Assessment of Paper-Insulated Lead-Covered Cable Condition PDF

Assessment of Paper-Insulated Lead-
Covered Cable Condition
Electrical, Chemical, and Metallurgical Condition
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Technical Report
Assessment of Paper Insulated
Lead Covered Cable Condition
Electrical, Chemical, and Metallurgical Condition
1001724
Final Report, March 2003
EPRI Project Manager

R. Keefe
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A. S. Rao
This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.
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Metallurgical Condition, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2003. 1001724.
iii
REPORT SUMMARY
This report summarizes the investigation of electrical, chemical, and metallurgical tests used to
evaluate the condition of paper-insulated lead-covered (PILC) medium-voltage cables.
Background
Previous work by EPRI investigated a number of techniques to evaluate the condition of PILC
medium-voltage cables. During that work, several emerging diagnostic techniques were
investigated. These techniques proved promising, but further laboratory testing on more cable
samples of different vintages and with known operating histories was required to establish
confidence in interpretation and to improve the reliability of these diagnostic techniques.
Objective
To examine in detail a number of techniques designed for use on in-service cables, but to-date
used only to a limited extent on PILC cables.
Approach
The project team tested twelve field-aged PILC cables in the lab using five different electrical
diagnostic techniques. These techniques included LIpATEST, isothermal relaxation currents
(IRC), return voltage method (RVM), dielectric spectroscopy, and harmonic distortion. Cable
ratings ranged from 5 to 15 kV, and construction designs included 1- and 3-phase conductors
(circular and sectored). Cable age was between 3 and 69 years.
Results
Oil-paper samples were removed from field-aged cables, and Karl-Fischer moisture tests, Fourier
transform infra red (FTIR) tests, fluorescence examinations, and dielectric thermal analyses
(DTA) were performed.
Five different electrical diagnostic techniques were performed on terminated field-aged cables.
Ten diagnostically tested, field-aged cables were subjected to step-and-hold AC breakdown tests.
One field-aged cable was subjected to a water ingress test to failure.
The effect of higher operating fields on PILC cable life was observed, but data from more cables
is needed to confirm the observation.
Measured moisture contents and electrical diagnostic test results were correlated.
Predictions of relative moisture content in insulation from the different electrical diagnostic tests
were determined and compared to each other.
The magnitude of the effect of moisture content on PILC life was evaluated.
v
Dielectric and electrical properties of PILC cables were directly related to the oil condition.
Electrical tests were sensitive to a degradation process influenced by the oil’s condition.
Oil condition is a major factor in assessing PILC cable aging. When oil becomes aged due to
factors such as thermal heating and partial discharges, its electrical and chemical properties
overtake moisture’s influence and significantly affect PILC cable life.
All electrical/dielectric diagnostic techniques give nearly the same cable ranking.
Degree of hydrocarbon oil fluorescence under UV light was correlated to degree of degradation.
Chemical analysis identified the alloy types of all lead sheaths.
A rebound hardness method was developed to measure lead sheath hardness in the field.
A fluorescent dye penetrant examination method was used in the field to detect fine cracks on the
surface of lead sheaths of unjacketed PILC cables.
An in-situ metallographic examination technique was developed to assess the microstructure and
grain size of lead sheaths. This technique can be used to assess the condition of in-situ lead
sheaths of PILC cables in the field.
Recrystallization and grain growth characteristics were determined at 60°C and 90°C.
An eddy current inspection technique was used in the field to detect surface cracks on lead
sheaths of jacketed or unjacketed PILC cables. A simple transformer type differential probe and
an optimum frequency between 50 to 500 kHz would be required to obtain a good signal to noise
ratio of surface cracks on lead sheaths. An experienced inspector needs to interpret the data.
An accelerated aging test was created to simulate field conditions for PILC cable lead sheaths.
EPRI Perspective
Managing distribution assets remains an ongoing utility concern. PILC cables, in particular, are
challenging to utilities since they are often old but serve key loads. Technologies that can
provide utilities with a better understanding of PILC cable condition are valuable for avoiding
unplanned outages and for planning system upgrades. This project is the latest in a series to
better understand the capabilities and limitations of cable diagnostic tools for PILC assets.
Keywords
Diagnostic techniques Medium voltage PILC LIpATEST
Isothermal relaxation current (IRC) Return voltage method (RVM)
Dielectric spectroscopy Harmonic distortion Metallurgy Eddy current test
Rebound hardness test
vi
EPRI Licensed Material
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We acknowledge the loan of the IRC and the RVM test equipment and technical support
provided by Dr H. Oentjen of HDW in this project. The loan of the IDA 200 instrument by
Programma and several stimulating discussions with Drs. P. Werelius and R. Neimanis are also
greatly appreciated.
Aged cable samples were supplied by Larry Neal of Reliant Energy, John Lazar Northern States
Power, Frank Swartz of PSEG, Steve Au of Toronto Hydro, Michelle Galloway of San Antonio
City Public Service, Paul Fontaine of United Illuminating and Gino Valli of BC Hydro.
It is a pleasure to thank Profs. R. Patsch (Germany) and W. Zaengl (Switzerland) for useful
suggestions and comments on the interpretation of return voltage and depolarization currents
measurements.
We also acknowledge the considerable work in testing and consultation provided by Guy
Halldorson, Dave Kung, Ray Lew, Bruce Neilson, Lisa Ogawa, and Mike Stephens all of
Powertech Labs.
vii
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................1-1
PILC Cable History................................................................................................................1-1
Project Objective ...................................................................................................................1-2
Project Scope ........................................................................................................................1-3
2 CABLE SAMPLES TESTED ..................................................................................................2-1
3 CHEMICAL TESTS ON PAPER TAPE SAMPLES................................................................3-1

Moisture Content Measurements ..........................................................................................3-1
FTIR Measurements of Extracted Oil Samples .....................................................................3-5
Fluorescence Measurements under UV Light .......................................................................3-8
Dielectric Thermal Analysis (DTA) on Oil Samples .............................................................3-10
Influence of Oil Condition on the Insulation Properties .......................................................3-12
4 ELECTRICAL DIAGNOSTIC TESTS ON TERMINATED CABLE SAMPLES ......................4-1

Calculated Maximum Field in the Insulation..........................................................................4-2
Terminations Used In The Electrical Tests............................................................................4-4
Influence of Cable Length and Test Equipment Input Impedance on Cable Response
and Data Interpretation..........................................................................................................4-5
Return Voltage Method (RVM) ..............................................................................................4-7
Isothermal Relaxation Currents (IRC) .................................................................................4-12
LIpATEST............................................................................................................................4-15
Dielectric Spectroscopy.......................................................................................................4-18
Harmonic Distortion in the Loss Current .............................................................................4-22
Electrical Diagnostic Tests on a Full Size Cable in the Field ..............................................4-26
5 ELECTRICAL AGING TESTS ................................................................................................5-1

Step-and-Hold AC Breakdown Test ......................................................................................5-1
Water Ingress Test ................................................................................................................5-5
ix
6 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS OF THE CHEMICAL AND ELECTRICAL

DIAGNOSTIC TESTS................................................................................................................6-1
7 METALLURGICAL TESTS ....................................................................................................7-1

Chemical Analysis of the Lead Sheaths................................................................................7-1
Hardness Measurements ......................................................................................................7-2
Dye Penetrant Examination...................................................................................................7-5
Metallographic Examination ..................................................................................................7-6
Effect of Temperature on the Lead Sheath ...........................................................................7-9
Eddy Current Examination of Lead Sheaths .......................................................................7-12
Effect of Cyclic Stress and Temperature on Lead Sheaths.................................................7-21
8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM THE METALLURGICAL

TESTS .......................................................................................................................................8-1
Conclusions...........................................................................................................................8-1
Recommendations for Future Work ......................................................................................8-1
9 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM THE CHEMICAL AND

ELECTRICAL TESTS................................................................................................................9-1
Conclusions...........................................................................................................................9-1
Recommendations for Future Work ......................................................................................9-2
10 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................10-1
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1 Main aging modes in PILC cables. ...........................................................................1-2

Figure 2-1 Photograph Of Sections Of Cables D Through Q.....................................................2-5
Figure 2-2 Photograph Of Sections Of Cables R And S ............................................................2-5
Figure 3-1 Moisture Content Distributions In Single-Phase 15 kV Cables.................................3-2
Figure 3-2 Moisture Content Distribution In 3-Phase 15 kV Cables. Note That Cable J Is
The Only Round Conductor Cable .....................................................................................3-3
Figure 3-3 Moisture Content Distribution In 5 kV Cables ...........................................................3-3
Figure 3-4 Moisture Content Distribution In The Three Phases Of Cable N ..............................3-4
Figure 3-5 Maximum Moisture Content Measured In One Phase Of The Various Cables ........3-4
Figure 3-6 Relation Between Moisture Content And Years In Service. The Open
Symbols Refer To The Two Single-Phase Cables (D And O)............................................3-5
Figure 3-7 Typical FTIR Spectra for the Oil Extracted from Cable D. Note the Acid Band
at 1695 cm-1 ......................................................................................................................3-7
Figure 3-8 White precipitates attributed to wax observed on the tapes of cable D. ...................3-7
Figure-3-9 Tan δ at 30 C of Extracted Oil Samples as a Function of Frequency. (The
o
suffix after each letter represents test temperature.) .......................................................3-10

Figure 3-10 Tan δ at 50 °C of Extracted Oil Samples as a Function of Frequency ................3-11
Figure 3-11 Tan δ at 100 ˚C of Extracted Oil Samples as a Function of Frequency................3-11
Figure 3-12 Dielectric Constant of Extracted Oil at 30˚C as a Function of Frequency.
Cable G Values Refer to the Right Hand Scale ...............................................................3-12
Figure 4-1 Cross Section Of Cable as it Appears in the Electro Program. Note the
Positions of the Lines Across Which Electric Fields are Calculated...................................4-3
Figure 4-2 Field Plot Across the Line Drawn in Position 1 of Figure 4-1....................................4-3
Figure 4-3 Termination of the Belted Cables .............................................................................4-5
Figure 4-4 Termination of Individually Shielded Cables.............................................................4-5
Figure 4-5 Influence of cable length on the conductance measured in various lengths of
cable P after 1 min of 4 kV dc application during the LIpaTEST measurement. The
calculated sample resistance is several orders of magnitude larger than the
measuring meter impedance..............................................................................................4-6
Figure 4-6 Maximum Return Voltage and Initial Slope Measured Under a Polarization of
1 kV in Samples of Various Lengths ..................................................................................4-7
Figure 4-7 Two Typical Return Voltage Curves With Different Initial Slopes And
Maximum Return Voltages.................................................................................................4-8
xi
Figure 4-8 Normalized Maximum Return Voltage for the Various Cables for Application
of 1 kV ................................................................................................................................4-9
Figure 4-9 Relation Between the Maximum Return Voltage and the Moisture Content ............4-9
Figure 4-10 Relation Between Slope and moisture for 15 kV cables.......................................4-10
Figure 4-11 Relation Between Slope and Moisture for 5 kV Cables ........................................4-10
Figure 4-12 The Ratio of RVM Slopes, QVR, at 2 and 1 kV as a Function of the Moisture
Content of the Tested Cables ..........................................................................................4-11
Figure 4-13 Relation Between the So-Called p Factor of Equ. 4-2 and Moisture ....................4-12
Figure 4-14 IRC Result for Cable G Plotted as It vs. log t .......................................................4-14
Figure 4-15 IRC Results Re-Plotted as log I vs. log t for Some PILC Cables..........................4-14
Figure 4-16 The maximum It/C Value for All Tested Cables....................................................4-15
Figure 4-17 Normalized LIpATEST Results as a Function of the Calculated Maximum
Fields Applied During the Test .........................................................................................4-16
Figure 4-18 LIpATEST current per Farad for the various cables under two applied fields.
The large normalized currents in cables J and R under 3 kV/mm were measured in
only one phase. It is important to note that the results for cables J and R have been
scaled...............................................................................................................................4-17
Figure 4-19 Different LIpATEST currents measured in two phases of cables J and R.
Note the large differences, especially at high fields. Cable D results were added for
comparative purpose........................................................................................................4-18
Figure 4-20 Tan δ Measured as a Function of Frequency for the Various Cables Tested
in the Laboratory ..............................................................................................................4-20
Figure 4-21 Plot showing the variation of the minimum tan δ values (deduced from
Figure 4-20) with the measured %moisture content shown in Figure 3-5 ........................4-21
Figure 4-22 Correlations between measured minimum tan for all 9 cables as a function
of the measured %moisture content. Note the disagreement between the present
results and those predicted by Neimanis (equation 1) shown as a dashed line...............4-21
Figure 4-23 Relation between the tan δ values measured at 0.1 Hz in some oil samples
(by DTA) and in some terminated cables by dielectric spectroscopy...............................4-22
Figure 4-24 Schematic of the Test Set-Up Used by Ref. [24] ..................................................4-23
Figure 4-25 Schematic of the Test Set-Up Used on PILC Cable Samples at Powertech
Labs .................................................................................................................................4-24
Figure 4-26 Harmonic content in the loss current for cable G plotted as a differential FFT
spectrum at 1.5kV, 2.5kV, and 4.5kV which corresponds to 0.5Uo, 1.0Uo, and 1.5Uo .....4-25
Figure 4-27 Harmonic current in the loss current for cable N plotted as a differential FFT
spectrum at 4kV, 8kV and 12kV which corresponds to 0.5Uo, 1.0Uo, and 1.5Uo ...........4-26
Figure 4-28 Normalized LIpATEST current for the cable of Whalley station tested in the
field. For comparative purpose, we have added cables J (phase B) and O, both
tested in the laboratory.....................................................................................................4-27
Figure 4-29 Tan δ measurements performed in the field on the feeder of Whalley
substation compared to those performed in the laboratory on a short section of the
same cable (Q).................................................................................................................4-28
xii
Figure 5-1 Minimum Field Level Passed by the Various Samples Subjected to the Step-
And-Hold Test ....................................................................................................................5-3
Figure 5-2 Minimum AC Withstand Strength as a Function of the Moisture Content.................5-3
Figure 5-3 Relation between the minimum ac withstand strength (kV/mm) and the
normalized LIpATEST current in the tested cables ............................................................5-4
Figure 5-4 Relation between the minimum ac withstand strength (kV/mm) and the
maximum return voltage in the tested cables.....................................................................5-4
Figure 5-5 Relation between the minimum ac withstand strength (kV/mm) and the tan δ
at 0.1 Hz in the tested cables.............................................................................................5-5
Figure 5-6 Block Diagram of the Tank Test Set Up ...................................................................5-6
Figure 5-7 Schematic of the Hole for the Water Ingress Test and Fault Location in Cable
P.........................................................................................................................................5-7
Figure 5-8 Failure Site In Cable P at the End of the Water Ingress Test After Removal of
the Lead Sheath. The Edges of the Rectangular Hole Directly Exposed to Water
are Clearly Visible ..............................................................................................................5-7
Figure 5-9 Carbon at the butt gaps of the first two layers of cable P and wax (white spots
in the picture) was found between the 25 tapes of each phase .........................................5-8
Figure 6-1 Relation between the normalized LIpATEST currents measured under 1 and
3 kV/mm and the normalized It value deduced from IRC...................................................6-2
Figure 6-2 Relation Between tan δ at 0.1 Hz (Peak in Figure 4-1) and the Normalized It
Values ................................................................................................................................6-2
Figure 6-3 Maximum Return Voltage vs Normalized LIpATEST Currents .................................6-3
Figure 6-4 Variation of the 0.1 Hz Tan δ vs Normalized Maximum Return Voltage Hz .............6-3
Figure 7-1 Schematic Representation of Rebound Hardness Tester ........................................7-3
Figure 7-2 Close-Up View of Original and Elastomeric Indenters..............................................7-3
Figure 7-3 Relationship Between Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) Vs Leeb Hardness for
Lead Sheaths .....................................................................................................................7-4
Figure 7-4 Fluorescent Dye Penetrant Inspection of Lead Sheath of Cable J ...........................7-5
Figure 7-5 (a) Microstructure of Lead Sheath of Cables D, E, J and N (b) Microstructure
of Lead Sheath of Cables O, P, R and S ...........................................................................7-7
Figure 7-6 Microstructure of Lead Sheath of a Cable (conventional metallographic
method) ..............................................................................................................................7-9
Figure 7-7 Microstructure of Figure 7-6 Using In-Situ Metallography (Replica) .........................7-9
Figure 7-8 Microstructure of Lead Sheath of Cable J at 60˚C .................................................7-10
Figure 7-9 Microstructure of Lead Sheath of Cable N at 60˚C.................................................7-11
Figure 7-10 Microstructure of Lead Sheath of Cable R at 90˚ .................................................7-11
Figure 7-11 Eddy Current Inspection of Lead Sheath..............................................................7-13
Figure 7-12 Probe Holder of Eddy Current Inspection.............................................................7-13
Figure 7-13 Impedance-Phase Diagram of Cracks on Lead Sheath Covered with the
PVC Jacket ......................................................................................................................7-14
Figure 7-14 Impedance-Phase Diagram of a Defect on Polyethylene Jacketed Lead
Sheath of Cable P ............................................................................................................7-14
xiii
Figure 7-15 Cracks on Lead Sheath of Cable P ......................................................................7-15

Figure 7-16 Three Cracks Oriented in Different Angles (lead sheath of Cable N) ...................7-15
Figure 7-17 Impedance Phase Diagrams of Three Different Crack Orientations.....................7-16
Figure 7-18 Impedance Phase Diagram of Crack at Location D on Lead Sheath on
Cable O ............................................................................................................................7-16
Figure 7-19 Crack on Location D on Lead Sheath of Cable O ................................................7-17
Figure 7-20 Cross Section Area of Crack at Location D on Lead Sheath of Cable O..............7-17
Figure 7-21 Impedance Phase Diagram of Crack at Location A of Cable O Without Any
Jacket...............................................................................................................................7-18
Figure 7-22 Impedance Phase Diagram of Crack at Location A of Cable O with PE
Jacket...............................................................................................................................7-18
Figure 7-23 Crack B on Lead Sheath of Cable S.....................................................................7-19
Figure 7-24 Impedance-phase Diagram of Lead Sheath Of Cable S at Location B
Without Any Jacket ..........................................................................................................7-19
Figure 7-25 Impedance-Phase Diagram of Crack B on Lead Sheath of Cable S with
2mm PE Jacket ................................................................................................................7-20
Figure 7-26 Cross Section Area of Lead Sheath of Cable S at Crack B Area .........................7-20
Figure 7-27 (a) Cracks on Lead Sheath of Cable J (b) Cracks on Lead Sheath of Cable
O (c) Cracks on Lead Sheath of Cable P (d) Cracks on Lead Sheath of Cable S ...........7-21
Figure 7-28 Aging Test Apparatus ...........................................................................................7-22
Figure 7-29 Lead Sheath of Cable O after 100 Cycles of Aging at Room Temperature..........7-23
Figure 7-30 Lead Sheath of Cable O After Aging 1281 cycles at 60°C ...................................7-23
Figure 7-31 Cracks on the Wrinkled Area of the Lead Sheath after Aging Test
(Fluorescent Dye Examination)........................................................................................7-23
Figure 7-32 Rings on Lead Sheath of Cable P ........................................................................7-24
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Main Characteristics Of The Tested Cable Samples ................................................2-1

Table 2-2 Characteristics Of The Insulation And Operating History (When Available) Of
The Tested Cables.............................................................................................................2-3
Table 3-1 FTIR results on selected samples. ............................................................................3-6
Table 3-2 Visual and UV Appearance of Paper Tapes and Oil Samples from Various
Cables ................................................................................................................................3-9
Table 3-3 Fluorescence of Paper Tapes and Oil Compared to Tan δ of the Oil Samples
Extracted from Some Cables. ..........................................................................................3-12
Table 4-1 Calculated Maximum Fields in Various Cables for Different Voltages.......................4-4
Table 5-1 AC Voltages and Fields Passed by the Cables in the Step-and-Hold Test ..............5-2
Table 6-1 Moisture Levels Deduced from Various Techniques .................................................6-1
Table 6-2 Ranking of the Cables Condition from the Dielectric and Electrical Tests .................6-4
Table 7-1 Composition of Lead Sheath of Cables .....................................................................7-2
Table 7-2 Hardness of Lead Sheath of Cables..........................................................................7-4
Table 7-3 Results of Fluorescent Dye Penetrant Examination of the Lead Sheath of
Different Cables .................................................................................................................7-6
Table 7-4 Microstructural Features of the Lead Sheath of Different Cables ..............................7-7
Table 7-5 (a) Leeb Hardness of Lead Sheath of Cables J, N and R at 60˚C (b) Leeb
Hardness of Lead Sheath of Cables J, N and R at 90˚C..................................................7-10
xv
1
INTRODUCTION
PILC Cable History
Paper Insulated Lead Covered (PILC) cables used in distribution applications are designed to last
30 to 50 years. Cables installed in the thirties and forties have reached or surpassed their design
life and utilities continue to use them without knowing their condition. Thus the condition
assessment of these cables is a crucial factor if one has to avert unexpected failures of the cables.
The estimation of future performance of distribution cables particularly the PILC cables and of
the degree of degradation of in-service cables, has received a great deal of attention (1-15). The
potential for cable oil leaks, the consequent environmental issues, and unexpected cable failures
are of immense concern. Moreover replacing these cables cannot be done easily and the
replacement costs can be very high.
During the operation of PILC cables, heating occurs in the cables due to the passage of current
through the conductors. The dielectric loss in the insulation and the eddy current loss in the lead
sheath also generate additional heat within the cable. The PILC cables are also exposed to
thermal expansion and contraction associated with daily load cycles. These factors cause fatigue
and creep of the lead sheath, which lead to cracks in the lead sheath. If jacket damage has
occurred, the lead sheath can also deteriorate due to localized corrosion. Breaks in the lead
sheath will eventually lead to moisture ingress and oil leaks, and will also cause localized points
of high electrical stress.
Heating over time will deteriorate insulating oil and oil-impregnated paper. Thermal
decomposition of the paper is associated with the release of carbon, oxides and water. The paper
will absorb water increasing its dissipation factor (tan δ) and decreasing its dielectric strength (6-
8,13-15). Higher losses will induce some localized heat, which will further accelerate the
paper’s chemical degradation.
Partial discharges (pd) initiated in insulation voids (butt spaces and tape overlap) can also cause
chemical decomposition of the oil leading to wax formation. The presence of wax will limit the
flow of oil inducing more voids and then increasing the pd activity. The heat generated by the
discharges may then chemically degrade the paper, especially near the conductor where the
supply of electrons is abundant.
Thus the residual life of the cable depends on the condition of its lead sheath, oil impregnated
paper, oil, and the cables electrical characteristics, as schematically shown in Figure 1.1. In
summary, the following different aging phenomena may lead to a reduction in lifetime of a PILC
cable in service:
1-1
Introduction
• Free water in the cable

• Chemical changes of the oil
• Decomposition of paper layers
• Drying out effects
• Fatigue and creep in the lead sheath leads to cracking
• Corrosion of the lead sheath
• Water in the oil and in the insulation
• Metal and soot particles in the oil
• Overheating effects
• Oil starvation.
PHENOMENA
ASSOCIATED WITH IMPACTS ON
PILC OPERATION INSULATION RESULT
THERMAL AGING HIGHER

POLARIZATION
WATER ABSORPTION HIGHER FAILURE

CONDUCTION
HIGH LOCAL FIELDS DISCHARGES
Figure 1-1
Main aging modes in PILC cables.
Project Objective
There are potential new tools on the horizon that may be applied to assess the condition of the cable.
Previous work by EPRI (1-3) investigated a number of techniques to evaluate the condition of
PILC medium voltage cables. During that work, preliminary investigations were performed on
several emerging diagnostic techniques on both the insulation and the lead sheath in PILC
cables. These techniques proved promising, but further laboratory testing on more cable samples
of different vintages and with known operating histories was required to establish confidence in
their interpretation and to improve the reliability of these diagnostic techniques. The objective
of the present project was to examine in detail, diagnostic tests to assess the condition of both the
oil-paper insulation and the lead sheath of PILC cables.
1-2
Introduction
Project Scope
Sixteen lengths of field-aged PILC cable were collected from utilities across North America.
Two of these lengths were removed from an in-service PILC feeder circuit on which diagnostic
tests had been performed. Three different categories of diagnostic tests were performed on the
field-aged PILC cable samples, namely:
1. Chemical and dielectric tests on paper tape and on oil samples removed from the as-received
cables:
• Karl-Fischer moisture measurements
• Fourier Transform Infra-Red spectroscopy (FTIR) measurements
• UV examination of tapes
• Dielectric-thermal analysis (DTA)
2. Electrical tests in the laboratory and in the field on full-sized field aged cable lengths using:
• Diagnostic electrical techniques to investigate the extent of aging of the insulation as follows:
– Recovery Voltage Method (RVM),
– Iso-Thermal Relaxation Method (IRC),
– LIpATEST method, (Powertech’s leakage current technique),
– Dielectric Spectroscopy method, and
– Harmonic distortion method.
• Aging tests on the electrical insulation:
– AC Breakdown tests
– Current cycling water ingress test
3. Metallurgical tests for the evaluation of lead aging:

• Diagnostic techniques used on the lead sheath:
– Chemical analysis of the lead sheath using plasma spectroscopy to identify the
chemical composition of the lead sheath
– Dye penetrant examination of the external surface of the lead sheath to detect surface
cracks
– In-situ metallographic examination to detect sub-surface cracks
– Hardness test to evaluate the mechanical strength of the lead sheath
– Eddy current test to assess the surface condition of the lead sheath.
• Aging tests on lead sheath:
– Cyclic aging tests to induce fatigue
– Oven heating tests.
1-3
2
CABLE SAMPLES TESTED
The various field-aged cable samples supplied by several US and Canadian utilities are listed in
Table 2-1 along with their age, the manufacturer, and the utility supplying the samples. We
thank the utilities for their support. Note the wide variety of cable construction (sectored and
round conductor), rating (5, 15 and 25 kV), and age (from 5 to 69 years in service). In most
cases, the loading history of these cables was unavailable. Some of the insulation characteristics,
including the tapes thickness, are listed in Table 2-2.
Table 2-1
Main Characteristics Of The Tested Cable Samples
Length
Date of
Cable Description Utility Manufacturer Supplied
Manufacture
(ft)
D 12 kV, Unjacketed, Single 1938 Reliant Energy General Cable 45

phase, 2/0 copper Corp.
E 5 kV, Unjacketed, 3 Phase, Over 40 years Northern States Unknown 36

Belted, Sector cond., 360 old, date Power
kCmil copper unknown.
F 14 kV, Unjacketed, 3 phase, Made 1961, San Antonio City Okonite 49

individ. Copper shielded, installed after Public Service
Sector Cond. 4/0 copper. 1962
G 5 kV, Cambric Rubber 1956 BC Hydro Phillips Electrical 51

Reinforced Jacket, 3 phase,
Belted, Sector Cond., 360
kCmil copper.
H 5 kV, Unjacketed, 3 phase, 1955 BC Hydro CGE 110

Belted, Sector cond., 360
kCmil copper.
I 15 kV, Jacketed, 3 phase, 1986 BC Hydro Canada Wire 90

Belted, Sector cond, 400
kCmil copper.
J 15 kV, Unjacketed, 3 phase 1959 BC Hydro Standard 96

Belted, Round cond., #2 Telephones &
AWG copper Cables Ltd
2-1
Cable Samples Tested
Length
Date of
Cable Description Utility Manufacturer Supplied
Manufacture
(ft)
K 12 kV, Cambric Taped, Reliant Energy ? 30

Single phase, 400 kCmil
L 12 kV, Unjacketed, Single 1956 Reliant Energy Harbishaw Cable 32

Phase, 500 kCmil & Wire
M 12 kV, Unjacketed, Single 1952 Reliant Energy Kennecote Wire 48

phase, 400 kCmil copper. &Cable
N 15 kV, Jacketed, 3 phase, 1993 BC Hydro Alcatel 120

kCmil copper
O 13.8 kV, Unjacketed, Single 1931 Toronto Hydro Northern Electric 50

phase, 1000 kCmil copper.
P 15 kV, Jacketed, 3 phase, 1973 BC Hydro Pirelli 578

kCmil copper
Q 15 kV, Jacketed, 3 phase, 1973 BC Hydro Pirelli 502

kCmil copper.
R 25 kV, Jacketed, 3 phase, 1969 PSEG Okonite 595

Sector cond., 800 kCmil
S 15 kV, Jacketed, 3 phase, 1986 United Okonite 50

sector cond. 500 kCmil Illuminating
2-2
Table 2-2
Characteristics Of The Insulation And Operating History (When Available) Of The Tested
Cables
Tape
Visual Inspection During Sample
Cable Operating History thickness
Dissection
(mm)
D Cable was light to medium loaded 34 insulated tape layers, no semiconductive 0.3
and was taken out of service due to tape shielding.
a relocation project.
E Operated at about 175 to 200 A No phase identification tapes. 18 insulated 0.205

Removed from service to tape layers were found on all 3 conductors.
reconfigure the circuit. Cable was Insulated tapes were dry and waxy,
bent slightly beyond recommended Manufacturers ribbon was not found under
cable bending radius when shipped the lead sheath
to Powertech.
F Unknown operating conditions. No phase identification tape on conductors, 0.08

Removed for relocating. 47 insulated tape layers were wrapped on
conductors 1 and 2, 48 insulated tape
layers were wrapped on conductor 3
G Cable was retrieved from salvage. Bituminous compound was found within the 0.24
Loading history unknown. sheath, Red Phase Tape was labeled
conductor 1, Blue Phase Tape was labeled
conductor 2; Clear Phase Tape was labeled
conductor 3. All phases had 16 tapes.
H Cable was retrieved from salvage. Belt insulation was found dry within the 0.275
Loading history unknown. sheath, 16 insulated tape layers on two of
the conductors and 15 insulated tape layers
on the third, no phase tape on conductor
I Cable was retrieved from salvage No phase tape on conductors, conductors 0.29
Loading history unknown.. 1, 2 and 3 have 21 insulated tape layers
J Cable was retrieved from salvage. Belt was found spongy, Phase tape was 0.24
Loading history unknown. numbered 1, 2 and 3, Phase 1 had 32
insulated tape layers, Phase 2 and three
had 33 insulated tape layers
K Installation date was between Sample K was stolen from Powertech's

1930-40, moderate load, one time compound
failure over two years, cable was
below water (street water), cable
was stored outdoor for one month,
L One time failure within year, 29 insulated tape layers, sample L was
moderate load, cable was below stolen from Powertech's compound
water (street water), cable was
stored outdoor for three months,
2-3
Tape
Visual Inspection During Sample
Cable Operating History thickness
Dissection
(mm)
M Two failures within a year, 31 insulated tape layers; sample M was

moderate load, cable was below stolen from Powertech's compound
water (street water), cable was
stored outdoors for two months,
total circuit length was two miles,
N Cable was retrieved from salvage. No phase identification tape on conductors, 0.24
Loading history unknown. 22 insulated tape layers on conductor 1, 24
insulated tape layers on conductor 2 and 24
insulated tape layers on conductor 3
O Removed from feeder on Leaside- 72 insulated taped layers; tape layer 72 0.24
Danforth. Cable failed in duct at the was found torn; paper tapes were found
mid point between two adjacent dry; butt gaps in the middle layers were
manholes A41L (Red Phase) on found overlapping.
Jan. 3/01; DTE (Detroit Edison)
tested this cable in Oct. 1999 and Cable exceeded minimum bending radius
assigned a PD value of 2; Cable when shipped on pallet;
was installed in 1932
P Removed from Whalley substation Red Phase Tape labeled conductor 1 0.24
feeder between MH 1115 and contained 25 taped layers; Blue Phase
1116. Tested by DTE in 2000 and Tape labeled conductor 2 contained 25
assigned a PD ranking between taped layers; Clear Phase Tape labeled
moderate and significant. conductor 3 contained 25 taped layers
Q Removed from Whalley substation Red Phase Tape labeled conductor 1 0.24
feeder between MH 1116 and contained 25 taped layers; Blue Phase;
1117. Tested by DTE in 2000. Tape labeled conductor 2 contained 25
Same PD ranking as cable P. taped layers; Clear Phase Tape labeled
conductor 3 contained 25 taped layers
R Circuit with many failures; large pd Two Phase contained 52 tapes; One phase N/A
activity (34,000 pC) measured by had 53 tapes.
KEMA in removed section (after
manhole 5155).
S Removed from service and stored. All phases have 27 tapes; two layers of 0.165
Unknown loading. conducting tapes on each conductor
2-4
Samples K, L and M were stolen after being delivered to Powertech, but a small section of cable
M was in the laboratory and could be used for the moisture measurements. Figure 2-1 shows a
photograph of a section of all tested cables.
Figure 2-1
Photograph Of Sections Of Cables D Through Q
Figure 2-2
Photograph Of Sections Of Cables R And S
2-5
3
CHEMICAL TESTS ON PAPER TAPE SAMPLES
A short sample was removed from each cable as received. The cable samples were dissected and
lengths of paper tape were removed to undergo chemical testing. The paper tapes were removed
using latex gloves and were placed immediately into glass jars with metal lids. The tape samples
were removed from the outer, middle and inner (closest to conductor) layers and the jars were
labeled with the cable letter and layer location.
It should be noted that the dissection and removal of tape samples was done quickly after the
cables arrived at Powertech. However, cables may have been in storage and transit for an
unknown period after removal from service. Therefore the condition, especially the moisture
level, may not be representative of the actual conditions in operation. However, the remaining
length of cable after the chemical test samples were removed was sealed using heat-shrink end
caps and stored indoors for later termination and use in the electrical tests. Therefore the
condition of the paper tapes in the chemical tests was representative of the paper tapes in the
cables as they were electrically tested.
Moisture Content Measurements
Moisture is known to significantly affect the electrical properties of cellulosic insulation (6-8,
13-15). In addition to water permeating through cracks in the lead sheaths of PILC cables, water
is generated by the chemical decomposition of paper under thermal heating. It is therefore
important to measure the moisture content of the cables insulation for a better interpretation of
the electrical tests.
The moisture content was determined according to ASTM Std D 3277-95. This test method
depends on solvent extraction of the moisture in cellulose samples at room temperature and on
Karl-Fischer titration. Extraction is accomplished by stirring the solvent recommended by the
standard with small pieces of insulation. Commercial reagents specified by ASTM Std D 3277
were used. The titration and measurement procedures specified by ASTM Std D 3277 were
strictly followed. The measurements were made using a Mitsubishi CA-05 moisture meter using
the Karl-Fischer procedure. The moisture analyzer specifications are as follows:
Range: 10 µg to 100 mg H2O

Sensitivity: 0.1 µg
Precision: +/- 3 µg for 10 µg/mg
3-1
Chemical Tests on Paper Tape Samples
Small squares of paper tape, approximately 1”x 1”, were cut from jar samples taken from each
location within the cable and moisture measurements were performed on three to five adjacent
samples (same location) for statistical purposes. Since variations between the contents measured
in the adjacent samples were below 20 %, it was concluded that the reported values were
reliable.
The moisture content measured in one phase of each cable was rarely constant within the
insulation and different radial distributions could be observed (Figures 3-1 to 3-3). Cables G and
H have more or less constant moisture content and cables E, J and O have a maximum content in
the middle of the insulation. The other cables have decreasing moisture content towards the lead
sheath with a maximum moisture content being near the conductor. The source and possible
causes for this dispersion in the recorded variation in moisture content distribution are discussed
later. Moisture content measurement along the length of the cables was not undertaken, due to
cost restrictions, but it is speculated some variations can occur.
When the moisture content was measured in the three phases of one given cable, significant
variations could also be observed between the phases (see Figure 3-4), suggesting that moisture
was definitely not distributed uniformly through the insulation of each phase and through the
whole cable. This lack of uniformity could potentially obscure any relationship (if present)
between electrical measurements and moisture content. Figure 3-5 shows the maximum value
measured in all cables. Cables I and J are wet (more than 5 % moisture) and cables D, E and S
can be considered as moist (2-3 % moisture). Cables with less than 1% (F, G, H, and P) are
definitely dry and cables M, N, O, Q and R are neither very moist nor very dry.
single phase D M O
2.50
Moisture Content (%)
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0 5 10 15 20
Distance from Conductor (mm)
Figure 3-1
Moisture Content Distributions In Single-Phase 15 kV Cables
3-2
F I J N1 P Q S
Moisture Content (%) 7.00
6.00
3 ph. 15 kV
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0 2 4 6 8
Figure 3-2
Moisture Content Distribution In 3-Phase 15 kV Cables. Note That Cable J Is The Only
Round Conductor Cable
E, 5kV G, 5kV H, 5kV

M oisture Conte nt (%)
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0 1 2 3 4
Figure 3-3
Moisture Content Distribution In 5 kV Cables
3-3
2.00 N,cond.1 cond.2 cond.3
Moisture Content (%)

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 3-4
Moisture Content Distribution In The Three Phases Of Cable N
6
m oisture m ax. (%)
4
3
2
1
0
D E F G H I J M N O P Q R S
cables
Figure 3-5
Maximum Moisture Content Measured In One Phase Of The Various Cables
Although one may expect that the moisture content could increase with cable age due to jacket
and lead sheath damage resulting in higher risks of water ingress and thermal aging associated
with time, the results shown in Figure 3-6 as a function of years in service do not corroborate this
assumption. Clearly the two older cables have, in fact, low moisture contents, but it should be
remembered that they are single-phase round-conductor cables with thick insulation. Does it
3-4
means that this design yields dryer insulation over time or is it due to operating cables in drier
ground? We cannot answer this question.
Moisture content (%) 7

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Years in service
Figure 3-6
Relation Between Moisture Content And Years In Service. The Open Symbols Refer To The
Two Single-Phase Cables (D And O)
There is no apparent correlation between cable voltage rating and moisture content. We have
also tried to determine if the cable design (single-phase versus three-phase, and sectored
conductor versus round conductor) may affect the moisture content. The results shown in
Figures 3-1 to 3-3 do not allow drawing any specific correlation. Finally, there is no obvious
relationship between the moisture content and the insulation thickness. If we consider only the
3-phase cables (Figures 3-2 and 3-3), there is a fairly large scatter of moisture content for the
same insulation thickness. Thus, the presence of moisture does not seem to be associated with a
specific cable rating or design.
The principal problem with the direct moisture content measurement is that it is a destructive
technique requiring a sample to be taken from a cable removed from service. This is of limited
value for an on-site assessment of cable condition. Some of the electrical diagnostic techniques
described in the following chapters are supposed to yield results related to the moisture content
(6-14). It would be of great help if these electrical measurements performed in the field could
indeed predict the moisture content in the PILC cables insulation. In order to validate that
contention, we will compare in the following chapters the above moisture contents with the
measured dielectric and electrical properties.
FTIR Measurements of Extracted Oil Samples

The chemical condition of the insulating materials affects the electrical properties of the cables.
One of the main aging factors for both oil and paper is thermal aging, which may generate
oxidation by-products (i.e. carbonyls), mostly ketones, acids and aldehydes. These chemical
species can be detected and identified in oil samples by Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR)
3-5
spectroscopy. A Nicolet 730 FTIR spectrometer was used in the transmission mode to analyze
the main constituents in the oil taken from the cable’s insulation. Paper tapes are impregnated
with oil and a complete oil extraction being nearly impossible, it is extremely difficult to identify
the part of carbonyls due to oil or to paper. Small quantities of oil were extracted from
impregnated tapes and analyzed with the Nicolet instrument. Table 3.1 gives some of the results.
Table 3-1
FTIR results on selected samples.
Sample D2, layers F2, Layer G2, layer H2, layers J2, layer M2, layers N2,
ID: 31-34 46 16 11-14 31 31-33 layers
21-22
FTIR of Hydrocarb Hydrocarb Hydrocarbo Hydrocarb Hydrocarb Hydrocarbo Polybute

surface on oil with on oil n oil with on oil on oil with n oil ne
oil strong small acid strong
removed acid peak peak at acid peak
from at 1695 1704 cm-1 at 1697
paper: cm-1 cm-1
A typical FTIR spectrum shown in Fig. 3.7 indicate the presence of an IR absorbance band at
1695-97 cm-1, typical of an aliphatic acid, was also detected in the IR spectra of the oil of cables
D and J. The extracted oil quantities were much too small to afford a standard acidity
measurement, which would require oil extraction on much larger samples. Solid white
precipitates were also observed on tapes of cables D and J, which look very much like wax, as
can be seen in Figure 3.8. Wax was also observed in butt spaces in the insulation of cable D
during the dissection. Wax is usually formed after prolonged discharges (pd) lead to some sort
of polymerization of the liquid. Thus, it appears that the solid precipitates observed on the tapes
of cables D and J indicate strong pd activity. We do not have enough data on these cables’
operating history to confirm whether or not the partial discharges did occur in service, but the
traces of arcs on some paper tapes of cable D strongly support this possibility. The fact that the
oil of cables D and J contains some sort of aliphatic acid suggests that traces of acid in the oil
could be an indicator for the wax formation and, thus, for oil degradation. It remains to be seen
if the electrical properties are affected by the acid itself or by the presence of wax. In fact, the
main effect of wax is to reduce the circulation of oil, which implies that pd occurring in the
empty spaces between tapes could not be extinguished. Another side effect of wax blocking the
oil flow is to reduce the thermal transfer and thus to increase the local temperature (and hence
the cable thermal degradation).
A band at 1704 cm-1 was also clearly visible in the spectrum of the oil of cable G. This IR band
is linked to ketone formation (i.e. C=O formation) and therefore to thermal degradation. The fact
that this band is detected only in the oil of cable G, which further tests showed to be the most
severely degraded sample, supports the assumption that the aging process in this case is thermal
degradation of the oil. The oil in cable G also was very dark, another indication of thermal
degradation. Was it due to a high operating temperature or was it due to some other factors? A
bituminous product was found under the sheath of this cable and it may have diffused into the
oil. The IR spectrum does not identify any chemical species other than oil, but the bituminous
product is likely to be a hydrocarbon, which makes the identification nearly impossible. We
therefore cannot specify the origin of the ketones in cable G oil.
3-6
Figure 3-7
Typical FTIR Spectra for the Oil Extracted from Cable D. Note the Acid Band at 1695 cm-1
Figure 3-8
White precipitates attributed to wax observed on the tapes of cable D.
3-7
Fluorescence Measurements under UV Light
Fluorescence is an analytical technique used to identify the presence of fluorescent products that
are light emitting under ultra-violet (UV) illumination. Table 3-2 summarizes the results of a
visual and UV fluorescence examination on some of the oil-impregnated paper, dry paper, and
extracted oil samples. One likely source of fluorescence in hydrocarbon oil is the double bonds
in the main molecular chain. Polybutene (a synthetic oil) having a different molecular structure
would be less fluorescent under UV light, as indeed observed in Cable N.
Most of the fluorescence observed under UV light on impregnated paper tapes was considerably
reduced in the paper samples with oil extracted by solvent. Note especially cables F, H and M.
This indicates that fluorescence originates from the oil, as indeed observed for the extracted oil
samples (this is particularly evident for cables F and M).
This suggests that the degree of hydrocarbon oil fluorescence could possibly be used as an aging
indicator. Samples could be taken when transition or new joints would be installed. However,
this requires further work, especially on the precise relationship between aging and the
fluorescence intensity. The influence of pd and thermal aging on fluorescence have also to be
examined in more detail.
Looking at Table 3-2, there appears to be much more changes in the oil than in the paper tapes of
several cables and this suggests that PILC cable aging is possibly more dependent on oil than on
paper aging.
3-8
Table 3-2
Visual and UV Appearance of Paper Tapes and Oil Samples from Various Cables
PILC cable sample D layer 34 F layers 41-45 G layer 16 H layers 11-15 J layers 26-30 M layer 31 N layers 21-22
Oil-impregnated Tightly coiled smooth Loosely coiled smooth Loosely coiled Loosely coiled Tightly coiled Tightly coiled Loosely coiled
Paper Tape. Visual sticky paper. Shiny, paper. Mainly dry corrugated paper. smooth paper. corrugated paper. corrugated paper. smooth paper.
appearance and waxy appearance in with some oily Very dark brown, Moderately oily. Moderately oily. Moderately oily, Moderately oily.
appearance under UV ordinary light. Slight surfaces. oily. Almost no Considerable Significant shiny. Strong, Almost no
light. fluorescence under UV. Considerable fluorescence fluorescence fluorescence clustered fluorescence
fluorescence under under UV. under UV. under UV. fluorescence under under UV.
UV. UV.
Dry Paper Tape – Pale brown. Smooth, Pale brown. Smooth, Dark brown Pale brown. Pale brown. Pale brown Pale brown.
after solvent tough. Large quantity tough Very little Corrugated. Smooth tough. Smooth tough. Corrugated. Smooth, tough.
extraction to remove of yellow-white fluorescence under Tough. Very little Very little Trace of white Tough. Slight Very little
oil. Visual precipitate. Moderate UV. fluorescence fluorescence precipitate. fluorescence under fluorescence
appearance and yellow fluorescence of under UV. under UV. Moderate yellow UV. under UV.
appearance under UV particles on paper. fluorescence of
light. particles on paper
under UV.
% Weight of oil to dry 32.1 38.0 39.5 36.1 42.5 22.8 42.2
solvent-washed paper
Oil – after solvent Pale yellow oil, with Pale yellow oil Strong Dark brown oil Pale yellow oil. Pale yellow oil. Pale yellow oil. Colorless oil.
extraction from paper. large quantity of blue-white Moderate yellow Moderate blue- Moderate yellow Fairly strong blue- Almost no
Visual appearance yellow-white fluorescence under fluorescence white fluorescence white fluorescence fluorescence
and appearance precipitate. Slight UV. under UV. fluorescence under UV. under UV. under UV.
under UV light. yellow fluorescence under UV.
under UV.
3-9
Dielectric Thermal Analysis (DTA) on Oil Samples
An attempt was made to identify the causes of polarization and high losses seen in the electrical
test on some cables as described in a later chapter. Small amounts of oil from the impregnated
tapes of various cables were extracted with petroleum ether. The oil samples were placed
between the parallel-plate gold electrodes of a dielectric analyzer (TA Instruments Model DEA
2970) and tan δ measurements were performed at 30°C, 50°C, and 100˚C, frequencies from 0.01
Hz to 60 Hz, and under an AC voltage application of 1 Vrms. .
Figure 3-9 shows the relationship between tan δ and frequency for various oil sample extracts
measured at 30°C. Oil samples from cable G had the highest losses followed by oil samples
from cable H. The lowest losses are for the oil of cable F. The only surprising result is the
relatively high losses of the oil from cable N, the newest of all the cables. The results at higher
temperatures (Figures 3-10 and 3-11) indicate that the oil of cable N has even larger losses at
higher temperature. If the oil is polybutene and not a hydrocarbon fluid, this could explain this
observation. Practically, this means that cables insulated with that liquid are likely to have larger
losses than the old cables insulated with hydrocarbon oil. It is also clear that at 100˚C, all oils,
except cable F, have relatively similar and high tan δ values.
F30 J,30 H,30 G30

D30 N30
100
10
Tan delta
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
frequency (Hz)
Figure-3-9
Tan δ at 30 oC of Extracted Oil Samples as a Function of Frequency. (The suffix after each
letter represents test temperature.)
3-10
F50 J50 H50 G50

D50 N50
1000
100
Tan delta
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
frequency
Figure 3-10
Tan δ at 50 °C of Extracted Oil Samples as a Function of Frequency
F100 J100 H100 G100

D100 N100
100
10
Tan delta
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 3-11
Tan δ at 100 ˚C of Extracted Oil Samples as a Function of Frequency
Cable G has oil with a very high dielectric constant (real part of permittivity) at low frequencies
as shown in Figure 3-12. Thus DC conductivity would be expected to be very high. The other
oil samples have a much lower dielectric constant varying more or less in the order observed in
other electrical measurements. The DC conductivity would be a major factor to explain the
condition of the cables.
3-11
Jeps30 Feps,30 Heps30

Neps30 D30eps Geps.,30
15 2500
Diel. constant
2000
10
1500
1000
5
500
0 0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 3-12
Dielectric Constant of Extracted Oil at 30˚C as a Function of Frequency. Cable G Values
Refer to the Right Hand Scale
Influence of Oil Condition on the Insulation Properties
In Table 3-3, we have compared the fluorescence level of various oil samples with their tan δ at
0.1 Hz. It appears that the largest 0.1 Hz tan δ values correspond to the lowest fluorescence level
of the oil samples. It is often suggested that fluorescence is associated with double bonds. In our
case, the strongest fluorescence signal comes from the F oil, which has (by far) the lowest loss.
This suggests that the reduction of double bond concentration in the hydrocarbon oil (either due
to thermal degradation or due to pd activity) results in increased losses and dielectric constant at
very low frequency.
Table 3-3
Fluorescence of Paper Tapes and Oil Compared to Tan δ of the Oil Samples Extracted from
Some Cables.
PILC cable D layer F layers G layer H Layers J layers M layer N

sample 34 41-45 16 11-15 26-30 31 layers
21-22
Oil - Appearance Slight Strong Moderate Moderate Moderate Fairly Almost

under UV: (after yellow blue-white yellow Blue- yellow strong no
solvent extraction fluores- fluores- fluores- white fluores- blue-white fluores-
from paper) cence cence cence fluorescence fluorescence
cence cence
Tan δ at 0.1 Hz- 0.7 0.06 11 1 0.9 - 1

30C, DTA
3-12
The nearly flat curves for Cable G, shown in Figures 3-9 to 3-11 suggest that the concentration
of ketones in the oil of cable G is large enough to be frequency independent. The results shown
in Figures 3-9 to 3-12 indicate that low-frequency tan δ of the examined PILC cables is likely to
be much more due to oil degradation than due to % moisture content in paper tapes. This is
somehow in direct contradiction to information published to date but is consistent and agrees
completely with the moisture content measurements performed on these cables. Stated
differently, the electrical measurements discussed in Chapter 4 – especially tan δ and RVM- may
not be the best way to estimate the moisture content in aged PILC cables. Finally, we are
possibly paying too much attention to moisture as one of the main cause of aging for field-aged
PILC cables. Our very limited knowledge and understanding of the other aging processes makes
it difficult to evaluate their real impact on cable life and failure but it seems that oil degradation
might be a more important cause of cable degradation.
3-13
4
ELECTRICAL DIAGNOSTIC TESTS ON TERMINATED
CABLE SAMPLES
The electrical diagnostic methods used in the present test program were:
1. Recovery Voltage method (RVM) (with equipment from Seba KMT)
2. IRC test method (with equipment from Seba KMT)
3. LIpATEST (Powertech test method)
4. Dielectric Spectroscopy (with equipment supplied by Programma)
5. Measurement of the harmonic distortion in the loss current
All five of the above diagnostic tests were performed in the laboratory on 9 m lengths cut from
cables D, E, F, G, H, I, J, N, and O. We also attempted to perform the first 4 tests on a 2500 m
PILC Feeder cable from the terminations at BC Hydro’s Whalley Substation. After the full
feeder tests, two lengths of this feeder were cut, terminated within manholes, and tested using the
first four techniques. These terminated sections were called Cable P and Q, and the lengths
during the tests were 176 m and 153 m respectively. Cables R and S arrived later, after the
Dielectric Spectroscopy and IRC units were returned to the equipment suppliers. Only tests 1
and 3 were performed on 9-m lengths of cables R and S.
We will describe in limited detail how each of the electrical diagnostic tests were performed.
Most of the electrical test techniques have been previously described in other EPRI reports (1-3)
and in various publications (5-23). The interested readers are referred to the references for a
detailed description of the equipment and the requirements for the experimental setup.
Measurement of the harmonic distortion in the loss current (HLC) (24-26) was not used in
previous EPRI work. There was no commercial system available for HLC measurement and a
procedure was developed at the laboratory and will be described later in this chapter.
Note that all these test methods are terminal test methods requiring the cable to be de-energized
and isolated from service. These methods provide a global assessment of the cable insulation
condition. None of the methods discussed here have the ability to precisely identify the localized
areas of cable insulation degradation. They do not help evaluate the cable's lead sheath.
4-1
Electrical Diagnostic Tests on Terminated Cable Samples
Calculated Maximum Field in the Insulation
Prior to discussing the electrical insulation test methods, the procedure used to calculate the
electric fields within the cables is presented. Knowledge of the electric fields is required to help
correlate results when different voltages (ac, dc) and different voltage magnitudes are applied to
different cable designs (single conductor versus sectored conductor) and the AC breakdown
tests. Since many of the cables are three-phase belted design, electric field cannot be determined
by simple analytical methods. Therefore, a two-dimensional field simulation software (Electro,
version 5.1) was employed to calculate the electric field distribution. This software is marketed
by Integration Engineering Software and is based on a Boundary Element Method for
applications requiring exact modeling of geometry, and/or requiring large open domain analysis.
There are three principal steps required to calculate the electric field in cables by this method:
1. Create a design through the geometric modeler.
2. Assign the physical attributes of the model.
3. Analyze the model, refine the mesh to improve accuracy, and display the results.
First, the geometric data of the cables were obtained from measuring the cross section of cable
samples, for example, the conductor radius or segment of circle, insulation radius, insulation
thickness, and the relative positions among the conductors. Then the windows native tool bar
interface was undertaken to manipulate the drawing of the cross section of the cable. Finally, the
voltage applied to the conductors and the shield was determined and the distribution of the
electric field between any two desired points was calculated. Depending on the cable design, the
maximum field is sometimes between the conductor and the shield, as in Position 1 in
Figure 4-1, or from the sharp edges of the sector conductors, as in Position 2 or 6 of Figure 4-1.
As an example, Figure 4-2 shows the electric field plot across the line in Position 1 of Figure 4-1.
4-2
Position
6
Position
1
Position
5
Position
4
Position Position
2 3
Figure 4-1
Cross Section Of Cable as it Appears in the Electro Program. Note the Positions of the
Lines Across Which Electric Fields are Calculated
Figure 4-2
Field Plot Across the Line Drawn in Position 1 of Figure 4-1
In Table 4-1 we have given the maximum fields in the insulation under the rated in-service
phase-to-ground voltage.
4-3
Table 4-1
Calculated Maximum Fields in Various Cables for Different Voltages
Maximum peak calculated field (1/mm) per applied kV during the

LIpATEST
Maximum field in
Cable Rated All three conductors connected One conductor connected to the insulation
Cable
Voltage Ph-Ph to HV HV, others grounded under rated ph-to-
Type
(kV rms) ground voltage
Between Between Between Between (kV/mm)
conductor and conductor conductor and conduct0or
shield corners shield corners
D 12 0.257 1.8
E 5 0.112 0.166 0.112 0.192 0.55
F 14 0.183 0.308 0.183 0.306 2.5
G 5 0.312 0.364 0.314 0.404 1.2
H 5 0.280 0.336 0.404 0.384 1.2
I 15 0.196 0.209 0.196 0.253 2.2
J 12 0.264 0.133 0.275 0.227 1.9
M 12 0.278 1.9
N 15 0.158 0.195 0.223 0.206 1.9
O 14 0.148 1.2
P 15 0.251 0.268 0.249 0.323 2.8
Q 15 0.194 0.214 0.194 0.293 2.5
R 25 0.229 3.3
S 15 0.363 3.1
Terminations Used In The Electrical Tests
The cables on which electric dielectric tests were performed were terminated with a combination
of cold shrink types and heat-shrink stress relief tubes. The design of the three- phase
terminations used with belted and individually shielded cables are shown in Figures 4-3 and 4-4,
respectively. Single-phase cables were terminated like one phase of an individually shielded
three-phase cable.
4-4
Compression Connector
Cold Shrink Termination
Stress Controlling Compound
Conductive Heat Shrink Tubing

Adhesive Copper Foil
Belt insulation
Stress Relief Mastic

Semi-conductive Tape
Lead Sheath
Figure 4-3
Termination of the Belted Cables
Compression Connector
Cold Shrink Termination
Stress Controlling Compound
Conductive Heat Shrink Tubing

Adhesive Copper Foil
Metal shield extends halfway into
conductive heat shrink tubing
Stress Relief Mastic

Semi-conductive Tape
Lead Sheath
Figure 4-4
Termination of Individually Shielded Cables
Influence of Cable Length and Test Equipment Input Impedance on Cable

Response and Data Interpretation
We had in previous work reported the influence of the cable length on most electrical test results
(2,3). The current, I, flowing in a cable insulation subjected to a high voltage, U, will depend on
the cable insulation resistance, Rc, and to some degree on the resistance, Rm, of the measuring
meter in series with the tested cable according to the relationship shown in Equation 4-1:
4-5
I =U
(R c + R m ) Equ. 4-1
If the measuring instrument’s input impedance is small compared to the cable’s impedance, we
may expect to measure a current through the cable insulation varying inversely with the cable
resistance. Since Rc varies directly with the cable length, this means that the current should then
vary linearly with the cable length. As an example, Figure 4-5 shows the computed conductance
of samples of various lengths taken in cable P subjected to 4 kV during LIpATEST. The
measuring instrument had a very low input resistance of 33 kΩ, which is several orders of
magnitude smaller than the tested cables insulation resistance (typically in the 1010 to 1012 Ω
range for 9 m samples).
When the measuring meter input impedance is of the same order as the cable's impedance, it will
predict a non-linear relation between I and Rc. This is what happens with 9-m long PILC cables
during the RVM and IRC measurements performed with an instrument having an input
resistance of 10-11 GΩ. The maximum return voltage, for example, is still varying with the
cable length but in a non-linear fashion, as shown in Figure 4-6.
Rm = 33 kΩ y = 0.0025x - 0.0256
6 R2 = 0.9999
5
Rc= 0.16 GΩ
Cable Conductance (nanoS)
Rc=58.8 GΩ
3
Rc=2.67 GΩ
1
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Cable Length (m)
Figure 4-5
Influence of cable length on the conductance measured in various lengths of cable P after
1 min of 4 kV dc application during the LIpaTEST measurement. The calculated sample
resistance is several orders of magnitude larger than the measuring meter impedance.
For a 20 kV PILC cable, Oentjen and Kamenka have also shown (12) that the influence of the
cable length on the voltage response (during RVM measurements) decreases with increasing
cable length and becomes negligible for cable lengths over 300 meters. According to these
authors, the initial slope of the return voltage should be nearly independent of the length of the
cable. However, from our own measurements (see Figure 4-6), the initial slope is also varying
with cable length, at least for short samples, when the tested cable sample and the voltmeter have
comparable impedances.
4-6
1000 27.5
max. V slope
27
800
Maximum voltage (V)

26.5
600 26
25.5
400 25
Rm=11GΩ
24.5
200
24
0 23.5
0 50 100 150
Cable Length (feet)
Figure 4-6
Maximum Return Voltage and Initial Slope Measured Under a Polarization of 1 kV in
Samples of Various Lengths
This means that the polarization currents and return voltage values are dependent on the tested
sample length and also on its “geometry” (size, rating, number of conductors, etc.) which
influences cable capacitance and maximum electric field on the conductor. They may also
depend on the measuring meter input impedance if it is of the same order of magnitude of the
cable impedance. In other words, results obtained with one given cable cannot be directly
compared to results obtained with another one, unless they are of the same rating and length and
they are measured with the same instrument. In our case, in order to make effective assessment
from the measured responses, we have normalized the obtained responses by dividing the
measured value (current or voltage) by the cable capacitance (which is proportional to cable
length).
Return Voltage Method (RVM)
A test method that has been applied extensively for transformer and XLPE cable condition
assessment is the recovery voltage method (5,8-12,17,22,23). This test method applies a low dc
voltage to a cable. Relays then short the cable for several seconds, remove the short, and
measure the recovery voltage using a high impedance voltmeter. It requires that the cables be
isolated from the system and de-energized before any testing can commence. Based on the
obtained responses the relative degree of aging if any and the relative moisture content are
determined. Results of applying this technique to other types of paper-insulated transformers
have shown promise (17,22,23). The RVM represents a non destructive dielectric polarization
test, which after completion of a defined charging cycle and a subsequent brief discharge of the
geometric capacitance of the cable measures and records the return voltage curve. The curve
contains characteristic information regarding the aging status and moisture content of the
insulation of the cable under test (8-12). It has also been observed that the return voltage is
4-7
directly related to the molecular weight (22) and to the degree of polymerization (DP) (23) of the
transformer paper tapes.
The CD31 instrument, manufactured by Seba KMT, is a portable, computer controlled field test
unit to record and analyze return voltages curves. The test is conducted fully automatically by a
PC and follows a prescribed sequence:
• Charges cable at 1 kV for 30 minutes
• Quickly discharges cable for 2-5 seconds
• Measures and records return voltage for 30 minutes
• Charges at 2 kV for 30 minutes
• Quickly discharges cable for 2-5 seconds
• Measures and records return voltage for 30 minutes
• The PC presents test protocol and results.
If the charging period is long enough, all capacitances in the equivalent circuit schematically
represented in an RC network (12) for the oil-paper system are charged uniformly. When the
short circuit is applied, the ideal cable capacitance Co (no aging) will be the first to lose its charge.
Equalization of charges will continue until a state of equilibrium is reached and during this
period, voltage across capacitance Co will rise to a maximum value typical of the insulation
condition. See Figure 4-7
Figure 4-7
Two Typical Return Voltage Curves With Different Initial Slopes And Maximum Return
Voltages.
For the short sample lengths used, the cable's insulation resistance was measured to be in the
same range as the measuring meter and the relation between length and the measured values was
not linear. In Figure 4-8, we have normalized the results by dividing the return voltage by the
4-8
host cable's capacitance. Figure 4-9 is a comparative plot of the maximum return voltage versus
moisture content (recorded in Chapter 3).
200
Max.Return Voltage/C
150
(V/nF)
100
50
0
cables
Figure 4-8
Normalized Maximum Return Voltage for the Various Cables for Application of 1 kV
moisture %
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.0
-100.0
Vmax under 1 kV
-200.0
-300.0
-400.0
-500.0
15 kV,3ph 15 kV,1ph 5 kV
Figure 4-9
Relation Between the Maximum Return Voltage and the Moisture Content
Some authors have proposed to relate the moisture content with the slope of the return voltage
(8-12). However, a careful analysis of the original suggestion reveals that Nemeth (8) was not
referring to the initial slope, but rather the slope of the voltage decay before the short circuit.
4-9
According to Nemeth, the initial slope depends on what he calls “aging”, supposedly thermal
aging. Figures 4-10 and 4-11 show that moisture and the initial slope are not well correlated.
moisture %
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.0
-1.0
slopes for 1 kV -2.0
-3.0
-4.0
-5.0
-6.0
-7.0
Figure 4-10
Relation Between Slope and moisture for 15 kV cables
m oisture %
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.0
-10.0
-20.0
slopes for 1 kV
-30.0
5 kV (3 phases)
-40.0
-50.0
-60.0
-70.0
Figure 4-11
Relation Between Slope and Moisture for 5 kV Cables
Oetjen and Kamenka proposed to evaluate the moisture content in PILC cables from the ratio
QVR of the initial slopes of the return voltages responses, when measured at 1 & 2 kV over the
entire test time of 30 minutes (12). The fact that the ratios are temperature independent should
make this RVM method an effective tool to undertake field tests and assess the condition of
PILC cables on a comparative basis (12). If we expect that resistance is essentially dependent on
moisture content, the measure of QVR should reflect the moisture concentration in the
insulation. The empirical evaluation limits for QVR are (12):
4-10
Dry: 2.00 1.87

Moist: 1.86 1.65
Wet: <1.65
The QVR values for the cables tested in this study are shown in Figure 4-12, and contrary to the
suggestions made by the authors, there was no direct correlation obtained with the moisture
contents. Therefore, we must conclude that the resistance is not essentially moisture dependent
or, stated differently, the insulation resistance of field-aged PILC cables may depend more on
other polarization process rather than on moisture alone.
2.2
Ratio of slopes for 2 & 1 kV
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
moisture %
Figure 4-12
The Ratio of RVM Slopes, QVR, at 2 and 1 kV as a Function of the Moisture Content of the
Tested Cables
Recently, Patsch (9-11) suggested evaluating PILC cable aging by what he called a p factor.
This p factor is defined as
V max
p= Equ. 4-2
slope x time to maximum
One great advantage of this normalizing factor is that it is, in theory, temperature independent
whereas the maximum return voltage and the slope are temperature dependent. This makes the
direct comparison of return voltage values difficult if the measurement temperature is not known.
Figure 4-13 shows the relation between the p factor and the moisture content of the tested cables.
It is similar to the trend shown in Figure 4-12 and there is no evident relation between the p
factor and the cables age.
4-11
0.45
0.40
p factor 1kV
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0 2 4 6 8
Moisture (%)
Figure 4-13
Relation Between the So-Called p Factor of Equ. 4-2 and Moisture
Isothermal Relaxation Currents (IRC)
When a dielectric is exposed to a dc voltage, it gets polarized and when the voltage source is
removed the charges relax and produce a current, which can be observed by an ammeter
connected in an external circuit. This depolarization current depends on the aging conditions of
the cable insulation.
The KDA-1 system supplied by Seba KMT (represented by HDW in USA) was used in the
present test program. In this system a dc source applies a polarization voltage of 1 kV for 30
min. The computer connected to the control shorts the cable sample for 30 sec and then an
ammeter is introduced into the circuit to measure the depolarization current for 30 min. It can be
shown (see Ref. 21 for details) that a graph of the product It vs. log t depicts the distribution of
charge traps. This product of current and time (It) gives the amount of charge. The maximum in
the obtained charge concentration spectrum (itself depending upon the aging status of the
insulation) will occur at a given time easily distinguishable in an It vs. log t plot.
The added value of the IRC instrument used is that it includes some interpretative software that
is used to process and interpret experimental data, i.e. the charge spectrum. In principle, the
obtained It vs. t curve is mathematically reconstructed with a polynomial expression and an
aging factor A (see Equ. 4-4) is derived (21). Using a neuro-fuzzy algorithm the factor is
compared with an existing database and the cable’s condition is categorized as being:
• New,
• Moderately aged, or
• Heavily aged.
These categories for cable condition were developed following extensive work by the researchers
in Germany with XLPE cables. However, there is no PILC cables database and, consequently its
application to PILC cables is limited. In the present test program we have simply used the raw
current data as a function of time. Quite recently Seba KMT has decided not to support the
development of specific software dedicated to PILC cables.
4-12
According to Gafvert at al. (16), the influence of oil (and its degradation products) on
depolarization currents is especially significant at short time and the true response of the paper is
more evident at long times.
Two different equivalent R-C circuits of the various polarization elements involved in the aging
and of water absorption of a cable have been used in the literature. In the Patsch model (9-11)
the oil and paper are in series whereas in the Zaengl model (18-19), they are in parallel.
Whatever the model, the time constant τi of the RC element i is given by Equation 4-3.
τ i = Ri C i Equ. 4-3
And the depolarization current Idepol that evolves with time t as the sum of all currents is given by
Equation 4-4.
I depol (t ) = ∑ i =1.n Ai exp =  − t  Equ. 4-4

 τi 
Where
 −t 
Ai = Vc 1 − exp c  Ri Equ. 4-5
  τ i 
Vc and tc are the charging voltage and time, respectively.
Thus, the measurement of the depolarization current may give pertinent information on the
physical characteristics of the tested equivalent circuit, i.e. the various elements involved in the
cable aging process. The values of the various time constants are characteristic of the insulation
condition and those associated with aging are longer than the one associated with unaged
insulation. Figure 4-14 shows such a graph for cable G.
4-13
Figure 4-14
IRC Result for Cable G Plotted as It vs. log t
Another simple and informative approach is to measure the depolarization current as a function
of time, as shown in Figure 4-15 for some cables. Zaengl et al. (18-19) have evaluated the aging
condition of transformers insulation from such graphs. Plotting the results as log I vs. log t or as
It vs. log t gives essentially the same information, i.e. a degraded insulation yields higher leakage
currents.
J G O D
100000
10000
Current (pA)
1000
100
10
1 10 100 1000 10000
Time (s)
Figure 4-15
IRC Results Re-Plotted as log I vs. log t for Some PILC Cables
4-14
We had already discussed previously IRC results are linearly dependent on the sample length,
since the cable resistance increases with its length. In Figure 4-16 we have plotted the maximum
It/C value (normalized with respect to cable capacitance) calculated for all cables. Comparing
Figures 3-5 and 4-16 once again the IRC results confirm that they are not related to the moisture
content.
300
250
I tmax/C (As/F)
200
150
100
50
0
D E F G H I J M N O P Q
cables
Figure 4-16
The maximum It/C Value for All Tested Cables
LIpATEST
LIpATEST is an in-house technique, developed by Powertech Labs, based on the leakage current
flowing in a dielectric under the application of a dc voltage. The automated setup applies
stepwise increasing negative dc voltages from 4 to 20 kV in steps of 4 kV to the test cable. Each
step voltage is applied for a duration of 1 minute. The leakage current is measured with a
sensitive, highly filtered, dc Pico-ammeter. The Pico-ammeter is connected in the series between
the high voltage power supply and the test cable, thus eliminating the contribution of corrosion
or other unwanted currents, which can be present in the shield-to-ground lead. To minimize
external interference, the measured signal is converted to an optical signal and is connected to a
computerized data acquisition and control system via a fiber optic downlink. The test duration is
less than 10 minutes per cable. The equipment is suitcase-sized and easily transportable. It does
require the cable to be isolated from the system and is therefore an off-line test method.
The recorded current magnitude varies with the aging related insulation degradation and
relaxation processes (including water and impurities) present in the insulation. We have used the
measured currents divided by the capacitance of the cable samples as one normalizing parameter.
Since the fields for a given voltage were different in all cables because of the various designs (1
4-15
or 3-phase, sector or round conductors), we have used the calculated maximum field applied
during voltage application as the other normalizing parameter.
The normalized results are plotted in Figure 4-17 as measured current at the end of each voltage
step divided by capacitance vs. maximum applied field. In most cases, the leakage current
increases rapidly between 0 and 1 kV/mm and then the current remains flat for increasing field.
Phase C of cable J is a notable exception since the current abruptly increases above ~ 2 kV/mm,
whereas the current in the other phases follow the same trend as for the other cables. Another
feature of Figure 4-17 is the very large normalized current per Farad measured in cable G, which
is ~approximately four times larger than the current in any other cable. A tentative explanation
for this behavior will be attempted later.
120 F phC 1961

N phB 1993
E phB 1960's
I phB 1986
D sing ph 1938
100
O sing ph 1931
Whalley Feeder phA
Leakage Current/Cable Capacitance (nA/nF)
Q phB
P phB
80 H phC 1955
G phA 1956
J phC 1959
R black
S
60
40
20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Maximum Test Field (kV/mm)
Figure 4-17
Normalized LIpATEST Results as a Function of the Calculated Maximum Fields Applied
During the Test
Figure 4-18 shows the normalized currents measured in all cables at two applied fields, i.e. at the
saturation field and in the high field regime shown in Figure 4-17. Comparing Figure 4-18 and
Figure 3-5, it is evident that the LIpATEST currents measured under 1 kV/mm do not show
corresponding high currents relative to the moisture content of the tested PILC cables. On the
other hand, the very large current measured at 3 kV/mm in phase C of cable J is possibly related
to the large moisture measured in one phase of cable J. However, a large current was also
measured in one phase of cable R, which is almost dry (~1% moisture). Another possibility is
that the high field has induced some ion dissociation and the ions could be associated with the
acid detected in the oil of that cable (see Table 3-1). To improve the confidence in this
interpretation further work has to be done. Figure 4-19 shows that two phases of the same cable
may have significantly different LIpATEST currents for the same field. This indicates that aging
4-16
is not uniform within one given cable and it is suggested to measure the electrical properties of
the three phases individually to have a better idea about the cable’s condition.
Interestingly, most cables were operated under a field in the 3-4 kV/mm range (see Table 4-1). If
the presence of humidity or ions (induced by acid formation) generates large currents under a 3
kV/mm DC field, one may wonder what would happen under an AC field of the same
magnitudes. Obviously, this also deserves some more understanding of the effects of such
applied fields.
100 1 kV/mm 3 kV/mm

LIPA/Capacitance (A/F)
80
x 10 for
60 J&R
40
20
0
cables
Figure 4-18
LIpATEST current per Farad for the various cables under two applied fields. The large
normalized currents in cables J and R under 3 kV/mm were measured in only one phase. It
is important to note that the results for cables J and R have been scaled.
4-17
120
100
Leakage Current/Cable Capacitance (nA/nF)
80 D sing ph 1938
Jph.B
J phC 1959
Rred
60 R black
40
20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Maximum Test Field (kV/mm)
Figure 4-19
Different LIpATEST currents measured in two phases of cables J and R. Note the large
differences, especially at high fields. Cable D results were added for comparative
purpose.
Dielectric Spectroscopy
Dielectric Spectroscopy measures the dielectric properties of a cable at various frequencies from
about 0.01Hz to 1kHz at a low voltage. By making comparative measurements on aged and
unaged cables, one can determine the average condition of the cable (6,7,16). The advantage of
this technique is that it can distinguish between moisture penetration and paper degradation in a
cable. As with the other electrical diagnostic methods discussed in this report, it provides only
the average condition of the cable system (i.e., cable, splices, and potheads). Although this
technique has been extensively applied to XLPE cables there is limited work that has been
reported work on PILC cables. Researchers in Europe have applied this method to determine
condition of PILC and Mass-Impregnated cables (14).
The instrument used was the IDA200 from Programma Electric and its main features are:
• Frequency range: 10-4 to 103 Hz
• Test voltage: 0-200 Vpeak ; current: 0-50 mA peak
• NT-based internal software
• Light, compact and rugged instrument (can be used in the field).
Measurement of frequency response is an integral method, by which the average response of the
insulation is obtained. Applying this method for assessment of paper insulated (PILC) cables,
the various polarization and conductive processes involved in paper and oil aging could be
4-18
detected provided a large frequency range is used (6-7). Since water increases both the
polarization and the conduction of paper, the average moisture content can be, in theory,
estimated and conductive defects causing leakage currents can be detected
Neimanis et al. (7) have suggested that the moisture content in PILC cable insulation can be
estimated from the following expression:
mc(% ) = 15.3 + 2.53* ln(tan δ min ) Equ. 4-6
where tan δmin is the minimum value of measured tan δ as a function of applied frequency.
The criteria proposed for evaluation based on estimated moisture content are:
Dry – mc 0.5%
Average – 0.5%<mc<2%
Wet – mc > 2%
Several papers have been published on the correlation between chemical and electrical properties
of oil-paper composites, especially those used in transformers (16-19,22). Moisture increases the
magnitude of dielectric losses, the return voltage and the depolarization current (6,14,16,18,19).
Recent publications show the influence of oil on the return voltage and on losses and
depolarization currents (16,18-19) of transformer paper tapes. Aging of oil generates oxidation
by-products that induce higher conductivity and higher losses, which in turn affect the electrical
properties. In transformer paper, it appears that more conductive oils exhibit higher losses at low
frequencies and a Maxwell-Wagner relaxation peak can be detected in the ~10-2 Hz range (16).
Highly resistive (i.e. unaged) oils do not show this peak and their low frequency (below 10-3 Hz)
response depends essentially on dc conductivity. Thus, measuring losses at low frequencies
could be very informative about the oil condition in oil-impregnated samples, although similar
studies do not seem to exist for PILC cables.
A method used to investigate the polarization in the frequency domain is to measure the response
of a dielectric subjected to an AC field at different frequencies. Any capacitor connected to a
sinusoidal voltage stores a charge and draws a charging current and a loss current. The ratio of
the two currents is called the loss tangent, tan δ, defined as
Tan δ = ε " ε ' = 1 ω RC
Where ε” and ε ’ are the imaginary and real part of permittivity (at a given frequency), is the
angular frequency, R is the resistance and C is the capacitance of the measured sample. Note that
the loss part of permittivity contains both a resistive component (DC conduction) and
polarization components. The DC conduction often dominates at very low frequencies (usually
well below 10-2 Hz). The dielectric constant is deduced from the real part of permittivity, which
is, for many common dielectrics, often not very sensitive to frequency in the 50-60 Hz range.
The samples were the same as those used for the other electrical tests and were nine meters long.
Tan δ results obtained at room temperature as a function of frequency for all samples tested are
shown in Figure 4-20. All cables show a minimum loss from which moisture could be estimated
4-19
if Neimanis suggestion (see above) is valid. The results obtained helped essentially classify
cables with three distinct types of responses:
• Cables with low losses and a minimum loss around 1 Hz: cables N, J (phases A and B only);
• Cables with very high losses and a loss peak (or a “hump”) around 0.1 Hz: cables G, H, D
and to a lower extent, N;
• All other cables (including phase C of cable J) with intermediate loss values and no “hump”
at low frequency. The increasing losses with decreasing frequency below 0.1 Hz are likely to
be due to DC conduction, although the expected slope of 1 is not observed.
The most surprising results are those obtained with cables G and H that were found to be dry in
the dissected samples (see Figure 3-5). The suggested correlation between moisture and
minimum tan δ does not hold at all, as can be seen on Figure 4-22. One possible source of error
in interpretation is the fact that Neimanis used unaged paper soaked in different water solutions
to establish the relationship between % moisture content and minimum tan δ (7). The
interactions between moisture, thermal degradation of paper and oil during aging in service
remain unknown. Thus, dielectric spectroscopy detects several phenomena at the same time and
their specific influences over the tan δ value have to be determined. Interestingly, there was wax
between the tapes of cable D (see Ref. 20 and Figure 3-8) and this may possibly also explain the
higher losses in cable G. This remains to be verified. Another possible cause (apart from oil
degradation) for higher losses in cable G is the bituminous product found under its lead sheath
but we have not been able to detect any trace of it in the IR spectrum of the oil.
EA EB EC FA
FB FC GA GB
1
GC HA HB HC
G
IA IB IC IABC
D
JA JB JC NA
H
NB NC O D
0.1
F
δ
O
Tan
0.01
0.001
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 4-20
Tan δ Measured as a Function of Frequency for the Various Cables Tested in the
Laboratory
4-20
7.E-03
6.E-03
5.E-03
Min. tan delta

4.E-03
3.E-03
2.E-03
1.E-03
0.E+00
D E F G H I J M N O P Q
cables
Figure 4-21
Plot showing the variation of the minimum tan δ values (deduced from Figure 4-20) with
the measured %moisture content shown in Figure 3-5
Powertech Neimanis
0.008
M in. tan de lta
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Moisture (%)
Figure 4-22
Correlations between measured minimum tan for all 9 cables as a function of the
measured %moisture content. Note the disagreement between the present results and
those predicted by Neimanis (equation 1) shown as a dashed line
The correspondence between the tan δ measured at 0.1 Hz in oil samples by DTA at 30ºC and
the dielectric spectroscopy results obtained at room temperature on fully terminated cables is
shown in Figure 4-23. It therefore suggests that low frequency losses in the tested PILC cables
come from polarization processes in the oil (due to thermal and discharge degradation) and not
from moisture in the paper insulation.
4-21
DTA,oil,30C DS,cable,22C
100
at 0.1 Hz
10
1
Tan
0.1
0.01
D F G H J N
Figure 4-23
Relation between the tan δ values measured at 0.1 Hz in some oil samples (by DTA) and in
some terminated cables by dielectric spectroscopy
Harmonic Distortion in the Loss Current
Examination of the harmonic distribution of the ac loss current flowing through the insulation in
polyethylene cables, was proposed by Nagao et al. (24-25) as a means of characterizing cable
condition. Since it is known that the voltage-current characteristic for a heavily water treed
XLPE cable is highly non-linear and the leakage current magnitudes can be several orders higher
than an un-treed cable, it is logical to conclude that the current waveform will have a higher
harmonic current.
The schematic of the test method used by Nagao et al. (24-25) is shown in Figure 4-24. In that
work, the authors tested the method on laboratory aged XLPE specimens and sections of field
aged 5 kV XLPE cable that had been removed from service after approximately 9 years. The
cable had a taped conductor shield that initiated vented water trees, some of which had grown
through 80% of the insulation thickness. Each sample had an active length of 2 m and guard
electrodes were applied at each termination. In general, there was an increasing % THD to the
ratio of the tree length/specimen thickness. Measurements of 60 Hz loss factor were
concurrently performed to relate this to % THD and drying time. The authors suggested that if
the loss factor measured in the insulation is very low but associated with a high harmonic
distortion, it may indicate advanced treeing but partially dried water trees. Although their
measurements with field aged cables showed similar trends, the % THD was far lower (5% -
30%) for aged cable and less than 1% for a dry cable.
4-22
60Hz
mains Phase-Lock Digital Waveform
Loop generator
High Voltage
Amplifier Cx Cs
Detector Filter Current Comparator

based capacitance bridge
Digital
Scope
Figure 4-24
Schematic of the Test Set-Up Used by Ref. [24]
Two types of commercial 6.6 kV XLPE cables were used in the experiments: a new cable and a
field-aged cable, which was removed from service after several years because of water tree
degradation. The cable length used in the experiment was about 1 m. A special guard electrode
was applied at each cable end. For base line comparison, the 50 Hz tan δ measurements were
made on the two cables. Although the water tree degraded cable showed a higher tan δ than the
virgin sample, the voltage dependency was almost absent. AC leakage current measurements
made at 0.3 Vo showed little difference between aged and unaged cable, while at the operating
voltage significant distortions in the leakage current were observed. The authors concluded that
examination of the loss current component and determination of its harmonic content could
prove to be a useful non-destructive diagnostic tool for condition assessment of heavily water-
treed cables. There has been very little reported in the literature on any advancement made using
these techniques to distinguish between aged and unaged cables. All the cited papers report
work done on 6.6 kV cables.
In reality, the loss current through the cable insulation is accompanied by a very large capacitive
current component. Bulinski et al (26) used a current comparator bridge to nullify this large
capacitive displacement current to allow careful comparative examinations of the loss current
components for aged and unaged XLPE cable samples. In normal 60 Hz tan δ measurements
using the current comparator bridge, the bridge is first balanced for the 60 Hz capacitive and loss
currents, and the values of the measured capacitance and tan δ are recorded. If the tan δ totals
were set to zero instead, this would expose the loss current. The output signal from the detection
winding of bridge is proportional to the loss current. By applying a Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT) on the recorded loss current, the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the signal is calculated
using Equation 4-7.
4-23
 ∞ 
 ∑ (V i
)2 
%THD =  *100
L=2
 V1 
 
  Equ. 4-7
Vi = amplitude of the ith harmonic corresponding to frequency fi = (i*60) Hz
No literature was found indicating the harmonic distortion in the loss current had ever been
investigated for PILC Cables. A preliminary investigation was therefore undertaken to
investigate the harmonic distortion in the loss current on some of our terminated PILC cable
samples that had been already tested by the other electrical diagnostic methods. We chose a very
simple technique for this preliminary investigation. The circuit diagram of the test set-up is
shown in Figure 4-25. The 60 Hz line was used as the source, and a Hewlett-Packard Spectrum
Analyzer recorded both the current flowing through the PILC cable sheath to ground and the
current flowing through a low-loss capacitor. Wide-band CTs were used to measure the currents.
The Fourier Transform of the cable and capacitors was performed in the Spectrum Analyzer. In
the analysis the Fourier Components of the capacitor current were subtracted from the
components of the cable current. The results of the subtraction were then normalized to have the
60 Hz component equal one.
60 Hz Line Voltage Test 100pF gas

transformer capacitor Test cable
HP Spectrum Analyzer
Figure 4-25
Schematic of the Test Set-Up Used on PILC Cable Samples at Powertech Labs
Figures 4-26 and 4-27 show the results from the spectral analyses for cables G and N, which
showed significantly different leakage currents and losses (see Figures 4-17 and 4-20). In both
figures the 60 Hz component equals one and is not shown on the plots. The two spectra are quite
different, and this led us to an initial conclusion that this technique had potential as an on-line
diagnostic technique. However, further analysis on other cables showed that the difference
between the spectra were not due to cable loss current differences, but variation in the harmonic
content of the 60 Hz applied voltage signal with time.
4-24
Because of the extremely low levels of harmonics in the loss current in PILC cables, if one were
to use this method as an indicator of degradation, modifications to our technique would be
necessary. As an off-line technique, a resonant test set could be used as the voltage source, thus
eliminating harmonics (and their fluctuations) in the source. With this it may be possible to
distinguish true changes in the harmonics in the loss current between cables. To use harmonic
analysis as an on-line method, a technique would have to be developed for distinguishing
extremely small changes in the harmonics due to cable aging in the presents of large changes in
the voltage harmonics.
Comparison at 4kV, 8 kV and 12 kV

of Differential of Spectra for Capacitor and Cable Sample G4A
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
-0.01
Harmonic of 60 Hz
G4A 1.5kv Cable - Cap G4A 2.9kv Cable - Cap G4A 4.5kv Cable - Cap
Figure 4-26
Harmonic content in the loss current for cable G plotted as a differential FFT spectrum at
1.5kV, 2.5kV, and 4.5kV which corresponds to 0.5Uo, 1.0Uo, and 1.5Uo
4-25
Comparison at 4kV, 8 kV and 12 kV of

Differential of Spectra for Capacitor and Cable Sample N4A
0.0016
0.0014
0.0012
0.001
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
0.0002
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
-0.0002
-0.0004
Harmonic of 60 Hz
N4A 4kv Cable - Cap N4A 8kv Cable - Cap N4A 12kv Cable - Cap
Figure 4-27
Harmonic current in the loss current for cable N plotted as a differential FFT spectrum at
4kV, 8kV and 12kV which corresponds to 0.5Uo, 1.0Uo, and 1.5Uo
Electrical Diagnostic Tests on a Full Size Cable in the Field
The results reported in this Section were obtained at the Whalley substation, a BC Hydro site in
Surrey, B.C., Canada. The tested cable is a 2.5 km long PILC feeder from the substation. This
same cable system was tested for partial discharges at line voltage using a system from Detroit
Energy back in 2000. DTE detected a significant amount of PD activity in the circuit. No RVM
or IRC measurements could be made in the field due to the high charging currents on the cable.
It was determine later that the RVM unit could have been used in the measurement if the
software had been modified to allow such a high initial charging current.
The LIpATEST measurements were performed and the normalized current/capacitance for the
three phases are plotted in Figure 4-28 as a function of the applied field. The feeder capacitance
was approximately 1 F. After normalization to the capacitance, the results in the field are
comparable to those obtained on samples P and Q (removed from this feeder), as shown in
Figure 4-17.
4-26
LIpATEST data on three PILC cables (1uF) at Whalley substation
45
40
35
Leakage current/Capacitance (A/F) 30
25
20
Whyals (A/F)
15
Whybls (A/F)
Whycls (A/F)
10 O
J(B)
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Applied Field (kV/mm)
Figure 4-28
Normalized LIpATEST current for the cable of Whalley station tested in the field. For
comparative purpose, we have added cables J (phase B) and O, both tested in the
laboratory
The dielectric spectroscopy measurements on the feeder gave very similar results to those
obtained on sample Q. For comparison purpose, we have added on Figure 4-29 the results
obtained in the laboratory with two other cables (N and D). From these measurements, it would
appear that the Whalley cable is slightly less aged than cable D but much more aged than cable
N. This is not surprising considering the fact that the cables P, Q and the Whalley feeder had
experienced a high level of pd activity resulting in large amounts of wax and some carbonized
particles in the butt gaps. This suggests that the hump observed in the low frequencies loss
spectrum might possibly be assigned to wax formation and/or pd activity.
4-27
Feeder Q N D
1.E+00
1.E-01
Tan
1.E-02
1.E-03
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 4-29
Tan δ measurements performed in the field on the feeder of Whalley substation compared
to those performed in the laboratory on a short section of the same cable (Q)
4-28
5
ELECTRICAL AGING TESTS
Step-and-Hold AC Breakdown Test
After completion of the electrical diagnostic tests, AC breakdown tests were performed on all the
9 m lengths of tested cables. For the breakdown tests on cables P and Q, which had the
diagnostics tests performed on long sections while still in the ducts, 9 m lengths were cut from
those long cables. The following is the procedure used on the step-and hold ac breakdown tests:
1. Ground the two phases, which are not being tested.
2. Raise the applied 60 Hz voltage on the phase under test to two times normal operating
voltage and hold for six hours.
3. Raise the applied voltage by one step equal to the operating voltage and hold for six hours.
4. Repeat step 3 until the phase under test fails.
5. Move to the next phase under test and go back to step 1. Repeat until all the phases have
been tested.
Table 5-1 summarizes the results thus obtained. The first test was performed on sample D, a
single-phase cable. After that test, it was determined that the failure occurred through the
insulation at the lead cutoff under the stress relief tube in the termination. After that test, cable D
was re-terminated and retested. Again the failure occurred at a similar point at the lead cutoff
within the termination. In all the following tests except cable F, failure occurred at the lead
cutoff within the termination. In Cable F, a flashover occurred at a very high voltage level, over
the outside of the termination. From these results it can be concluded that the actual withstand
voltage of the cable was greater than the values given in Table 5-1. We can also conclude for all
but Cable F that the withstand levels are indicative of the relative insulation condition in the
cable, since the failures occurred through the insulation (albeit at a point of slightly higher
electrical stress than within the cable).
Figure 5-1 shows the maximum applied voltage step after which the failure occurred. Values in
Figure 5-1 are for each phase, and the average, for the three-phase cables. Figure 5-2 shows that
there is very little relation between the computed breakdown strength (kV rms/mm) and the %
moisture content. The only exception might be cable J whose low breakdown strength is
possibly due to its very large (6 %) moisture content.
5-1
Electrical Aging Tests
Table 5-1
AC Voltages and Fields Passed by the Cables in the Step-and-Hold Test
Maximum
Voltage
Unit Volts Level Field per Level
Rating
Cable Phase (kV - Ph Passed applied Passed Notes
(kV - Ph
to Gnd) (kV) kV (kV/mm)
to Ph)
(kV/mm)
D* single 12 6.93 27.7 0.257 7.1 * Termination failed 5 min. before

end of step 5U (34.6kV)
D** single 12 6.93 27.7 0.257 7.1 **Reterminated and Term. failed 25
min. before end of step 5U (34.6kV)
F A 14 8.08 72.7 0.306 22.2 failed ramping to 10U (80.8kV)
B 14 8.08 64.7 0.306 19.8 failed 4hrs 7min into 9U(72.7kV)
C 14 8.08 64.7 0.306 19.8 failed 55min. into 9U(72.7kV)
G A 5 2.88 23.1 0.404 9.3 failed 10 min. into step 9U(26kV)
B 5 2.88 17.3 0.404 7.0 failed 4.5 hrs into step 7U(20.2kV)
C 5 2.88 17.3 0.404 7.0 failed 20 min. into step 7U(20.2kV)
H A 5 2.88 11.6 0.426 4.9 failed 1hr 35min into step 5U(14.4kV)
B 5 2.88 17.3 0.426 7.4 failed on ramp to 7U (20.2kV)
C 5 2.88 14.4 0.426 6.1 failed on ramp to 6U (17.3kV)
J A 15 8.66 26 0.275 7.2 failed ramping to 4U (34.6kV)
B 15 8.66 17.3 0.275 4.8 failed 5 min. into 3U (26kV)
C 15 8.66 17.3 0.275 4.8 failed 5.5hrs into 3U (26kV)
N A 15 8.66 52 0.223 11.6 failed ramping to 7U (60.6kV)
B
C
O single 13.8 7.97 55.8 0.148 8.3 failed 5.5hrs into 8U (63.7kV)
P red 15 8.66 43.3 0.323 14.0 failed 30min into 6U(52kV)
white 15 8.66 34.6 0.323 11.2 failed 30min into 5U(43.3kV)
blue 15 8.66 26 0.323 8.4 failed 2.8 hr into 4U(34.6kV)
Q red 15 8.66 43.3 0.293 12.7 failed 2.2hrs into 6U(52kV)
white 15 8.66 34.6 0.293 10.1 failed 3hrs into 5U(43.3kV)
blue 15 8.66 34.6 0.293 10.1 failed 2.5hrs into 5U(43.3kV)
R 0.229 10.3
0.229 10.3
0.229 10.3
S red 15 8.66 34.6 0.363 12.6 failed 3.9 hr into 5U(43.3kV)
white 15 8.66 43.3 0.363 15.7 failed 2.2 hr into 6U(52.0kV)
blue 15 8.66 34.6 0.363 12.6 failed sometime before 5 hr into

5U(43.3kV)
5-2
25
A ph B ph C ph Average Single Ph
20
Level Passed (kV/mm)
15
10
0
D F G H J N O P Q R S
Sample
Figure 5-1
Minimum Field Level Passed by the Various Samples Subjected to the Step-And-Hold Test
25 12-15kV 5 kV
ACBD passed (kV/mm)
20
15
10
0
0 2 4 6 8
Moisture (%)
Figure 5-2
Minimum AC Withstand Strength as a Function of the Moisture Content
Figures 5-3 and 5-4 show that the ac withstand strength (kV/mm) correlated reasonably well with
the LIpATEST currents as well as the maximum return voltage, with the only possible exception
of Cable J. On the other hand, tan δ losses at 0.1 Hz do not seem to correlate well, as shown in
Figure 5-5.
5-3
120
J (C)
100
I/C under 3kV/m m (A/F)

80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
ACBD passed (kV/m m )
Figure 5-3
Relation between the minimum ac withstand strength (kV/mm) and the normalized
LIpATEST current in the tested cables
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-20.0
Max RVM (V/m)
-40.0
J
-60.0
ACBD passed (kV/mm)
Figure 5-4
Relation between the minimum ac withstand strength (kV/mm) and the maximum return
voltage in the tested cables
5-4
7.00E-02
6.00E-02
5.00E-02
Tan delta at 0.1 Hz 4.00E-02
3.00E-02
2.00E-02
1.00E-02
0.00E+00
0 5 10 15 20 25
ACBD passed (kV/mm)
Figure 5-5
Relation between the minimum ac withstand strength (kV/mm) and the tan δ at 0.1 Hz in
the tested cables
Water Ingress Test
The purpose of the water ingress test was to investigate the migration of water through cracks in
the lead sheath of a cable and the water’s influence on the electrical properties of the insulation.
A 12 cm slit was made in the lead sheath on a 6 m length of Cable P immersed in a tank filled
with 1 m of water. The cable was operated at its rated voltage. The normal maximum operating
current of 300 A was cycled 16 hours on and 8 hours off during the test. The test set-up allowed
us to measure the harmonics in the loss current in the cable continually throughout the test. The
circuit schematic is shown in Figure 5-6. The testing was stopped periodically and the
LIpATEST and Return Voltage test measurements were undertaken.
5-5
Standard Potential
Transformer 8 kV Manual
Capacitor
Controlled
LEM Variac
Current
Probe 2
HV Source
LEM
Tap Water Current
Probe 1
3-Phase
PILC Cable
Water Tank T1 500 Kcmil

T2
25kV Cable
TABULA
400A CT Data Acq.
75kVA System
CT
T3 Shunt
208V
100A Data Acquistion
Fiber OPTIC System and
Temp Meter Control Computer
Motor
Controlled
Variac
Figure 5-6
Block Diagram of the Tank Test Set Up
After about 2.5 months of current cycling no failure occurred and no significant changes were
seen in either the LIpATEST current or Recovery Voltage. This is in agreement with Bessei and
von Olshausen (13), who concluded that no moisture would migrate into a PILC kept under
voltage and load. They maintained that the electric field would keep away the highly polar water
molecules and the thermal gradient induced by the load would tend to keep the insulation dry.
When very large amounts of water are present, it might be expected that the water will
eventually get into the insulation up to the moisture saturation level of paper, which is 6-7% (13).
After the initial 2.5 months of testing with the slit, it was enlarged to a hole of 12 cm length and 1 cm
width. The cable failed about five weeks later. In total the cable remained energized and was current
cycled with a slit for about 74 days (1776 hrs) and with a hole for about 37 days (888 hours).
The failure occurred from the blue phase straight through the insulation to the edge of the hole in
the lead sheath. Figure 5-7 shows a schematic of the hole, the failure site, and its relation to the
phase conductors. Figure 5-8 is a photo of the failure.
The moisture content measured in the blue phase insulation near the failure site by Karl-Fischer
titration was 0.6 % in the outer paper layers and 0.26 % in the inner layers. This is nearly
identical to the 0.58 % measured in the conductor tape and the 0.18-0.48% measured in various
locations of the cable insulation (see Figure 3-5) prior to the water ingress test. Thus, the Bessei
and von Olshausen (13) suggestion is confirmed (no water diffused into the insulation) and it
seems that the breakdown may not have been directly caused by moisture.
5-6
B elt In sulation B lu e P hase B elt Insulation B elt Insulation B elt Insulation B elt In sulation
F ault S ite
B lue P hase B lue P hase B lue P hase B lue P hase B lue P hase
C onductor C onductor C onductor C onductor C onductor
R ed P hase R ed P hase R ed P hase R ed P hase

C onductor C onductor C onductor C onductor R ed P hase
C lear P hase C lea r P hase C onductor C lear P hase
C lea r P hase C lear P hase
C onductor C onductor C onductor
C onductor C onductor
P in H ole in found on
C ondu ctor S hield ing
T ape
S ection A -A S ection B -B S ection C -C S ection D -D S ection E -E
P hase C onductor O rientation L ayout of C able P
A B C D E
49.04mm
49.58mm
49.84mm
48.94mm
48.56mm
50.48mm
50.16mm
50.60mm
50.36mm
50.65mm
R ectan gular cut
aw ay of lead
sheath
F ault S ite loc ated

under edge of lead
10.5mm
sheath
2 5.4m m 65m m 25.4m m 25.4m m 65m m 25.4m m

124m m 126.8m m 124m m 124m m 1 26.8m m 124m m
3 74.8m m 374.8m m
A B C D E
S c ale : N T S
T op V iew F ro nt V iew
B elt Insulation L ayout B elt Insulation La yout
W ater Ingression Test D isse ction of C able P
Figure 5-7
Schematic of the Hole for the Water Ingress Test and Fault Location in Cable P
Figure 5-8
Failure Site In Cable P at the End of the Water Ingress Test After Removal of the Lead
Sheath. The Edges of the Rectangular Hole Directly Exposed to Water are Clearly Visible
5-7
The most likely explanation for the insulation breakdown is that the electric field was enhanced
near the edge of the hole in the sheath, and that the presence of wax (see Figure 5-9), which
greatly reduced the flow of oil. The origin of this wax may be associated with the large pd
activity detected in 2000 by DTE (2) in this circuit. Wax and carbon were also present in the
section of the cable not used for the water ingress test indicating that they may have been present
prior to the water ingress test. Another suggestion of pd is the presence of carbon at the butt
gaps, also shown in Figure 5-9. Note also that some signs of overheating (certainly associated
with the absence of oil flow after wax formation) were clearly visible between layers 10 and 14
at approximately 90 degrees to the rectangular sheath cut-away in the unfaulted phase.
Figure 5-9
Carbon at the butt gaps of the first two layers of cable P and wax (white spots in the
picture) was found between the 25 tapes of each phase
The Recovery Voltage Method and LIpATEST were performed initially on the 6 m length of
cable prior to the slit being cut. The test was stopped and the measurements performed again at
6, 20, 50 days and after the slit was enlarged to a hole on day 74. No more measurements were
made prior to the cable failing on day 111.
In the RVM test, the largest change in the QVR quotient, as defined in Chapter 4, was in the Red
Phase, going from a value of 1.71 at the beginning of the test to 1.60 at day 74. The QVR is
supposed to be an indicator of moisture as detailed in the list bellow:
Dry: 2.00 1.87
Moist: 1.86 1.65
Wet: <1.65
5-8
This indicates a slight “dampening” in the Red Phase. The QVR in the other phases remained
almost constant. None of the other RVM indices changed significantly from the initial
measurement to the measurement at day 74.
The largest measured change in any LIpATEST reading was also in the Red Phase, where the
current measured at 16 kV dc (5.2 kV/mm) went from 31 nA/nF initially to 66 nA/nF at day 74.
The current in the Red Phase at 4 kV dc (1.3 kV/mm) remained constant at about 34 nA/nF over
that time. This “tip-up” seen at day 74 was similar to that seen in Cable J. There was a smaller
“tip-up” seen in the Yellow Phase LIpATEST measurements at day 74, but the Blue phase
LIpATEST measurement showed little change from the beginning to day 74 of the Water Ingress
Test.
The Harmonics in the loss current were monitored during the entire test. The Harmonics
measured were extremely low and showed no significant change during the test.
5-9
6
DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS OF THE CHEMICAL
AND ELECTRICAL DIAGNOSTIC TESTS
The determination of the moisture content in the insulation from the electrical diagnostic
techniques seems a bit more complicated than expected. In fact, the predictions of % moisture
content made by the RVM and dielectric spectroscopy measurements do not agree with actual
moisture measurements of the same cable samples as shown in Table 4-2.
Table 6-1
Moisture Levels Deduced from Various Techniques
Cable RVM Dielectric Spectroscopy (from Karl-Fischer Titration

(from ratio of minimum tan δ) (%) (max. measured)
slopes)
D Moist Average (1.3 %) 1.9
E Moist Average (1.1 %) 3.2
F Wet Dry (0.17%) 0.3
G Dry Wet (1.7%) 0.4
H Moist Wet (2.6%) 0.5
I Moist Dry (0.1 %) 4.6
J Moist Average (0.8%) 6.15
N Dry Dry (0.1%) 1.05
O Moist Average (0.6%) 1.7
P Average (1.2%) 0.38
Q Average (1.3%) 0.6
In addition, the RVM and dielectric spectroscopy moisture predictions do not correlate very well,
giving further support to the contention that they are sensitive to phenomena other than moisture
alone. There are several factors that may help explain this poor correlation as follows:
• Electrical diagnostic techniques give global and average measurements over the whole
sample length, whereas moisture titration was done on small localized samples.
• Calibration of the Dielectric Spectroscopy technique, based on unaged paper, is not
representative of the actual situation in a field-aged cable.
• Thermal degradation of paper and/or oil generates products much more polar or in larger
concentrations than water.
In Figures 6-1 and 6-2 we have compared the IRC results with the LIpATEST (under 1 kV/mm)
and tan δ (at 0.1 Hz, i.e. at a relaxation peak) results. The somewhat linear relationship between
the three sets of results suggests they are all dependent on the same polarization process, which
is not moisture.
6-1
Discussion of the Results of the Chemical and Electrical Diagnostic Tests
1 kV/mm 3 kV/mm
300
ItMax/C (As/F)
200
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
LIPA/capacitance (A/F)
Figure 6-1
Relation between the normalized LIpATEST currents measured under 1 and 3 kV/mm and
the normalized It value deduced from IRC
6.00E-01
5.00E-01
4.00E-01
Tan (0.1 Hz)
3.00E-01
2.00E-01
1.00E-01
0.00E+00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Itm ax/C (As/F)
Figure 6-2
Relation Between tan δ at 0.1 Hz (Peak in Figure 4-1) and the Normalized It Values
Finally, Figures 6-3 and 6-4 show the relation between the maximum return voltage and the
LIpATEST currents and the 0.1 Hz tan δ results. A crude linear relation exists seems to exist
between the various results, which is consistent with the trend already observed between the
LIpATEST and IRC currents and tan δ at 0.1 Hz. All these tests are sensitive to the same
polarization process, but apparently not the % moisture.
6-2
200 lab field
150
VMax/C (V/nF)
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
LIPA/capacitance (1 kV/mm)
Figure 6-3
Maximum Return Voltage vs Normalized LIpATEST Currents
1.E-01
tan delta (0.1 Hz)
1.E-02
1.E-03
0 20 40 60 80 100
Vmax/capacitance (V/F)
Figure 6-4
Variation of the 0.1 Hz Tan δ vs Normalized Maximum Return Voltage Hz
Table 6-2 ranks the cables from poorest to best based on the results obtained by LIpATEST,
IRC, RVM, dielectric spectroscopy, and AC breakdown tests. In addition to the ranking with
these tests for comparative purposes, we have also included the tan δ of some oil samples
measured by DTA at 0.1 Hz and the level of fluorescence of some oils. As a crude
approximation, all the electrical diagnostic tests rank the cables in a similar manner. These also
bear a relationship to the ranking according to the AC breakdown test. Also, the ranking of the
cables using information about the tan δ of the oil is the similar to the ranking produced by the
results from the various non-destructive electrical tests. Fluorescence of oil also seems to follow
the same trend despite limited measurements made on a few samples. This suggests that the oil
condition seems to significantly affect the dielectric responses of the tested PILC cables.
6-3
Table 6-2
Ranking of the Cables Condition from the Dielectric and Electrical Tests
Test Most degraded cables (from worst to better)
LIpATEST G, J (phase C only), R (black phase), H, P, Q, O, D, E, I, S, N, F
IRC* G, H, J, P, Q, E, O, D, I, N
RVM G, H, J, D, E, O, N, F, R, Q, S, P
ACBD (step & hold test) J, H, G, D, O, R, N, P, Q, S, F
Dielectric spectroscopy* G, H, O, D, J, I, E, F, N
Tan δ of oil at 0.1Hz (DTA) G, D, H, O, J, E, I, N
Fluorescence of oil** G, D, J, H, F
*: cables R and S were not tested with this technique.
6-4
7
METALLURGICAL TESTS
The integrity of the PILC cable is also dependent on the condition of its lead sheath. The normal
life of a lead sheath is approximately 40 years under normal operating conditions (27), but this
can vary according to the lead alloy used. Some of these cables have been in service for 50 to 60
years and continue to operate normally. However, if their lead sheaths are deteriorating, they
may not be reliable into the future. In order to avoid unexpected failures, it is important to assess
the condition of the lead sheaths.
A study was carried out in 2000 that identified promising techniques for evaluating the condition
of the lead sheath of PILC cables (28), and recommended methods to optimize these techniques.
Based on the results of this study, the following metallurgical and nondestructive examinations
were conducted on the lead sheaths of 14 field-aged PILC cables.
• Chemical composition
• Hardness measurement
• Dye penetration examination of the external surface
• Metallographic examination
• Effect of temperature
• Eddy current examination
• Visual examination
• Effect of cyclic stress and temperature
Chemical Analysis of the Lead Sheaths
Samples of the lead sheaths of PILC cables were removed to determine their chemical analysis.
Drillings from the individual samples were digested in acid, and then the solutions were analyzed
for aluminum, antimony, arsenic, bismuth, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron,
magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, tin, vanadium and zinc using the inductively
coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopic method. The detection limit of this technique is ± 0.01%.
The chemical compositions of the lead sheaths are shown in Table 7-1. To identify the alloys, the
results were compared to lead sheath alloys in common use in North America and Europe. It was
found that the sheaths of PILC cables D, E, F, G, H, O, R and S are made of pure lead, the
sheaths of PILC cables I, M, N, P and Q are made of Alloy F3, and the lead sheath of PILC
Cable J is made of Alloy B.
7-1
Metallurgical Tests
Table 7-1
Composition of Lead Sheath of Cables
E F G H I M N O P Q R S
Antimony 0.01 0.08 0.05 0.03
Arsenic 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.13 0.19 0.03
Bismuth 0.11 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.01
Cadmium
Chromium 0.01
Copper 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.05
Tin 0.01 0.09 0.08 0.10
Lead Rem Rem Rem Rem Rem Rem Rem Rem Rem Rem Rem Rem
An unsuccessful attempt was made to determine the chemical analysis of a lead sheath using an
in-situ X-ray spectroscopic technique. Since the amount of alloying elements in the lead sheath
were below 1%, it was very difficult to analyze them quantitatively using in-situ spectroscopy. It
is therefore concluded that it is necessary to remove a small sample from the lead sheaths of
existing PILC cables in order to perform a chemical analysis.
Hardness Measurements
The hardness of the lead sheaths was measured on a few of the cables, using the indentation
hardness method (28). Hardness values were established using the Brinell hardness method in
accordance with the ASTM Std E10 specification. Although the hardness values varied among
the different lead sheaths, the variation was not substantial. This method cannot be easily
adopted for field application.
An earlier study (29) of PILC cables used a rebound hardness instrument to measure the
hardness of the lead sheaths of telephone cables. A similar device was used to measure the
hardness of the lead sheaths of the PILC cables. The rebound hardness method works on the
principle of loss energy of an impact body. A mass is accelerated to the surface of a test object
and impinges on it at a defined speed. This impact creates a plastic deformation (indentation) on
the surface, causing the impact body to lose part of its original speed. The hardness of the test
object is calculated from the ratio of the impact and the rebound speed, commonly known as the
Leeb hardness value. The measurement is taken by a small magnet within the impact body and a
stationary coil in the surrounding tube (Figure 7-1).
7-2
Metallurgical Tests
Figure 7-1
Schematic Representation of Rebound Hardness Tester
For this experiment, it was found that the exiting indenter of the instrument, which is made of
tungsten carbide, did not generate the proper rebound to register a hardness value. A new
indenter was made using a tough elastomeric material (Delron) to register the hardness value for
the lead sheaths of PILC cables. Photographs of the original indenter and the modified indenter
are shown in Figure 7-2.The modified indenter made a superficial mark on the surface of the lead
sheath.
Figure 7-2
Close-Up View of Original and Elastomeric Indenters
The instrument was calibrated against lead sheaths with known hardness values. Figure 7-3
shows the calibration curve between the Leeb hardness value and the Brinell hardness number.
A straight-line relation is seen between these two scales of hardness values.
7-3
Metallurgical Tests
Figure 7-3
Relationship Between Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) Vs Leeb Hardness for Lead Sheaths
In total, 15 hardness value readings were taken on the surfaces of the lead sheaths. A statistical
analysis of these values was then carried out to obtain the mean value, which is shown in
Table 7-2. The data clearly suggest that the hardness of the lead can be categorized as follows:
Pure lead sheath - 300 to 400 Leeb hardness value
Alloy B - 400 to 450 Leeb hardness value
Alloy F3 - 450 to 550 Leed hardness value
Table 7-2
Hardness of Lead Sheath of Cables
Type of Alloy Cable ID Hardness, HLD Age of Cable (years)

Alloy B J 436 43
I 477 16
M 566 50
Alloy F3 N 489 9
P 518 29
Q 485 20
D 263 64
E 346 40+
F 408 41
G 376 46
Pure Lead
H 363 47
O 327 71
R 335 33
S 359 16
7-4
Metallurgical Tests
These results confirm that rebound hardness examination can be used to diagnose the type of
lead sheath, as well as to assess the condition of the sheath. However, further research is
required to correlate the condition of the lead sheath with its hardness value.
Dye Penetrant Examination
The external surface of the lead sheath was examined for surface cracks using a dye penetrant
testing method. Initial examinations were conducted using a visible dye, but the dye did not
reveal the fine cracks on the surface of the lead sheath. Subsequent examinations were carried
out using a fluorescent dye, as described in the ASTM Std E1209 specification, since this
method can reveal fine surface cracks on lead sheaths. Figure 7-4 shows the surface cracks on
the lead sheath of Cable J.
Crack
Figure 7-4
Fluorescent Dye Penetrant Inspection of Lead Sheath of Cable J
The results of the dye penetrant examination, shown in Table 7-3, indicate that this method can
be used to examine the surface condition of the lead sheaths of unjacketed PILC cables. The
examination can easily be performed in cable chambers (manholes) to assess existing PILC cable
sheaths.
7-5
Metallurgical Tests
Table 7-3
Results of Fluorescent Dye Penetrant Examination of the Lead Sheath of Different Cables
Cable identification Type of lead alloy Age, years Observation
D Pure lead 64 No cracks
E Pure lead 40 No cracks
F Pure lead 41 No cracks
G Pure lead 46 No cracks
H Pure lead 47 No cracks
I Alloy F3 16 No cracks
J Alloy B 43 Cracked
M Alloy F3 50 No cracks
N Alloy F3 9 No cracks
O Pure lead 71 Cracked
P Alloy F3 29 Cracked
Q Alloy F3 29 No cracks
R Pure lead 33 No cracks
S Pure lead 16 Cracked
Metallographic Examination
Metallurgical microstructure, such as grain size, plays an important role in the residual life of the
lead sheath of PILC cables. The grain size can be assessed through metallographic examination.
For this test, samples from the lead sheath of each cable were removed and mounted in acrylic
molds. The mounted samples were ground, polished and etched in accordance with ASTM E 3,
Standard Practice for Preparation of Metallographic Specimens. Since the hardness of lead
sheaths is very low, extreme care was taken not to damage the sheaths while preparing them for
metallographic examination.
Figure 7-5 shows the typical microstructure of the lead sheaths of various PILC cables. The
grain sizes, as determined from the microstructure, are summarized in Table 7-4. This table
clearly indicates that grain size of a lead sheath is an important parameter in assessing its present
condition.
7-6
Metallurgical Tests
Cable D Cable E Cable J Cable N
Cable O Cable P Cable R Cable S
Figure 7-5
(a) Microstructure of Lead Sheath of Cables D, E, J and N
(b) Microstructure of Lead Sheath of Cables O, P, R and S
Table 7-4
Microstructural Features of the Lead Sheath of Different Cables
Cable Type of lead Age, Average grain Wall thickness,

Grain Angle in° and Other Features
ID alloy years size, mm mm
D Pure lead 64 2.3 90 to 120 – Large grain 3.1
E Pure lead 40 2.2 90 to 120 – Large grain 3.8
F Pure lead 41 0.25 90 to 120 – Small grains at triple points 3.5
G Pure lead 46 0.24 90 to 120 – Small grains at triple points, 2.57
deformation twinning
H Pure lead 47 0.41 90 to 120 – Small grains at triple points 3.1
I Alloy F3 16 0.25 90 to 120 – deformation twinning 3.5
J Alloy B 43 0.07 90 to 120 – Very fine grains 2.75
M Alloy F3 50 0.15 80 to 120 – Small grains at triple points 2.6
N Alloy F3 9 0.13 90 to 120 –Small grains at triple points 2.93
O Pure lead 71 0.19 90 to 120 – Small grains at triple points, 3.26
P Alloy F3 29 0.14 90 to 120 – Small grains at triple points, 2.78
Q Alloy F3 29 0.29 90 to 120 – Small grains at triple points, 2.92
R Pure lead 33 0.44 90 to 120 – Small grains at triple points, 3.45
S Pure lead 16 0.66 90 to 120 – Small grains at triple points, 2.89
7-7
Metallurgical Tests
Since conventional metallographic examination requires a small specimen to be removed from

the lead sheath, this method is not feasible for field examination of the lead sheaths of existing
PILC cables. An in-situ metallographic examination was therefore developed, based on ASTM
E 1351, Standard Practice for Production and Evaluation of Field Metallographic Replicas.
Replication is a nondestructive sampling procedure which records and preserves the
microstructure of a metallographic specimen as a negative relief on a plastic film. The following
steps were used to prepare the replica of the lead sheath:
1. Clean a 12 by 18 mm area on the surface of the lead sheath.
2. Hand grind the area, using 180,220, 400 and 600 grit emery paper progressively.
3. Clean the surface thoroughly with clean distilled water.
4. Polish the ground surface, using 6 µm, 3 µm, 1 µm and 0.3 µm diamond paste progressively.
5. Etch the polished surface using an etching solution containing 25 ml of glacial acetic acid, 25
ml of hydrogen peroxide and 100 ml of distilled water. The etching time may vary from 15 to
20 seconds. The surface may require re-polishing and re-etching.
6. Wash the area with distilled water, and then immediately clean the area with isopropyl
alcohol and dry it.
7. Wet one side of a sheet of plastic film (cellulose acetate replicating film) with acetone.
8. Apply the wetted surface of the film to the etched surface of the lead sheath.
9. Press the film against the surface for several seconds to ensure adherence.
10. After the film has dried, remove the replica and permanently mount it on a glass slide, using
adhesive tape.
11. Coat the replica surface with a thin layer of gold-palladium in a vacuum coating unit.
12. Examine the replica under a light microscope or a scanning electron microscope.
The replicating surface and the replica must be prepared very carefully to obtain a good replica.
Figures 7-6 and 7-7 show the microstructures of the lead sheath prepared by the conventional
metallographic (destructive) method and by the replicating method, respectively. The
microstructure shown in the replica (Figure 7-7) matches that of the conventional method
(Figure 7-6). This observation clearly indicates that the in-situ metallographic examination
(replica) can be used as a nondestructive diagnostic tool to evaluate the condition of the lead
sheaths of PILC cables.
7-8
Metallurgical Tests
Figure 7-6
Microstructure of Lead Sheath of a Cable (conventional metallographic method)
Figure 7-7
Microstructure of Figure 7-6 Using In-Situ Metallography (Replica)
Effect of Temperature on the Lead Sheath
Samples approximately 25 cm in length were removed from PILC cables J, N and R, and their
outer jackets were removed to expose the lead sheathing. The samples were then placed in an
oven maintained at 61 ±1°C. A second set of samples was heat treated at 90 ±1°C. Each sample
was periodically removed from the oven and cooled to room temperature. The hardness of the
lead sheath of each sample was measured using the modified rebound hardness tester. Small
metallurgical specimens were also removed from each lead sheath and prepared for
metallographic examination.
Figures 7-8 to 7-10 show the variation in the microstructure of the lead sheaths from samples J,
N and R, at various times during the heating cycle. The mean value of the hardness of these
samples is listed in Table 7-5. As seen from the table, the hardness of the lead samples did not
7-9
Metallurgical Tests
show significant variation with respect to the heat treatment time. However, the microstructure
of samples J and R did show grain growth with respect to time. The microstructure of sample N
did not show any grain growth, either at 60 ±1°C or at 90 ±1°C.
Table 7-5
(a) Leeb Hardness of Lead Sheath of Cables J, N and R at 60˚C
(b) Leeb Hardness of Lead Sheath of Cables J, N and R at 90˚C
Table 7-5(a)
Leeb Hardness
Cable
0 hr 90.5 hrs 162 hrs 258 hrs 420 hrs 580 hrs 836 hrs 1000 hrs
J 435 470 452 450 436 434 432 445

N 489 467 480 475 490 462 474 470
R 336 350 340 368 315 337 345 332
Table 7-5(b)
Leeb Hardness
Cable
O hrs 8 hrs 16 hrs 24 hrs 32 hrs 40 hrs
J 435 418 411 410 379 393

N 489 447 477 458 466 458
R 336 316 310 307 320 299
0 hrs 90.5 hrs 162.0 hrs 268.0 hrs
520.6 hrs 580.5 hrs 836.5 hrs 1000 hrs

Figure 7-8
Microstructure of Lead Sheath of Cable J at 60˚C
7-10
Metallurgical Tests
0 hrs 90.5 hrs 162.0 hrs 268.0 hrs
420.5 hrs 580.5 hrs 836.5 hrs 1000 hrs

Figure 7-9
Microstructure of Lead Sheath of Cable N at 60˚C
0 hrs 8 hrs 16 hrs
24 hrs 32 hrs 40 hrs

Figure 7-10
Microstructure of Lead Sheath of Cable R at 90˚
The grain growth of samples J (Alloy B) and R (pure lead) can be attributed to recrystallization,
deformation and subsequent recrystallization. As the grain grows, the yield stress of the lead
sheath decreases and consequently the sheath becomes vulnerable to deformation. Since the
thermal expansion between the paper insulation and the lead sheath is dramatically different, the
lead sheath deforms during the cooling cycle of the heat treatment. During subsequent heating,
the deformed areas of the lead sheath recrystallizes and the large grains break down to smaller
grains. On further heating, the smaller grains form into a few large grains. Consequently, the
yield stress of the lead sheath decreases and the cycle of deformation and recrystallization
7-11
Metallurgical Tests
repeats itself. This process only occurs at the deformed area of the lead sheath. Since the
deformation of the lead sheath is not uniform, the grain sizes in the lead sheath vary from
location to location.
The non-uniform grain size in lead is one of the major causes of fatigue cracking in lead
pipes (30). These cracks are usually transverse cracks, caused by the variation of creep ductility
between small and large grains (31,32).
As seen in Table 7-3, the lead sheaths of cables J, P, O and S showed surface cracks. The
microstructures of these lead sheaths, shown in Figure 7-5, contain a mixture of large and small
grains. This provides evidence that lead sheaths that contain a mixture of large and short grains
are vulnerable to cracking.
The grain size of the lead sheath of Cable N (Alloy F3) did not grow, either at 60 ±1°C or at
90 ±1°C. This observation concurs with the report on a similar lead alloy (31).
Eddy Current Examination of Lead Sheaths
The eddy current inspection technique is a nondestructive test method used to examine the
surface condition of conducting materials. It is based on the principle of electromagnetic
induction of metallic materials. When AC current flows in a coil (probe coil) close to the surface
of a conducting material, eddy current is induced on its surface. The magnitude and phase of the
eddy current will affect the impedance of the probe coil. A surface crack on the conducting
materials immediately underneath the coil interrupts or reduces the eddy current, consequently
decreasing the loading on the coil and increasing its effective impedance. This phenomenon
makes it possible to monitor the voltage across the coil and to detect surface cracks on
conducting materials.
The principal operating variables encountered in eddy current inspection are probe coil
impedance and electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability, lift-off, edge effect and skin effect
of the inspecting component. The inspection coil (probe coil) is an important part of every eddy
current inspection system. The shape of the probe coil depends to a considerable extent on the
purpose of the inspection and the shape of the part being inspected.
Surface probes (probe coils) where the axis of the probe is normal to the surface of the part to be
inspected, are used to examine the surface of lead sheaths. A surface probe can be made as an
absolute probe or as a differential probe. In the absolute probe, a single coil detects the absolute
eddy current condition at the test point. In the differential probe, two coils side by side are used
to respond to the difference between the eddy current conditions at the two points. Both of these
probes can be arranged on a transformer fashion (also known as transformer probe). The
primary coil induces eddy current in the test piece and the secondary coil acts as a detector. If
the oscillator drives the primary winding, and the secondary coil is connected to the
measurement circuit, these probes are called reflection probes. To help simply the complex eddy
current responses, changes in the amplitude and phase are displayed on an impedance phase
diagram (a plot of system inductance against resistance) in a cathode ray tube. The changes
caused by the instrument operator, such as changes in the distance between the probe and test
7-12
Metallurgical Tests
piece (lift-off) will cause a horizontal shift in the spot forming the trace, while the presence of
any flaws will cause the spot to shift vertically.
Initial examinations were carried out to optimize the probe. After many iterations, it was found
that a simple transformer-type differential probe is best suited to inspect the surface condition of
the lead sheaths of PILC cables. A good signal to noise ratio was obtained between 50 and
500 kHz. Depending on the diameter of the cable, an inspection can be carried out manually
using a single probe (Figure 7-11) or using a probe attached in a probe holder (Figure 7-12).
Figure 7-11
Eddy Current Inspection of Lead Sheath
Figure 7-12
Probe Holder of Eddy Current Inspection
A calibration sample of a lead sheath was made to optimize the eddy current inspection
technique. Three crack line incisions, 1 mm deep, 2 mm deep and 3 mm deep, were made on the
surface of this lead sheath. The test sample was then covered with the original PVC jacket
before the examination. The impedance phase diagram of the defects on the test sample is
shown in Figure 7-13.
7-13
Metallurgical Tests
Figure 7-13
Impedance-Phase Diagram of Cracks on Lead Sheath Covered with the PVC Jacket
Three 20-foot long cable sections were removed from Cable P and examined using the optimized
eddy current inspection technique. Nine defect indications were noticed at different parts of
these sections. After removing the PVC jacket at the suspected areas of these cable sections, a
visual examination followed by a dye penetrant inspection was carried out on the lead sheath to
validate the inspection technique. Defects were noticed on the lead sheath of the cable. One
such defect is shown in Figure 7-14, where the arrow indicates the defect. The lead sheath of
this cable was further examined visually, as shown in Figure 7-15. As seen from this figure, the
surface of the lead sheath had a network of cracks.
Figure 7-14
Impedance-Phase Diagram of a Defect on Polyethylene Jacketed Lead Sheath of Cable P
7-14
Metallurgical Tests
Figure 7-15
Cracks on Lead Sheath of Cable P
Figure 7-16
Three Cracks Oriented in Different Angles (lead sheath of Cable N)
In order to correlate the impedance phase diagram with the geometry of the surface flaws, a
series of eddy current examinations were conducted on the lead sheath of Cable N. A lead
sheath sample, 1 m long, was obtained from Cable N after removing the polyethylene jacket.
Three crack line incisions were made, 2 mm deep at three different angles (90°, 45° and 135°) to
the surface of the lead sheath, using a sharp precision knife (Figure 7-16). The surface of the
lead sheath containing these incisions was scanned using the eddy current technique.
Figure 7-17 shows the impedance-phase diagrams of the three incisions. This figure clearly
indicates that the contour of the vertical loop of the impedance-phase diagram is dependent on
the shape of the surface crack.
7-15
Metallurgical Tests
Figure 7-17
Impedance Phase Diagrams of Three Different Crack Orientations
Lead sheath samples approximately 4 m in length were examined using the eddy current
inspection technique. Crack-like indications were found on one area of Cable O. The
impedance–phase diagram is shown in Figure 7-18 the photograph of the suspected location is
shown in Figure 7-19 and the cross-section of this location is shown in Figure 7-20. These
figures clearly indicate that location D of Cable O's lead sheath contained an oblique crack. The
impedance–phase diagram of this crack matches that of the calibration sample (Figure 7-17).
Figure 7-18
Impedance Phase Diagram of Crack at Location D on Lead Sheath on Cable O
7-16
Metallurgical Tests
Figure 7-19
Crack on Location D on Lead Sheath of Cable O
Figure 7-20
Cross Section Area of Crack at Location D on Lead Sheath of Cable O
To find the range of the eddy current inspection technique, the inspection was done after
covering the cracked area of location A of the lead sheath of Cable O. Figures 7-21and 7-22
show the impedance-phase diagrams of the lead cracked area of Cable O, with and without its
polyethylene jacket. This observation clearly indicates that it is feasible to detect cracks on a
lead sheath with a 2.75 mm thick polyethylene jacket.
7-17
Metallurgical Tests
Figure 7-21
Impedance Phase Diagram of Crack at Location A of Cable O Without Any Jacket
CABLE 0 CABLE 0
Figure 7-22
Impedance Phase Diagram of Crack at Location A of Cable O with PE Jacket
The eddy current examination of Cable S, with a polyethylene jacket, showed indications of
cracks on the lead sheath. The jacket on the suspected area of the cable was removed to expose
the lead sheath. Figure 7-23 shows the surface of the lead sheath at the suspected area. As seen
from this figure, the lead sheath contained small transverse cracks. The impedance-phase
diagrams of the cracks at location B, with and without the jacket, are shown in Figures 7-24 and
7-25. The cross sectional area of the lead sheath at location B is shown in Figure 7-26. The
information shown in Figures 7-24 to 7-26 clearly confirms that eddy current inspection can be
used to detect cracks on the lead sheaths of PILC cables with or without elastomeric jackets.
7-18
Metallurgical Tests
Crack B
Figure 7-23
Crack B on Lead Sheath of Cable S
Figure 7-24
Impedance-phase Diagram of Lead Sheath Of Cable S at Location B Without Any Jacket
7-19
Metallurgical Tests
Figure 7-25
Impedance-Phase Diagram of Crack B on Lead Sheath of Cable S with 2mm PE Jacket
Figure 7-26
Cross Section Area of Lead Sheath of Cable S at Crack B Area
A visual examination of the cables was also conducted to confirm the cracking on the lead
sheaths. Figure 7-27 shows the surfaces of the lead sheaths of PILC cables J, P, O and S at the
cracked location.
7-20
Metallurgical Tests
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 7-27
(a) Cracks on Lead Sheath of Cable J
(b) Cracks on Lead Sheath of Cable O
(c) Cracks on Lead Sheath of Cable P
(d) Cracks on Lead Sheath of Cable S
Effect of Cyclic Stress and Temperature on Lead Sheaths
The published literature (2) has shown that cracking on lead sheaths is caused by a combination
of creep and fatigue. The high operating temperature and cyclic stresses introduced by a cable's
thermal expansion and contraction are identified as the main reasons for creep and fatigue
cracking on the lead sheath. In order to simulate this field condition, an accelerated aging
experiment was conducted in the laboratory. Two 2-m long cable samples from the sound
section of Cable O were tested in this experiment. One end of the sample was attached to a
stationary grip and the other end was attached to an actuator. The test setup was placed in a
thermally insulated enclosure (Figure 7-28). An electrical resistance heater with a controller was
used to maintain the temperature inside the enclosure, and the actuator was used to introduce
tensile and compressive stresses (cyclic stresses) to the cable sample. The span of the cable was
supported in such a way that it could freely move along the horizontal direction.
7-21
Metallurgical Tests
Cable sample
Test frame
Figure 7-28
Aging Test Apparatus
The first sample was tested at 30 cycles per minute and its temperature was maintained at room
temperature. The second sample was maintained at 60°C and cycled to 1.5 cycles per minute
The cyclic stress of sample 1 was higher than that of sample 2. After 300 cycles, the second
sample was allowed to cool to room temperature for examination. A visual examination of the
surface of the lead sheath was conducted, followed by a fluorescent dye inspection, to determine
the onset of surface cracking.
After 100 cycles, a large crack developed along the transverse direction of the cable
(Figure 7-29). The second sample showed circumferential ripples after 1281 cycles
(Figure 7-30). Figure 7-31 shows the rippled area on the second sample after fluorescent dye
examination. As seen from this figure, fine networks of cracks developed at the valley of the
ripple. Figure 7-32 shows the lead sheath of Cable P. The surface of the lead sheath of Cable P
closely matches that of the second sample (Figure 7-30 ). These results clearly indicate that the
field conditions of PILC cables can be simulated using this accelerated aging test.
7-22
Metallurgical Tests
Figure 7-29
Lead Sheath of Cable O after 100 Cycles of Aging at Room Temperature
Figure 7-30
Lead Sheath of Cable O After Aging 1281 cycles at 60°C
Figure 7-31
Cracks on the Wrinkled Area of the Lead Sheath after Aging Test (Fluorescent Dye
Examination)
7-23
Metallurgical Tests
Figure 7-32
Rings on Lead Sheath of Cable P
7-24
8
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM
THE METALLURGICAL TESTS
Conclusions
• The chemical analysis identified that the lead sheaths of cables D, E, F, G, H, O, R and S are
made of pure lead, the lead sheaths of cables I, M, N, P and Q are made of Alloy F3, and the
lead sheath of Cable J is made of Alloy B.
• A rebound hardness method was developed to measure the hardness of the lead sheath in the field.
• A fluorescent dye penetrant examination method can be used in the field to detect fine cracks
on the surface of the lead sheaths of unjacketed PILC cables.
• An in-situ metallographic examination technique was developed to assess the microstructure
and grain size of lead sheaths. This technique can be used to assess the condition of in-situ
lead sheaths of PILC cables in the field.
• Lead sheaths made of Alloy B and pure lead showed recrystallization and grain growth at
temperatures 60°C and 90°C. The lead sheath made of Alloy F3 did show any change in
microstructure at 60°C or 90°C.
• An eddy current inspection technique can be used in the field to detect surface cracks on the
lead sheaths of jacketed or unjacketed PILC cables. A simple transformer type differential
probe and an optimum frequency between 50 to 500 kHz would be required to obtain a good
signal to noise ratio of surface cracks on lead sheaths. An experienced inspector would need
to be available to interpret the data.
• An accelerated aging test was developed to simulate the field conditions of lead sheaths of
PILC cables.
Recommendations for Future Work

• The portable hardness measurement technique should be further refined to establish a
relationship between the aging of the lead sheath and its hardness.
• Field tests are required to validate the fluorescent dye inspection and eddy current inspection
techniques.
• Research should be carried out to develop empirical data between the residual life and
operating temperature and cyclic stress, using the accelerated aging test developed in this
project. The rebound portable hardness measurement technique and eddy current inspection
method should be used to identify the end of life of the lead sheath.
8-1
9
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM
THE CHEMICAL AND ELECTRICAL TESTS
Conclusions
• Thirteen field-aged PILC cables were solicited from various utilities in North America. The
cables’ ratings ranged from 5 to 25 kV. Construction included single-phase, 3-phase with
both circular and sectored conductors, and belted and unbelted. The age of cables was
between 69 years and 3 years.
• Oil-paper samples were removed from the field-aged cables, and Karl-Fischer moisture tests,
Fourier Transform Infra Red (FTIR) tests, Fluorescence examinations and Dielectric Thermal
Analyses (DTA) were performed.
• Five different electrical diagnostic techniques were performed on terminated samples of the
field-aged cables.
• Ten of the field-aged cables, which had been diagnostically tested, were subjected to step-
and-hold AC breakdown tests.
• One of the field-aged cables was subjected to a water ingress test to failure.
• Electrical diagnostic techniques were performed on a 2.5 km long PILC Feeder in the field.
• Higher operating fields seem to induce shorter PILC cable life but more data on more cables
would be needed to confirm this observation.
• In order to take into account the influence of sample length and differing cable construction,
results on some electrical diagnostic tests had to be normalized as function of length or
capacitance.
• The moisture content measurements made by Karl-Fischer titration indicate that the
insulation of some cables was dry and some very wet. The range of moisture was from less
than 1% to 6%.
• No direct correlation could be established between these measured moisture contents and the
results of the electrical diagnostic tests.
• The predictions made of the relative moisture content in the insulation from the different
electrical diagnostic tests seemed to contradict one another. Thus caution is advised.
• Moisture content does not seem to be as detrimental to PILC life as expected although it may
affect the electrical properties of unaged cables.
• Dielectric and electrical properties of PILC cables were directly related to the oil condition.
9-1
Conclusions and Recommendations From the Chemical and Electrical Tests
• The electrical tests are sensitive to a degradation process influenced by the condition of the
oil.
• Oil condition is a major factor in PILC cables aging assessment. When the oil becomes aged
due to thermal heating, partial discharges, etc., its electrical and chemical properties overtake
the influence of moisture and thus significantly affect the PILC cable life.
• A reliable diagnostic of a PILC cable’s condition should be based on at least two different
techniques measurements. For example, dielectric spectroscopy did not detect the poor oil
condition of cable N whereas LIpATEST and RVM were sensitive to it.
• Electrical tests were performed in the field on a 2.5 km feeder in the BC Hydro network.
LIpATEST and dielectric spectroscopy operated successfully. RVM was unsuccessful due to
the large cable capacitance and high charging current. Later discussion with the RVM
equipment manufacturer indicated that this was a software problem, which was subsequently
repaired.
• All electrical/dielectric diagnostic techniques give nearly the same cable ranking: The
insulation of cable G is the most degraded (closely followed by cables R and J) and F is the
least degraded.
• The chemical measurements are very useful to understand cable aging, but they are obviously
destructive techniques. Also since the chemical techniques are made on samples, their
conclusions may not be representative of the entire cable.
• Wax was detected in some cables (D, J and P, among possibly others) and is associated with
acid and/or ketones in the oil. Its cause is likely to be a prolonged pd activity.
• The acid groups in the IR spectrum of cable G could be due to overheating or to the
bituminous product found within the sheath. Whatever the origin, this has led to severe
degradation.
• Cable N was not impregnated with a hydrocarbon oil; polybutene is a possibility. The liquid
used for this cable seems to have rather poor electrical/dielectric properties.
• The most fluorescent hydrocarbon oils under UV light are those that appear to be less
degraded. This has some potential as an aging indicator, provided oil samples are taken when
cable sections are removed from the ground.
• The mechanism causing the failure in the water ingress test was attributed to high electrical
stress occurring near the edge of the hole, which had been cut in the lead sheath, and not
moisture in the insulation.
Recommendations for Future Work

• More work is required to determine the origin of oil aging and the influence on PILC cables
properties and electrical diagnostic measurements. Aging causes to investigate are: pd,
overheating, and local high fields (at cracks, cavities, etc.).
• Further work is also required to understand the parameters affecting oil-paper breakdown and
the fast time-constant relaxation in depolarization currents.
9-2
Conclusions and Recommendations From the Chemical and Electrical Tests
• Measurement of harmonics is still the only technique that could be used as an online
diagnostic. If this is to be pursued the technique must be improved. Improvements could
include development of a bridge type measurement, which would null the effects of the 60
Hz fundamental in the cable charging current with that in a standard capacitor. This would
allow for a higher signal-to-noise ratio in the measured harmonics.
9-3
10
REFERENCES
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Cable Assets”, EPRI Report TR-114333, December 1999.
2. “Condition Assessment of Distribution PILC Cables”, EPRI Report 1000741, October 2000.
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Center, Edison, NJ, May 21-23, 2001.
4. G. Luckens, M. de Haan, D. Dijkstra, J.A. Wiersna, P.P. Leufkens and M.K. Monteny,
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pp. 667-74, 1990.
5. CIGRÉ WG 21.05, “Diagnostic Methods for HV Paper Cables and Accessories”, Electra, No
176, pp. 25-51, February 1998.
6. P. Werelius, “Power Cable Diagnostics by Dielectric Spectroscopy”, 1999 IEEE/PES T&D

Conf., April 1999.
7. R. Neimanis, “PILC Cable Diagnostics by Frequency Domain Spectroscopy”, in Ref. 3.
8. E. Nemeth, “Some Newest Results of Diagnostic Testing of Impregnated Paper Insulated

Cables”, Proc. of 10th Int. Symp. On High Voltage, 1997.
9. R. Patsch, J. Jung and O. Kouzmine, “The Interpretation of Return Voltage Curves of Paper-
Oil Cables”, Proc. of 2000 Conf. Elec. Insul. Dielec. Phenomena, pp. 39-42, 2000.
10. O. Kouzmine, R. Patsch and J. Jung, “Experiences with On-Site Measurements of Mass-
Impregnated Cables”, Proc. of Int. Conf. On Solid Dielectrics, Eindhoven, pp. 365-8, 2001.
11. R. Patsch, O. Kouzmine and F. Berton, “The Influence of the Ambient Temperature on the
Diagnostic Response of Paper-Oil Insulated Cables”, Int. Conf. on Advances in Processing,
Testing and Applications of Dielectric Materials, Wroclaw, Poland, pp. 34-7, 2001.
12. H. Oentjen, R. Kaminka, “The Return Voltage, a Non-Destructive Method to Assess the
Condition of Oil Impregnated Paper Insulation Systems”, in Ref. 3.
13. H. Bessei and R. von Olshausen, “Water Ingress and Moisture Effects on MIND Cable
Dielectrics with Respect to the Application of Polymeric Accessories”, 2nd Int. Conf. on
Power Cables and Accessories 10 to 180 kV, IEE Publication No 270.
10-1
References
14. B. Nettelblad, “Effect of Moisture Content on the Dielectric Properties of Cellulose”,

NORD-IS, Vasteras, June 15-17, 1992.
15. R.B. Blodgett, “”, AIEEE Trans. PAS, vol. 81, pp. 93-100, 1962.
16. U. Gafvert, L. Adeen, M. Tappe, P. Ghasemi and B. Jonsson, « Dielectric Spectroscopy in

Time and Frequency Domain Applied to Diagnostics of Power Transformers », Proc. of
ICPADM Conference, Xian, China, July 2000.
17. T.K. Saha, M. Darveniza, Z.T. Yao, D.J.T. Hill and G. Yeung, « Investigating the effects of
oxidation and thermal degradation on electrical and chemical properties of power
transformers insulation », IEEE Trans. On Power Delivery, Vol.14, no.4, pp. 1359-67, 1999;
see also: IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 12, pp. 1547-1561, 1997.
18. W. Zaengl, “Dielectric Spectroscopy in Time and Frequency Domain for HV Power
Equipment (Transformers, Cables, etc.)”, Proc. Int. Symposium on High Voltage, Bangalore,
India, 2001.
19. V. Der Houhanessian and W.S. Zaengl, “On-Site Diagnosis of Power Transformers by
Means of Relaxation Current Measurements”, Proc. 1998 IEEE Int. Symp. Electrical
Insulation, pp. 28-34, 1998.
20. N. Singh, “Physico-Chemical Destructive Tests on Four PILC Cables”, in Ref. 3.
21. M. Kuschel, R. Plath and W. Kalkner, « Dielectric Response- A Diagnostic Tool for High
Voltage Apparatus », Proceedings of 10th Int. Symp. High Voltage, 1997.
22. G.M. Urbani and R.S. Brooks, “Using the recovery voltage method to evaluate aging in oil-
paper insulation “,1998 IEEE 6th International Conference on Conduction and Breakdown in
Solid Dielectrics , 22-25 June 1998, Vasteras, Sweden.
23. J.P. van Bolhuis, E. Gulski, J.J. Smit, G.M. Urbani and H.F.A. Verhaart, « Development of
Knowledge Rules for RVM Interpretation of the Condition of Transformer Insulation », Proc.
of 2000 IEEE Int. Symposium on Electrical Insulation, pp. 267-70, 2000.
24. M. Nagao, T. Tokoro, A. Yokayama, and M. Kosaki, "New Approach to Diagnostic Method
of Water Trees," Conference Record of the 1990 IEEE International Symposium on
Electrical Insulation, pp. 296-299.
25. S. Nakamura, T. Ozaki, N. Ito, I. Sengoku and J. Kawai, “Dynamic Behavior of

Interconnected Channels in Water-Treed Polyethylene Subjected to High Voltage”, IEEE
Trans. DEI, Vol. 9, pp. 3905, 2002.
26. A. Bulinski, E. So, S. Bamji, Y. Chen, J. Densley, and J.M. Braun, “Diagnostic
Measurements of High Voltage Insulation using Current Comparator Technology,” Conf.
Record of the 1994 IEEE Int. Symp. on Elec. Insulation, June 5-8 1994, pp. 115-118.
10-2
References
27. R.Bartnikas and K.D. Srivastava, “ Power Cable Engineering” Sanford Education Press,
1980
28. EPRI Technical Report 1000741, “Condition Assessment of Distribution PILC Cables”
EPRI, Palo alto, California, USA, October 2000
29. Y.Sudoh, M.Hishiyama, J. Masuda and K.Arita, “ Lead Sheathed Deterioration Diagnosis
Technique”, Denki Tsushin Kenkyusho Kenkyu Jtsuyoka Hikoku, Vol. 3 No. 7, 1987, pp
845-852.
30. W. Hofmann,” Lead and Lead Alloys”, Springer-Verlag New York, 1970, pp 435 –437.
31. J. Beckman, “ Tests on thirteen Different Lead Cable sheathing Materials” Lead ’65,
Proceedings of the Second International conference on Lead 1965.
32. H.Oasa and A. Nakamura, “ Characteristics of Several Lead Alloys for Oil-filled Cable
Sheathing”, Proceedings of the 3rd International conference on Lead 1969, pp 113 –133.
10-3
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Assessment of Paper-Insulated Lead-

Covered Cable Condition

Electrical, Chemical, and Metallurgical Condition

Please read the License Agreement

Final Report, March 2003

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(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I)

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Powertech Labs, Inc.

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This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.

2 CABLE SAMPLES TESTED ..................................................................................................2-1

3 CHEMICAL TESTS ON PAPER TAPE SAMPLES................................................................3-1

4 ELECTRICAL DIAGNOSTIC TESTS ON TERMINATED CABLE SAMPLES ......................4-1

5 ELECTRICAL AGING TESTS ................................................................................................5-1

6 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS OF THE CHEMICAL AND ELECTRICAL

7 METALLURGICAL TESTS ....................................................................................................7-1

8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM THE METALLURGICAL

9 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM THE CHEMICAL AND

Figure 1-1 Main aging modes in PILC cables. ...........................................................................1-2

suffix after each letter represents test temperature.) .......................................................3-10

Figure 7-15 Cracks on Lead Sheath of Cable P ......................................................................7-15

Table 2-1 Main Characteristics Of The Tested Cable Samples ................................................2-1

PILC Cable History

• Free water in the cable

THERMAL AGING HIGHER

WATER ABSORPTION HIGHER FAILURE

HIGH LOCAL FIELDS DISCHARGES

3. Metallurgical tests for the evaluation of lead aging:

D 12 kV, Unjacketed, Single 1938 Reliant Energy General Cable 45

E 5 kV, Unjacketed, 3 Phase, Over 40 years Northern States Unknown 36

F 14 kV, Unjacketed, 3 phase, Made 1961, San Antonio City Okonite 49

G 5 kV, Cambric Rubber 1956 BC Hydro Phillips Electrical 51

H 5 kV, Unjacketed, 3 phase, 1955 BC Hydro CGE 110

I 15 kV, Jacketed, 3 phase, 1986 BC Hydro Canada Wire 90

J 15 kV, Unjacketed, 3 phase 1959 BC Hydro Standard 96

Cable Samples Tested

K 12 kV, Cambric Taped, Reliant Energy ? 30

L 12 kV, Unjacketed, Single 1956 Reliant Energy Harbishaw Cable 32

M 12 kV, Unjacketed, Single 1952 Reliant Energy Kennecote Wire 48

N 15 kV, Jacketed, 3 phase, 1993 BC Hydro Alcatel 120

O 13.8 kV, Unjacketed, Single 1931 Toronto Hydro Northern Electric 50

P 15 kV, Jacketed, 3 phase, 1973 BC Hydro Pirelli 578

Q 15 kV, Jacketed, 3 phase, 1973 BC Hydro Pirelli 502

R 25 kV, Jacketed, 3 phase, 1969 PSEG Okonite 595

S 15 kV, Jacketed, 3 phase, 1986 United Okonite 50

Cable Samples Tested

E Operated at about 175 to 200 A No phase identification tapes. 18 insulated 0.205

F Unknown operating conditions. No phase identification tape on conductors, 0.08

K Installation date was between Sample K was stolen from Powertech's

Cable Samples Tested

M Two failures within a year, 31 insulated tape layers; sample M was

Cable Samples Tested

Moisture Content Measurements

Range: 10 µg to 100 mg H2O

Chemical Tests on Paper Tape Samples

Chemical Tests on Paper Tape Samples

E, 5kV G, 5kV H, 5kV

Chemical Tests on Paper Tape Samples

2.00 N,cond.1 cond.2 cond.3

Moisture Content (%)