economical production. This can be achieved by: 1. The most effective use of plant and equipment -) Method study 2. The most effective use of human efforts. ) 3. Evaluation of human work - ) Work measurement 4. Selection and training of personnel. =) Work simplification or method study. The British Standard glossary of words in Work study defines as “the systematic recording and critical examination of existing and proposed ways of doing work as a means of developing and applying easier and more effective methods and reducing costs. Hence work study / work simplification has main objective is to study the existing and proposed method of working, analyze and critically examine and suggest modifications in design or manufacturing processes so that one or more of the following can be achieved. Men, materials and machines are utilized effectively. Most efficient and economic method of manufacturing is developed. The process, machine tools and equipments chosen are appropriate The layout is modified to reduce material movements on the shop floor and avoid bottlenecks in production. the workstations are suitably developed for better physical. the human efforts are economized resulting in reduced fatigue and increased output. ReNo on Basic procedure for work simplification A complete work simplification technique consists of the following 7 steps Select - Select the job to be studied Record - —_—_Record all relevant facts about it Examine - Analyze and critically examine point.Develop - —_ develop the most efficient method of manufacture. Measure - the quantum of work Define - define the process so that it can be correctly understood Install - Install the process after standardizing it Maintain - ‘Maintain the standard practice by occasional checks. Selection of job work simplification should be based on the consideration of the following factors. b. ©. d. Economic consideration - production is repetitive and large, more numbers are involved Design and development — raw materials Production planning - selection of machines, tools, jigs, and fixtures — speeds feeds depth of cut ete. Human consideration — proper working environment, workers morale, job security, regular payments, incentive scheme etc. Search of a job is difficult. Following are some situations which should be considered for immediate attention. e-es90cp Excessive idle machines. Men remaining idle for a longer time Production cost going high Bottlenecks in production line. Frequent break downs of machines. Excessive rejection of manufacturing goods Higher proportion of accidents. Recording techniques. Use of process charts - graphical representation of process. It shows only operations and inspections.OPERATION DECISION Types of charts: FereaooD Operation process chart Flow process chart Flow diagrams String diagrams Travel chart Two handed process chart Multiple activity chart Simultaneous motion chart. STORAGE INSPECTION TRANSPORTATION DELAYOperation process chart — is a graphic representation of a process. It shows chronological order of ops, inps., etc from RM stage to the finished product stage. Flow process chart — operational process chart gives an overall picture of a process, while flow process chart gives information regarding movements materials, storage and delays are shown Flow diagram - flow process chart provides necessary information regarding the manufacturing of an item. It does not given pictorial representation of the movement of men, or material during the process. This can be provided by preparing flow diagram. String diagram - s string diagram is a dimensional plan or model on which the paths traced by winding a string along the path of movernents. It is a special type of flow diagram generally prepared when the frequency of movement involved are large and cannot be comprehensively recorded by flow diagrams. Travel charts — is a way matrix table presenting quantitative data regarding the origin of the movements of workers materials or equipment and their respective destination for delivery for given period of time. Multiple activity chart — graphic representation of coordinated activities of more then one subject, man and machine process chart. Critical examinations — after preparing the diagram / charts then analyze and critically examine each point. The critical examination | carried out by asking the primary and secondary questions in systematic manner. The aim of primary questions is to seek info regarding the purpose of activity. Place where it is undertaken, sequence in which it is performed, the person performing it and the means used for the same in order to eliminate the unnecessary activity or to combine two or more activities or to simply the activities so that better results can be obtained The aim of secondary question is to examine in details the info collected from primary questions with a view to find possible alternatives and develop the best possible method of working. Primary Questions Secondary Questions Active — purpose. 1. What is achieved? (What is actually done?) What else can be done? 2. Why is the activity necessary? Eliminate unnecessary Place 4. Where is it done? Where else it can be done 2. Why itis done there? Where should it be done?Combine wherever possible Sequence of activity 4. When it is done? ‘When else it can be done? 2. Why it is done then ? When should it be done? Rearrange the sequence PERSONAL 1. Who does it Who else can do it? 2. Why that person? When should it be done? Identify right person Means 1. How is it achieved? How else could it be achieved? 2. Why that way? What should be done? Simply the operation After the critical examination, then develop the most efficient method of activity or manufacturing then define the complete method or process so that it can be correctly understood Then install the process after standardizing it and then maintain the standard practice by occasional checks. Work measurement can be defined as a technique to establish a work content of a specific job in terms of time required to carry it out at a defined level of performance by a qualified worker. Time study is a fundamentally stop watch study of time but now it is work measurement. It eliminates waste of time, efforts and material. The importance of work measurement is that it increases the productivity. ‘Time study is used to determined standard time in order to establish the cost of operation and wage incentive plants. It can also be used for. a. Tocompare time required by alternative methods of doing a job. To examine a given job critically and subsequently to eliminate or reduce ineffective time. Determine staff and equipment requirements Determine the number of machines an operator can handle. Balance the work of operators’ work in a group Make effective use of men, plant and equipment Provide a basis for production, planning & scheduling - work out capacity of the plant or machine. Provide into for estimating tenders and delivery schedules. Recommend a sound incentive scheme. “sz amgpaoThe general criteria for measurable jobs where work measurement can be applied a. The work should be identified in terms of number of units a person performed. b. The work should be performed in a reasonably consistent manner. c. There should be sufficient volume of the work to justify performing of a study. Generally it is done in manufacturing of repetitive jobs. In service job or office job it is difficult. j. Time and rate each element. Obtain observed time, then basic time Add allowances m, _ Establish standard time. Allowances: a] Contingent allowance - cleaning machine lubricating m/c, discussion with foreman, interruption by time study man — 5% of basic time. b) Relaxation allowance — constant allowance + variable allowance. Constant allowance are, personal allowance, basic fatigue allowance, Variable allowance are standing allowances, abnormal position, weight lifting or use of force, lighting & air conditioning, visual oral mental strain, monotony (mental, physical) c] Special allowance are process allowance, small lot allowance, policy allowance. Performance Rating Ti AT= actual time or observed time Normal efficiency rating Allowances worker needs rest breaks during the day and some delay occurs during the work. Personal + Fatigue + Delay allowance. ST = NT(1+Allowances) NT = Basic Time. Performance Rating — the ratio of fastest worker to slowest worker is 2 to 2.5 and hence considerable time has been given in defining a standard worker. ‘The basic time is assessed from the observed time by four methods. Westing house system Speed rating Speed rating Objective rating eeooWesting house system — factors on which rating is done are; skill of the worker, efforts put in by worker, working conditions and consistency maintained by the worker while working Skill - Super skill, excellent, good, average, fair, poor Performance rating is a technique to establish basic time required to perform a job by an average worker from the observed time. Standard time = Basic time + Allowances Observed time X Performance Rating = Basic time or Normal Time.Operations Management - Work study: Managing people within operations involves actual design decisions about jobs, methods, relationships between jobs and machines and systems of control and communication. Work design involves complex “people” relationships between operative staff, supervisors and specialists e.g. engineering managers and staff who commission new machines and maintain them. Other specialists may co- ordinate health and safety systems or monitor performance and plan maintenance. People are not mere extensions to machines or horsepower to be switched on and off. A worker's performance may be better than a machine’s capability — yet a machine may outstrip the human being for many tasks. People can be hurt / injured physically by operating environments or trapped socially and psychologically in them / by them, How operational systems are designed and the jobs and performance relationships within them are of great operational, economical and social importance. In this context then work study is defined as. Definition of Work study : A collection of techniques used to examine work — what is done and how it is done — so that there is systematic analysis of all the elements, factors, resources and relationships affecting the efficiency and effectiveness of the work being studied. Considerable diplomacy and sensitivity is needed by the industrial engineer or operations manager who becomes involved in work study (or business process improvement) investigations. In the Path of F.W. Taylor. Method study and work measurement are two principal activities of work study which originated in the work of F.W. Taylor. FW's “scientific management” imperatives are: * Investigate the work situation and identify weakness — where and why is poor performance happening ? The ‘scientific’ title for this approach to management means placing emphasis on Data gathering and rational analysis. « Certain narrow assumptions about the objectivity of efficiency criteria. « The existence of direct, deterministic relationships between worker performance and incentive payments and * Consideration of the worker to some extent as a machine. Thus we can evaluate and introduce improvements in operating methods. This includes type of equipment, its use, layout of operations, supply and use of materials, materials handling, work organization, effectiveness of planning procedures and so on.Productivity improvement is the aim We can select staff with characteristics that fit the job, train and reward them using payment schemes the offer particular economic incentive by linking payment to measured performance. Such propositions are commonly the stuff of managerial populists and “how-to” texts on human resources management. Methods Study - __ is an analysis of ways of doing work. The mnemonic SERDIM ( a ‘common sense heuristic or general problem — solving strategy) represents the method study stages. Select the tasks to study record the facts about it examine these develop a new method install / implement it maintain it OAPENS Work measurement - involves assessing the time a job should take to do. Similar steps are involved as to method study. calculate basic and standard times for the task agree the method and its related time 1. select the tasks 2. record the facts 3. analyze them 4 5. In the 1950's and 1980's the work study officer or O & M person (organization and methods) gathered the data and gave advice. In the 1970's the titles evolved e.g. to that of management services officer. Work — study and methods study came within the scope of the industrial engineer. Today the techniques of method study are inclusive within the tools kits and applications of the business systems analyst. The most modern application of some of the techniques of work study is the early 1990's managerial receipt; “business process re- engineering” i.e. re-designing business process which have developed to the extent that they mismatch the needs of the situation today. However — having said this — the scope for work study definition and evaluation is useful for operations mangers in a general sense. Such roles require data on operational capacities and effectiveness and the use of time and resources. Methods need regular re-evaluation. Some may have evolved and changed over time to become disjointed, patch works that no longer fully serve requirements. The case may need to be put for more staff or new methods and equipment. Such arguments call for data and measurement.How many extra hours / people are needed ? Why ? What will the new method offer ? Is it possible to change methods ? What will be the costs / benefits? Thus the techniques, assumptions and weaknesses of work study reflect important know-how for the operations manager generally — and no just those working in engineering or manufacturing environments. However the assumptions, difficulties and limitations of the claims must be understood. Efficiency Indices: Using data on measured work, unmeasured work and idle time we can attempt to derive effectiveness indices. Constable and New exemplify efficiency and effectiveness indices a. efficiency While performing measured work (ratio of standard / measured hours of work produced and the actual time taken ) b. efficiency which includes © accounting for work done for which no measured time exists. Such work is typically paid for by an agreed hourly / day rate i.e. there is no direct, measured relationship between pay and much work is actually completed in that hour. Of course 2 supervisor may pass a judgment or state that the amount of work and its quality are inadequate * Recogrition of possible idle time caused e.g. by management not allocating any work, supplier / materials delay, machine breakdowns etc Conclusion? In simple terms work study measures work and defines (some) performance standards. There are many uses for time estimates for tasks. Operations managers can guess or assume that a job is done in the correct time (whatever that is !) or they can be systematic and use time data gathered by a systematic technique which has reasonable accuracy. Whether or not the worker likes it — pushed hard in trying to complete a job with very tight measured work standards which don't anticipate the knotty problem encountered with a particular task — is another matter.‘Work study industrial engineers need time data to plan and evaluate production / transformation process. Rewards systems need such data for performance related bonus. Cost calculations needs to incorporate operative and machine job times costing systems reference work study data. Work study data contributes to * Improved methods to raise output, quality, reduce wastage, enhance reliability and ensure safety. * Standard time data contributes to capacity planning, scheduling, control of staff, asset utilization and quality improvement. Service and after — sales method improvements may be obtained as well as process improvement and better raw material usage. + Implementation planning for product / service and process design requires a detailed understanding of methods and timings. In a distribution / transport system we can evaluate logistical efficiencies. We need to remember always that performance inefficiency may arise from many reasons outside of worker control - a cumbersome planning system, a slow computer system with heavy overhead, lack of investment or uniformed, disorganized management. It is crass to assume that the problem will only be due to staff inefficiencies or inappropriate methods. KOK,