buildings

Article
The Role of Vernacular Construction Techniques and
Materials for Developing Zero-Energy Homes in
Various Desert Climates
Farajallah Alrashed 1 , Muhammad Asif 1,2, * and Stas Burek 1
1 School of Engineering and Built Environment, Glasgow Caledonian University, Cowcaddens Road,
Glasgow G4 0BA, UK; farajallah.alrashed@gmail.com (F.A.); s.burek@gcu.ac.uk (S.B.)
2 Department of Architectural Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
* Correspondence: mas1@gcu.ac.uk; Tel.: +44-(0)141-331-8721

Academic Editor: Francesco Guarino

Received: 17 November 2016; Accepted: 14 February 2017; Published: 27 February 2017

Abstract: Hot desert regions, like Saudi Arabia, are very challenging in terms of building energy
consumption. The role of the housing sector in the country is critical as it accounts for half of the total
national electricity consumption. It is important to apply sustainable energy concepts in this sector,
and the application of Zero-Energy Homes (ZEHs) could be an appropriate option in this regard.
In ZEHs, the energy demand needs to be reduced significantly before employing renewable energy,
and a way to achieve that is through applying vernacular construction techniques and materials.
This study aims to investigate the role of courtyard, mushrabiyah and adobe construction for the
development of ZEHs in the five main Saudi climatic zones represented by Dhahran, Guriat, Riyadh,
Jeddah and Khamis Mushait. A base house is designed, modelled and compared with measured
electricity values. The comparison between the base house and the houses adapted with these
techniques and materials is undertaken based on the annual electricity demand and the maximum
power demand, and findings reveal that mushrabiyah can reduce them by 4% and 3%, respectively,
while adobe can reduce them by 6% and 19%, respectively. Courtyards are found to be not helpful in
terms of energy saving.

Keywords: vernacular; courtyard; mushrabiyah; adobe construction; sustainable design; zero-energy

residential building; desert climates

1. Introduction
The world faces a string of serious energy and environmental challenges. Fossil fuel reserves,
presently contributing to over 80% of the world’s total primary energy consumption, for example, are
declining; the demand for energy is on a steep rise; and energy prices are fluctuating and rising [1].
The global primary energy consumption is reported to have increased by 29% from 2000 to 2010 and is
forecasted to see a further 20% jump by 2020 [2]. While there are growing concerns about the security
of energy supplies, environmental security is also one of the biggest threats for the planet. The global
energy and environmental scenarios are closely interlinked; the problems with the supply and use of
energy are related to wider environmental issues, including global warming.
Buildings and the construction industry have a strong interaction with the global energy and
environmental scenarios. Buildings are responsible for more than 40% of global energy consumption and
over a third of the total global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [3]. A building uses energy throughout
its life (i.e., from its construction to its demolition). The demand for energy in buildings in their life cycle
is both direct and indirect. Direct energy is used for construction, operation, renovation and demolition

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Buildings 2017, 7, 17 2 of 19

in a building; whereas indirect energy is consumed by a building for the production of material used
in its construction and technical installations [4,5]. Given the crucial role buildings can play towards
mitigating the energy and environmental issues, the application of energy-efficient and sustainable
buildings has received significant attention across the world especially in the residential sector [6].
The residential sector represents 26% and 17% of world energy consumption and carbon dioxide
(CO2 ), respectively [7]. Many forms of sustainable residential buildings, such as Low-energy homes,
zero-energy homes, passive houses and plus-energy homes, are being developed across the world, as
can be reflected through the number of buildings going for sustainability certification. For instance,
the worldwide number of buildings certified by the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
(LEED) has exceeded 70,000 [8]. In Europe, the Building Research Establishment Environmental
Assessment Methodology (BREEAM) has reported more than 8500 projects that have been assessed
and certified [9]. Furthermore, in Australia, the number of projects that were assessed and certified by
Green Star is 993 [10]. Furthermore, there are currently more than 450 buildings in Japan that were
certified by the Comprehensive Assessment System for Built Environment Efficiency (CASBEE) [11].
The present work concerns regarding the development of Zero-Energy Homes (ZEHs). A ZEH
is a term widely known for residential buildings with zero net energy consumption and zero CO2
emissions. A more descriptive definition of ZEH is provided by Torcellini et al. as: “a residential
building with greatly reduced energy needs through efficiency gains such that the balance of energy
needs can be supplied with renewable technologies” [12]. There seems to be an understanding that in
ZEHs, off-site renewable energy generation can also be employed in case the on-site renewable systems
are not practical or are not sufficient to support the energy requirements of the building. The on-site
renewable resources for ZEHs include solar, wind, geothermal and biomass [13]. However, one of the
most critical aspects of a ZEH is that its energy needs should be reduced before applying any of the
renewable energy technologies. This reduction can be met through combining suitable sustainable
design features and energy-efficiency measures [14–16]. The applications of the vernacular techniques
and materials have been demonstrated as sustainable options for buildings through their improved
energy, environmental and thermal performance [17,18].
One third of the world’s land is located in desert regions [19]. Hot deserts are amongst the most
challenging regions in terms of energy consumption in buildings due to the intensive demand for
cooling, as they experiences an extreme maximum air temperature of over 50 ◦ C [20]. Saudi Arabia is
an example of a hot desert country that lies between 31◦ N–17.5◦ N latitude and 50◦ E–36.6◦ E longitude.
Saudi Arabia, on the one hand, has experience with vernacular housing, and on the other hand, it has
many climatic zones that can represent various hot desert subzones. In addition, its residential sector
is set to experience a strong growth in the future as the Saudi population is rising at a rate of 2.5%
per year, and only 24% of the Saudi nationals have their own homes [21]. Estimates also suggested
that around two-thirds of the population are under the age of 30 years [22]. To meet the needs of
the constantly growing population, the country needs to build 230 thousand new homes annually
through to 2020 [23]. Currently, the Ministry of Housing is planning to build 500 thousand housing
units in the major cities of Saudi Arabia [24]. On the other hand, the residential sector in Saudi Arabia
is responsible for 50% of the total national electricity consumption [25]. Therefore, it is essential to
apply sustainable energy concepts in this sector, and the application of ZEHs could be an option in this
regard. However, in order to develop ZEHs in Saudi Arabia, the current household electricity demand
for dwellings in the country needs to be reduced by up to 50% before applying any renewable energy
applications [26]. In particular, the international benchmark value for ZEH is about 90 kWh/m2 , while
it exceeds 175 kWh/m2 in Saudi houses [27–29].
This work aims to explore the role vernacular construction techniques and material can play in
developing ZEHs in hot desert climates by taking Saudi Arabia as an example. The key objectives of
this study are as below.

• Review the traditional vernacular architecture techniques traditionally practiced in the hot desert
climate of Saudi Arabia;
Buildings 2017, 7, 17 3 of 19

• Develop the base model of a modern home aspired to be for Saudi residents;
• Examine the impacts of individual vernacular features on the energy performance of the developed
home under the five climatic zones of Saudi Arabia.

The present work discusses the traditional vernacular architecture, especially in Saudi Arabia,
followed by describing the climatic zones in the country. It also presents the main aspects of a virtual
(base) house designed based on a detailed questionnaire survey that was undertaken to determine
an aspired dwelling in Saudi Arabia. Before adapting the base house with vernacular construction
techniques and materials, the electricity performance of the base house itself has been compared with
measured electricity values. Thereafter, a comparison between the base house and the houses adapted
with vernacular construction techniques and materials has been undertaken based on the annual
electricity demand and the maximum power demand.

2. Vernacular Architecture
Vernacular architecture is a human construct that results from the interrelations between ecological,
economic, material, political and social factors [30]. Through history, many vernacular techniques and
materials shaped by the local culture, weather and geographical location were employed around the
world [31–36]. In addition, many of these techniques and materials have been utilised in various regions
with different climatic conditions and cultural backgrounds. For example, adobe construction (clay
or mud) has been used as a main construction material for thousands of years for the construction
of buildings in most inhabited regions all over the world [32,35,37–44]. Moreover, some examples of
modern buildings built from adobe construction can be found in many countries that have different
climatic conditions [41,45,46]. Similarly, many vernacular techniques like courtyards and wind towers
(catchers) were applied in modern buildings for passive designs [47]. However, there are some
vernacular techniques that have been developed for hot desert climates to seek cooling and daylighting.
Alp determines these techniques as courtyards, wind towers, badgeers, domes, air vents, planting, cooling
towers, roof ponds, water walls, solar chimneys, induction vents and mushrabiyah/rowshans [39].
The selection of these techniques and materials for such a building is usually dependent on the desired
benefits, as well as the local availability of construction materials and skilled labour.

2.1. Vernacular Architecture in Saudi Arabia

Over the last few decades, the life style of Saudi nationals has substantially changed,
transforming from Bedouinism (desert life) to modern urbanism, affecting the nature of their dwellings.
The housing in Saudi Arabia has dramatically transferred from tents and shelters to more permanent
housing. Many vernacular architectural techniques, such as wind towers, courtyards, fountains and
mushrabiyas, were traditionally used for cooling and daylighting [39]. Typical dwellings had thick
walls, floors and roofs for better thermal performance [39]. Vernacular housing units were constructed
from local materials that were produced in situ, such as clay (adobe), limestone, coral, stone and
wood [48]. Adobe is a vernacular construction material that used to be widely used in the Saudi
Arabian vernacular buildings, because of its local availability and its ability to protect from the outside
weather. It was the main construction material for walls, floors and roofs within all vernacular types
in Saudi Arabia, and although some types do not have adobe walls, all have an adobe roof. It is
made from clay, sand, silt and water and is used for construction in hot desert regions. Houses built
with adobe construction materials have stood the test of time: there are examples of such buildings
that are more than 500 years old [40]. A study by Saleh has shown that, because of its lower thermal
conductivity, the energy performance of adobe-based houses in Saudi Arabia is better than stone-built
buildings [49]. Typically, the thickness of adobe walls is about 30–50 cm, while it should be at least
45 cm thick to gain the full benefit of the thermal mass, and typically, the roof is 30–40 cm thick [50].
However, with the introduction of concrete and steel building materials, the use of adobe has largely
disappeared, despite studies showing that it has superior thermal properties compared to concrete
Buildings 2017, 7, 17 4 of 19

Buildings 2017, 7, 17 4 of 20

and steel based structures [38,42,49,50], to the extent that it is difficult to find modern houses in Saudi
building2017,
Buildings materials,
7, 17 the use of adobe has largely disappeared, despite studies showing that it4 ofhas20
Arabia built from adobe. Traditionally, the vernacular architectural types in Saudi Arabia
superior thermal properties compared to concrete and steel based structures [38,42,49,50], to the
can be
categorized
building into
extent that it four
materials, types.
is difficult to find
the use modern
of adobe houses
has in disappeared,
largely Saudi Arabia despite
built from adobe.
studies Traditionally,
showing the
that it has
vernacular
superior architectural
thermal typescompared
properties in Saudi Arabia can beand
to concrete categorized intostructures
steel based four types.[38,42,49,50], to the
2.1.1. The Arabian Gulf Type
extent that it is difficult to find modern houses in Saudi Arabia built from adobe. Traditionally, the
2.1.1. Arabian
The The Arabian
vernacular Gulftype
architectural
Gulf Type
types isintypical
Saudi Arabia
of thecanEastern
be categorized
Provinceinto of
fourSaudi
types. Arabia, between the
Arabian/Persian GulfGulf
The Arabian coasttype andisthe Najdofregion,
typical influenced
the Eastern Provinceby of
neighbouring
Saudi Arabia,countries,
between thesuch as
2.1.1. The Arabian Gulf Type
Arabian/Persian
Kuwait and Bahrain Gulf
[48]. coast
It is aand the Najd
courtyard region,
house influencedfrom
constructed by neighbouring
local stone and countries,
mud (seesuch as 1).
Figure
Kuwait
The and Bahrain
Arabian [48].
Gulf It
typeis a courtyard
is typical house
of the constructed
Eastern from
Provincelocal
of stone
The concept of the courtyard was employed in Saudi vernacular houses to seek privacy, naturalSaudiand mud
Arabia, (see Figure
between 1).
the
The concept
Arabian/Persian
ventilation of the
Gulf
and daylightingcourtyard
coast and
[51]. wastheemployed inthe
Najd region,
Depending on Saudi
sizevernacular
influenced houses
of thebyhouse andtothe
neighbouring seek privacy,of
countries,
number natural
such as the
floors,
ventilation
Kuwait andand daylighting
Bahrain [48]. It is[51]. Depending
a courtyard houseon constructed
the size of the
fromhouse
local and the
stone andnumber of floors,
mud (see Figurethe
1).
wall thickness varies from 35 to 80 cm and roof thickness between 30 and 65 cm [51].
wall concept
The thicknessofvaries from 35–80
the courtyard cmemployed
was and roof thickness
in Saudi between 30 and
vernacular houses65 cm
to [51].
seek privacy, natural
ventilation and daylighting [51]. Depending on the size of the house and the number of floors, the
wall thickness varies from 35–80 cm and roof thickness between 30 and 65 cm [51].

Figure 1. The vernacular house of the Arabian Gulf type.

Figure 1. The vernacular house of the Arabian Gulf type.

2.1.2. The Hejaz Type Figure 1. The vernacular house of the Arabian Gulf type.
2.1.2. The Hejaz Type
Hejaz region is home to the holy cities Makkah and Madina. The Ottoman Empire had an impact
2.1.2. The
Hejaz Hejaz
region Type
on shaping theisHejaz
hometypeto the
when holy citiesthe
it ruled Makkah
region and Madina.
during the 16thThe Ottoman
century Empire
[48]. The had an
buildings impact
here
on shaping the
are usually Hejaz type
multi-storey when
with it ruled
extensive the region
decoration during
and the
wooden 16th century
mushrabiyahs
Hejaz region is home to the holy cities Makkah and Madina. The Ottoman Empire had an impact [48].
(see The
Figurebuildings
2).
Mushrabiyah,
here on
areshaping
usuallythe also called
Hejaz typerowshan,
multi-storey when is a screened
withitextensive
ruled bayduring
the region window
decoration thethat
and 16thallows
wooden centuryfor[48].
natural
Theventilation
mushrabiyahs buildings and 2).
here
(see Figure
daylighting
are usuallyalso
Mushrabiyah, without affecting
multi-storey the resident’s
with extensive
called rowshan, privacy
decoration
is a screened [51,52].
and wooden
bay window This type has
mushrabiyahs
that allows been encouraged
Figure by
(see ventilation
for natural 2). and
pilgrims’ need
Mushrabiyah, for
also lodging
called and the
rowshan, seasonal
is a renting
screened bay of rooms,
window or even
that whole
allows for floors
natural
daylighting without affecting the resident’s privacy [51,52]. This type has been encouraged by pilgrims’ or buildings
ventilation [48].
and
The use of adobe is limited, andthe theresident’s
main construction
privacy materials are wood and stone,encouraged
mainly dueby to
needdaylighting
for lodgingwithout
and theaffecting
seasonal renting of rooms, or[51,52]. This
even whole type has
floors orbeenbuildings [48]. The use
local availability
pilgrims’ need forof lodging
stone [48].
and The
thethickness
seasonalofrenting
walls, floors and roofs
of rooms, is often
or even whole between
floors 50
or and 60 cm [51].
buildings [48].
of adobe is limited, and the main construction materials are wood and stone, mainly due to local
The use of adobe is limited, and the main construction materials are wood and stone, mainly due to
availability of stoneof[48].
local availability stoneThe
[48].thickness
The thicknessof walls, floors
of walls, and
floors androofs
roofs is
is often between
often between 5050
andand 60 [51].
60 cm cm [51].

Figure 2. The vernacular house of the Hejaz type [48].

Figure 2. The vernacular house of the Hejaz type [48].

Figure 2. The vernacular house of the Hejaz type [48].
Buildings 2017,
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17 55 of
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20
Buildings 2017, 7, 17 5 of 20

2.1.3. The Najd Type

2.1.3. The Najd Type
2.1.3. The Najd Type
The Najd region is the central region of Saudi Arabia, also housing the national capital Riyadh.
The Najd region is the central region of Saudi Arabia, also housing the national capital Riyadh.
A NajdThevernacular
Najd region is thecan
house central region of
be typified as Saudi
squareArabia, also housing
or rectangular with the national
rarely more capital Riyadh.
than one floor
A Najd vernacular house can be typified as square or rectangular with rarely more than one floor
A Najd
[48]. vernacular
Rooms house can
are arranged be typified
around as square
the central or rectangular
colonnaded with and
courtyard rarelyhave
moresmall
than windows
one floor [48].
(see
[48]. Rooms are arranged around the central colonnaded courtyard and have small windows (see
Rooms areThe
Figure 3). arranged
adobearound the central
walls, floors and colonnaded courtyard
roof are between 50 cmand have
and 80 small windows
cm thick, (see Figure
or sometimes 3).
even
Figure 3). The adobe walls, floors and roof are between 50 cm and 80 cm thick, or sometimes even
The
moreadobe
[48]. walls, floors and roof are between 50 cm and 80 cm thick, or sometimes even more [48].
more [48].

Figure 3. The vernacular house of the Najd type [53].

Figure 3.
Figure The vernacular
3. The vernacular house
house of
of the
the Najd
Najd type
type [53].
[53].

2.1.4. The Asir Type

2.1.4. The
2.1.4. The Asir
Asir Type
Type
The Asir house can be a single or multi-storey, up to four floors. An Asir house with more than
The Asir
The Asir house
house can
can be
be aa single
single or
or multi-storey,
multi-storey, up up to
to four
four floors.
floors. An
An Asir house with
Asir house with more
more than
than
two floors is usually called Al-Qasabat. It has a relatively small area (about 100 m22) and with a height
two floors
two floors is usually called
is usually called Al-Qasabat.
Al-Qasabat. It It has
has aa relatively
relatively small
small area
area (about
(about 100
100 mm2)) and
and with
with aa height
height
up to 10 m (see Figure 4) [51,54]. Asir houses are massive in terms of construction material, mainly
up to 10 m (see Figure 4) [51,54]. Asir houses are massive in terms of construction material,
up to 10 m (see Figure 4) [51,54]. Asir houses are massive in terms of construction material, mainly mainly for
for security reasons and to protect against weather [55]. The thickness of walls is from 60–100 cm [51].
security
for reasons
security andand
reasons to protect against
to protect weather
against weather[55]. TheThe
[55]. thickness of walls
thickness is from
of walls 60 60–100
is from to 100 cm
cm [51].
[51].

Figure 4. The vernacular house of the Asir type [54].

Figure 4. The vernacular house of the Asir type [54].
Figure 4. The vernacular house of the Asir type [54].
2.2. Modern Houses in Saudi Arabia
2.2. Modern Houses in Saudi Arabia
2.2. Modern Houses in Saudi Arabia
The applications of the vernacular construction techniques and materials have been
The applications of the vernacular construction techniques and materials have been
The applications
demonstrated of the vernacular
as a sustainable construction
option for buildings techniques and materials
[17,18]. However, have been demonstrated
these techniques and materials
demonstrated as a sustainable option for buildings [17,18]. However, these techniques and materials
as
areanot
sustainable option for
being employed buildings
anymore [17,18].
in the SaudiHowever, these techniques
building industry andenergy-intensive
[56]. In fact, materials are not being
heating,
are not being employed anymore in the Saudi building industry [56]. In fact, energy-intensive heating,
employed
ventilatinganymore in the Saudi building
and air conditioning (HVAC) industry
systems [56].
have Inledfact,
to aenergy-intensive
move away from heating, ventilating
these sustainable
ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems have led to a move away from these sustainable
and air conditioning
features, and much of(HVAC) systems have
the architectural led to built
knowledge a move awaythe
up over from these sustainable
previous features,
centuries appears to
features, and much of the architectural knowledge built up over the previous centuries appears to
and
havemuch of the architectural
been forgotten knowledge
[39]. On the other hand,built
theup over the
modern previous
houses have centuries appears
thinner walls to have
and roofs andbeen
are
have been forgotten [39]. On the other hand, the modern houses have thinner walls and roofs and are
forgotten
made mostly[39]. from
On the other hand,
hollow blocksthe
andmodern houses
reinforced have thinner
concrete walls and
(see Figure roofs and are made
5). Consequently, these
made mostly from hollow blocks and reinforced concrete (see Figure 5). Consequently, these
mostly from
buildings arehollow
mainlyblocks and reinforced
dependent on HVACconcrete
systems (see
that Figure
consume 5). massive
Consequently,
amounts these buildings are
of energy.
buildings are mainly dependent on HVAC systems that consume massive amounts of energy.
mainly dependent on HVAC systems that consume massive amounts of energy.
Buildings 2017, 7, 17 6 of 19
Buildings 2017, 7, 17 6 of 20

Buildings 2017, 7, 17 6 of 20

Figure 5. Sample modern houses in Saudi Arabia.

Figure 5. Sample modern houses in Saudi Arabia.
3. Climatic Zones and Solar Energy in Saudi Arabia
Figure 5.in
3. Climatic Zones and Solar Energy Sample
Saudimodern
Arabiahouses in Saudi Arabia.
Saudi Arabia is a large country with an area of 2.3 million square kilometres and a land elevation
that
Saudi
3. varies
Arabia
Climatic from is 0–3000
Zones aand
large m above
country
Solar Energythe
withmean
in seaArabia
an area
Saudi level
of 2.3[57]. With square
million such a large land area
kilometres andand variation
a land elevation
with regards to sea level, different parts of the country have distinctive
that varies from 0 to 3000 m above the mean sea level [57]. With such a large land area and variation climatic features, as are clearly
Saudi Arabia
noticeable is
toaday
largelife.
country with an areaSaudiof 2.3 million square kilometres and aclimatically
land elevation
with that
regards
variestoinseaday
from level,
0–3000 different
m above
Over
parts
the
the
of years,
mean theseacountry
level
Arabia
have
[57]. With
has been
distinctive
such a
regionalized
climatic
large land features,
area andpartas areby
variationclearly
scientific and administrative bodies in several ways; it has been classified individually, of the
noticeable
with in daytoto day life. Overparts
the of years, Saudihave Arabia has been regionalized asclimatically by
Gulf regards
Cooperation seaCouncil
level, different
(GCC) Countries, thepart
country
of the Arabdistinctive
World andclimatic
part of thefeatures,
Middle are clearly
East North
scientific and administrative
noticeable in day to day bodies
life. Over intheseveral
years, ways;
Saudi it has been
Arabia has classified
been individually,
regionalized partbyof the
climatically
Africa (MENA) region [58]. The majority of these classifications described the country either as a
Gulf scientific
Cooperation
desert or and Council
arid administrative
region (i.e.,(GCC) Countries,
bodies
as one in several
or two partways;
climatic ofzones).
theitArab
has World
been and part
classified
Köppen-Geiger, of the Middle
forindividually,
example, haspart East
of theNorth
classified
Gulf
Africathe Cooperation
(MENA)
countryregion Council
into two [58]. (GCC) Countries,
The majority
climatic part
of thesethe
zones, including of the Arab
classifications World
desert cold arid and
described part
zone inthe of the Middle
thecountry East North
eitherregion
southwestern as a desert
Africa
or arid the(MENA)
andregion (i.e., region
remaining asasone [58]. The
or two
a desert majority
arid zoneof
hotclimatic these
zones).
[59]. Thisclassifications
Köppen-Geiger, described
simple description for the country
example,
is misleading, as either
has as a the
itclassified
conceals
desert
country or
into two
significant arid region
climatic
climatic (i.e., as one or
zones, including
differences two climatic
amongst various the desertzones).
regions Köppen-Geiger,
cold arid
of the for example, has
zone in the southwestern region and
country. classified
the country
Said et into
al. two climatic
classifies the zones,into
country including
six the desert
climatic zones cold
[60]. arid
Given zone
the infactthe
thatsouthwestern region
the EmptyasQuarter
the remaining as a desert hot arid zone [59]. This simple description is misleading, it conceals
and
is anthe remainingregion;
uninhabited as a desert hot arid zone
fiveamongst
locations are [59]. This
selected simple description
as representative of theisfive
misleading, as it conceals
habited climatic zones:
significant climatic differences various regions of the country.
significant
Dhahran, climatic
Guriat, differences
Riyadh, amongst
Jeddah and various
Khamis regions
Mushait. of the
Figure country.
Said et al.etclassifies thethecountry
countryinto six
sixclimatic zones [60].6Given
and
GivenTable
thethe
1 show
factfact
thethe
thatthat
representative
Empty Quarter
citiesSaid
and the al.climatic
classifiescharacteristics into
of these climatic
climatic zones [60].
zones. the Empty Quarter
is an is
uninhabited region; five locations are selected as representative of the five
an uninhabited region; five locations are selected as representative of the five habited climatic zones: habited climatic zones:
Dhahran, Guriat, Riyadh, Jeddah and Khamis Mushait. Figure 6 and
Dhahran, Guriat, Riyadh, Jeddah and Khamis Mushait. Figure 6 and Table 1 show the representative Table 1 show the representative
citiescities
and andthe climatic
the climatic characteristics
characteristicsofofthesetheseclimatic zones.
climatic zones.

Figure 6. The climatic zones in Saudi Arabia [60].

Table 1. Climatic parameters for the represented locations [61].

Figure 6. The climatic zones in Saudi Arabia [60].
Figure 6. The climatic zones
Geographic Coordinates in Saudi Arabia [60]. Relative Humidity
Air Temperature
Location Latitude Longitude Elevation Minimum Maximum Mean Minimum Maximum Mean
(°N) Table
(°E) 1. Climatic
(m) parameters
(°C) for the represented
(°C) locations
(°C) [61].
(%) (%) (%)
Table 1. Climatic parameters for the represented locations [61].
Dhahran 26.3 50.1
Geographic Coordinates 22 5.0 45.7
Air Temperature 25.8 19 Relative Humidity
99 57
Guriat
Location 31.3
Latitude 37.4
Longitude 502
Elevation -3.3
Minimum 43.9
Maximum 19.8
Mean 12
Minimum 100
Maximum 40
Mean
Riyadh 24.7 Geographic
46.8 Coordinates
583 2.2 Air Temperature
43.7 25.1 10 Relative91Humidity32
(°N) (° E) (m) (°C) (°C) (°C) (%) (%) (%)
Location
Jeddah 21.5Latitude 50.1
Longitude 33
39.2 Elevation 13.9
Minimum Maximum41.7 Mean
27.9 Minimum
37 Maximum
100 Mean
65
Dhahran 26.3 22 5.0 45.7 25.8 19 99 57
Khamis (◦ N) (◦ E) (m) (◦ C) (◦ C) (◦ C) (%) (%) (%)
Guriat 31.3
18.3 37.4
42.7 502
2051 -3.3
2.7 43.9
34.3 19.8
18.9 12
17 100 40
51
Mushait
Dhahran
Riyadh 24.7 26.3 46.8 50.1 583 22 2.2 5.0 45.7
43.7 25.8
25.1 10 19 9199 32 57
Guriat
Jeddah 21.5 31.3 39.2 37.4 33 502 13.9-3.3 43.9
41.7 19.8
27.9 37 12 100 100 65 40
Riyadh
Khamis 24.7 46.8 583 2.2 43.7 25.1 10 91 32
Jeddah 18.3 21.5 42.7 39.2 2051 33 2.7 13.9 34.3
41.7 18.9
27.9 17 37 100 100 51 65
Mushait
Khamis Mushait 18.3 42.7 2051 2.7 34.3 18.9 17 100 51
Buildings 2017, 7, 17 7 of 19

Buildings 2017, 7, 17 7 of 20
Saudi Arabia has a healthy potential for renewable energy, especially solar energy. The geographic
location of Saudi
SaudiArabia
Arabia is
hasideal for harnessing
a healthy potential for solar energy.energy,
renewable According to the
especially Saudi
solar Solar
energy. TheRadiation
Atlas, thegeographic
countrylocation
annually receives
of Saudi Arabiaaround
is ideal for3245 sunshine
harnessing hours According
solar energy. accounting for
to the an Solar
Saudi annual solar
radiationRadiation
figure of Atlas,
overthe2200
countrykWh/m 2 receives
annually [62]. Inaround 3245climatic
the five sunshinezones
hours accounting
of Saudi for an annual
Arabia, the weather
solar radiation figure of over 2200 kWh/m2 [62]. In the five climatic zones of Saudi Arabia, the weather
records have shown that the annual global solar radiation level ranges from 1715 kWh/m2 (in2 Dhahran) to
records have shown that the annual global solar radiation level ranges from 1715 kWh/m (in
2275 kWh/m 2 (in Jeddah), while the number of sunshine hours varies from 2698 (in Khamis Mushait) to
Dhahran) to 2275 kWh/m2 (in Jeddah), while the number of sunshine hours varies from 2698 (in
3397 (in Riyadh) [61]. Thetomonthly
Khamis Mushait) data showed
3397 (in Riyadh) that
[61]. The the solar
monthly dataradiation level
showed that thevaries 170 kWh/m2
betweenlevel
solar radiation
variesand
(in Dhahran) between
250 170 kWh/m
kWh/m 2 2(in
(in Guriat)
Dhahran)during
and 250thekWh/m months and between 90 kWh/m2 (in
2 (in Guriat) during the summer months
summer
and between 90 kWh/m
2 2 (in Guriat) to 190 kWh/m2 (in Khamis Mushait) during the winter months
Guriat) to 190 kWh/m (in Khamis Mushait) during the winter months (see Figure 7). The monthly
(see Figure 7). The monthly sunshine hours were observed to vary from 165 (in Khamis Mushait) to
sunshine383hours were observed to vary from 165 (in Khamis Mushait) to 383 (in Riyadh) during the
(in Riyadh) during the summer months and from 181 (in Guriat) to 236 (in Riyadh) during the
summer months and from
winter months 181 (in
(see Figure 7). Guriat) to 236 (in Riyadh) during the winter months (see Figure 7).

Dhahran Guriat Riyadh Dhahran Guriat Riyadh

Jeddah Khamis Mushait Jeddah Khamis Mushait
Monthly Average for Global Solar Radiation (kWh/m2)

Monthly Average for Sunshine Duration (hr/month)

300 450
400
250
350

200 300
250
150
200
100 150
100
50
50
0 0
AUG

NOV
JAN

MAR

JUN

JUL

DEC
FEB

APR

MAY

SEP

OCT

DEC
JAN

FEB

JUL

OCT

NOV
MAR

APR

MAY

JUN

AUG

SEP
Month Month

Figure 7.Figure 7. The monthly

The monthly global
global solar
solar radiation in
radiation in the
thefive
fivemain
mainclimatic zoneszones
climatic of Saudi
of Arabia
Saudi[61].
Arabia [61].
In order to examine the electricity generation from solar photovoltaics (PV), a sensitivity analysis
was applied
In order using the
to examine hypothetical PVgeneration
electricity ratings in allfrom
locations.
solarThe used software
photovoltaics to achieve
(PV), that is analysis
a sensitivity
Integrated Environmental Solutions <Virtual Environment> (IES <VE>). The
was applied using hypothetical PV ratings in all locations. The used software to achieve selected type of PV that is
system is monocrystalline with 15% nominal efficiency. The results showed that the annual electricity
Integrated Environmental Solutions <Virtual Environment> (IES <VE>). The selected type of PV
generation from 1.0 kW PV is between 1400 kWh/m2 and 2000 kWh/m2 depending on the location
system is(see
monocrystalline
Figure 8). with 15% nominal efficiency. The results showed that the annual electricity
generation from 1.0 kW PV is between 1400 kWh/m2 and 2000 kWh/m2 depending on the location
(see Figure 8). 2017, 7, 17
Buildings 8 of 20

Solar Photovoltaic
Dhahran Guriat
Riyadh Jeddah
Khamis Mushait
Annual Electricity Generation (kWh/m2)

45,000

40,000

35,000

30,000

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

0
0 5 10 15 20
PV rating (kW)

Figure Figure
8. The8.electricity
The electricity generation from various solar PVs for all locations.
generation from various solar PVs for all locations.
4. The Study Models
The present work aims to examine the energy performance of some vernacular construction
techniques and material in the five Saudi climatic zones. In a previous work, the authors explored,
through a questionnaire survey, the attractiveness of some vernacular techniques that were
employed in Saudi vernacular houses to the Saudi nationals [63]. The results of this work revealed
that courtyard and mushrabiyah are the most attractive vernacular techniques to the participants in
Buildings 2017, 7, 17 8 of 19

4. The Study Models

The present work aims to examine the energy performance of some vernacular construction
techniques and material in the five Saudi climatic zones. In a previous work, the authors explored,
through a questionnaire survey, the attractiveness of some vernacular techniques that were employed
in Saudi vernacular houses to the Saudi nationals [63]. The results of this work revealed that courtyard
and mushrabiyah are the most attractive vernacular techniques to the participants in comparison
to other techniques like dome structure and cooling towers [63]. Thus, the current work concerns
examining the energy performance of the courtyard and mushrabiyah adapted in a modern Saudi
dwelling. The courtyard is a vernacular technique that has been used in Arabian Gulf and Najd types;
while mushrabiyah has been employed as a vernacular technique in the Hejaz type. In addition, the
adobe construction was selected for this work as the main construction material due to the better
thermal performance in comparison to other vernacular construction materials used in Saudi Arabia.
It was the main construction material for walls, floors and roofs within all vernacular types in Saudi
Arabia. In order to examine these techniques and material, a virtual (base) house was modelled in
all concerned locations using IES <VE>. The weather files used in the simulation were extracted
from Meteonorm 5.1. Meteonorm generates hourly time series for the desired location on the basis of
well-validated models and data banks of tens of years [61].

4.1. Base Model

The base house in this study was designed on the basis of a detailed questionnaire survey that
was undertaken to determine the aspired dwelling in Saudi Arabia. The participants were selected
randomly from different regions covering all climatic zones in Saudi Arabia. Survey participants
were asked about the type, size, number of floors and functional spaces of their possible future
(inspired) dwelling. The survey was conducted between December 2011 and February 2012 employing
web-based and in-person approaches. A total of 453 responses were received from dwelling users
employing web-based and in-person approaches. The majority of the questionnaire survey participants
have chosen their targeted future home to be a two-storey detached house (villa) with a total site area
between 400 m2 and 600 m2 . It consists of a master bedroom, three regular bedrooms, four bathrooms
and toilets, two guestrooms (one each for men and women), two kitchens (one internal and the other
is external), a living room, a dining room, an office, a multi-purpose room, a laundry and storage.
Some of the main features of the designed home are highlighted in Figure 9 and Table 2.

Table 2. Key features of the base house.

House Feature Description

Ground Floor Area 214.1 m2
First Floor Area 214.1 m2
Total Glazed Area 55.2 m2
Total External wall Area 446.8 m2
Total Roof Area 228.1 m2
Lettable Area 76%
Circulation Area 24%
Window-to-Wall Ratio (WWR) 10%
Construction Materials
(25 mm Stucco + 75 mm Concrete Block + 50 mm Polystyrene + 75 mm Concrete Block +
External Wall
25 mm Stucco) U-Value = 0.49 W/m2 ·K
Internal Wall (25 mm Stucco + 100 mm Concrete Block + 25 mm Stucco) U-Value = 2.50 W/m2 ·K
(25 mm Terrazzo + 25 mm Mortar + 4 mm Bitumen Layer + 150 mm Cast Concrete +
Roof
200 mm Concrete Block + 25 mm Stucco + 15 mm Gypsum Board) U-Value = 1.74 W/m2 ·K
(20 mm Granite + 25 mm Mortar + 150 mm Cast Concrete + 200 mm Concrete Block +
Ceiling
25 mm Stucco + 15 mm Gypsum Board) U-Value = 1.57 W/m2 ·K
Ground Floor (15 mm Granite + 25 mm Mortar + 100 mm Cast Concrete) U-Value = 0.48 W/m2 ·K
Windows Aluminium Window with thermal break, U-Value = 3.43 W/m2 ·K
External Doors External Door (Aluminium Door—Aluminium frame with thermal break) U-Value = 6.42 W/m2 ·K
Internal Doors Internal Door (40 mm Wooden door) U-Value = 2.60 W/m2 ·K
Buildings 2017, 7, 17 9 of 19

Table 2. Cont.

Systems
HVAC System Min. Flow rate = 8 L/s/person for Mini Split System
Tungsten Halogen Lamps at (Bathrooms, Toilets, and Kitchens), and
Lighting System
Compact Fluorescent Lamps at (All other Spaces)
Domestic Hot Water 190 litter (90% Delivery Efficiency)
Auxiliary ventilation Kitchen = 50 L/s, Toilets and bathrooms = 25 L/s
Kitchen Appliances Maximum Power Consumption = 30 W/m2 [64]
Living Zone Appliances Maximum Power Consumption = 7 W/m2 [64]
Sleeping Zone Appliances Maximum Power Consumption = 7 W/m2 [64]
Guest Zone Appliances Maximum Power Consumption = 5 W/m2 [64]
Heating Simulation set-point 20.0 ◦ C
Cooling Simulation set-point 24.0 ◦ C
Buildings 2017, 7, 17 9 of 20

Figure
Figure 9.
9. Model
Model and
and floor
floor plans
plans for
for the
the base
base house.
house.

Table 2. Key features of the base house.

The base house designed in this work was modelled in the five climatic zones of Saudi Arabia.
Since theHouse Feature performance of buildings is influencedDescription
electricity by their orientation, the modelled home
Ground Floor Area 214.1 m2
was simulated at each location for eight different orientations covering the 360◦ compass range in
First Floor Area 214.1 m2
steps ofTotal◦
45 Glazed
. The orientation was optimized on the basis of the55.2minimum annual household electricity
Area m2
requirement. Generally, the orientation of buildings is found to influence the electricity performance
Total External wall Area 446.8 m 2

Total Roof
of dwellings Areathan 0.5%. The optimum orientation was found
by less 228.1 m2to be the north, similar to Figure 9,
Lettable Area 76%
for all locations, except for Jeddah, where it is found to be the east. The simulation results revealed
Circulation Area 24%
that Dhahran and
Window-to-Wall Jeddah
Ratio (WWR) are the most challenging locations in 10%terms of annual electricity demand
and the peak power demand due to their higher air
Construction temperature and relative humidity especially
Materials
External Wall (25 mm Stucco + 75 mm Concrete Block + 50 mm Polystyrene + 75 mm Concrete Block
+ 25 mm Stucco) U-Value = 0.49 W/m2·K
Internal Wall (25 mm Stucco + 100 mm Concrete Block + 25 mm Stucco) U-Value = 2.50 W/m2·K
Roof (25 mm Terrazzo + 25 mm Mortar + 4 mm Bitumen Layer + 150 mm Cast Concrete +
200 mm Concrete Block + 25 mm Stucco + 15 mm Gypsum Board) U-Value = 1.74 W/m2·K
Ceiling (20 mm Granite + 25 mm Mortar + 150 mm Cast Concrete + 200 mm Concrete Block +
25 mm Stucco + 15 mm Gypsum Board) U-Value = 1.57 W/m2·K
was
was simulated
simulated at at each
each location
location for
for eight
eight different
different orientations
orientations covering
covering the
the 360°
360°compass
compass range
range in in
steps
stepsofof45°.45°.The
Theorientation
orientationwas wasoptimized
optimizedon onthe thebasis
basisof ofthe
theminimum
minimumannual
annualhousehold
householdelectricity
electricity
requirement.
requirement.Generally,
Generally,the theorientation
orientationof ofbuildings
buildingsisisfound foundto toinfluence
influencethetheelectricity
electricityperformance
performance
of
ofdwellings
dwellingsby byless
lessthan
than0.5%.
0.5%.The
Theoptimum
optimumorientation
orientationwas wasfound
foundto tobe
bethe
thenorth,
north,similar
similartotoFigure
Figure9,9,
for
forall
all locations,
Buildings 2017, 7, 17 except
locations, exceptfor forJeddah,
Jeddah, where
where itit isis found
foundto tobebethe
the east.
east. The
The simulation
simulationresults
results revealed
revealed
10 of 19
that
that Dhahran
Dhahran and and Jeddah
Jeddah areare the
the most
most challenging
challenging locations
locations in in terms
terms of
of annual
annual electricity
electricity demand
demand
and
and the
the peakpeak power
power demand
demand due due to
to their
their higher
higher air air temperature
temperature and and relative
relative humidity
humidity especially
especially
during
during
duringthe the summer
thesummer months
summermonthsmonths(see(see Figures
(seeFigures
Figures1010 and
10and
and11). 11). The
11).The simulation
Thesimulation results
simulationresults revealed
resultsrevealed that
revealedthat the
thatthe annual
theannual
annual
electricity demand for houses in Dhahran, Guriat, Riyadh, Jeddah and Khamis Mushait is 129 kWh/m 2
electricity
electricity demand
demand for for houses
houses in in Dhahran,
Dhahran, Guriat,
Guriat, Riyadh,
Riyadh, Jeddah
Jeddah andand Khamis
Khamis Mushait 129,
Mushait isis 129
91 kWh/m 2 , 112 kWh/m2 , 165 kWh/m2 and 60 kWh/m2 , respectively.
kWh/m
kWh/m 22,,91
91kWh/m
kWh/m22,,112
112kWh/m
kWh/m22,,165
165kWh/m
kWh/m22and and6060kWh/m
kWh/m22,,respectively.
respectively.
Dhahran
Dhahran Guriat
Guriat Riyadh
Riyadh
Jeddah
Jeddah Khamis
KhamisMushait
Mushait
99

(MWh)
consumption (MWh)
88

electricity consumption 77

66

55
Monthly electricity

44

33

22
Monthly

11

00
JAN

JUN

JUL
MAY

AUG

NOV
MAR

DEC
OCT
FEB

APR

SEP
JAN

JUN

JUL
MAY

AUG

NOV
MAR

DEC
OCT
FEB

APR

SEP
Month
Month

Figure
Figure 10.10.Monthly
10. Monthlyelectricity
Monthly electricity consumption
consumptionfor
forthe
the base
base house
house based
based on
on the
theoptimum
the optimumorientation
optimum orientationin
orientation in
in
the
the five
fiveclimatic
five climaticzones.
climatic zones.
zones.

45
45

40
40
(kW)
demand (kW)

35
35
power demand

30
30

25
25
peak power

20
20
Annaul peak

15
15
Annaul

10
10

55

00
Dhahran
Dhahran Guriat
Guriat Riyadh
Riyadh Jeddah
Jeddah Khamis
Khamis
Mushait
Mushait
Location
Location

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Annual
11.Annual peak power
Annualpeak power demandfor
powerdemand for the
the base
base house
house based on
housebased on the
the optimum
theoptimum orientation
optimumorientation in the
orientationin the
five
five climatic
fiveclimatic zones.
climaticzones.
zones.

Before undertaking the investigation, the electricity performance of the base house was compared
with measured electricity values gathered from 20 dwellings that were similar to the base house in
terms of air-conditioning (A/C) system, thermal insulation, type of windows and energy source for
cooking. The electricity data for these homes, located in the Dhahran Zone, were obtained from their
monthly electricity bills for period between January 2012 and December 2012. Dhahran is a main
representative city in the Eastern Province, which has the highest maximum temperature among all
climatic zones (see Table 1). The Eastern Province is a vital region in Saudi Arabia because of its large
land area, accounting for almost one third of the entire country. Due to its harsh weather conditions,
it is one of the most challenging areas in Saudi Arabia in terms of residential electricity demand as
indicated in Figures 10 and 11. The annual electricity consumption for the base house in Dhahran
was found to be 129 kWh/m2 , which is in close proximity with the average for the 20 dwellings in
the same location; the mean and median electricity consumption values for the survey dwellings
Buildings 2017, 7, 17 11 of 19

are 147 kWh/m2 and 137 kWh/m2 , respectively (see Table 3). In terms of the monthly electricity
consumption, the findings of this study have shown a clear correlation between the values for the
base house and the surveyed dwellings in most of the months (see Figure 12). However, the monthly
electricity consumption for the surveyed dwellings is a bit higher during the cold season, and this
could be because the winter in 2012 was colder in comparison to the extracted weather file from
Meteonorm 5.1 [65].

Table 3. Conditioned area and electricity consumption for the base and surveyed houses.

Conditioned Area Electricity Consumption Electricity Consumption

House
(m2 ) (kWh/Year) (kWh/m2 /Year)
Base 428 55,222 129
1 180 23,434 130
2 180 14,986 83
3 180 22,789 127
4 80 14,031 175
5 400 71,763 179
6 460 68,886 150
7 100 13,649 137
8 175 30,536 175
9 80 9770 122
10 360 63,196 176
11 400 47,394 119
12 135 19,963 148
13 125 23,491 188
14 120 15,202 127
15 200 54,983 275
16 110 15,202 138
17 130 21,356 164
18 240 29,069 121
19 365 43,031 118
Buildings 2017, 7,20
17 150 12,401 83 12 of 20

Base House Surveyed Houses

22
Monthly Electricity Consumption (kWh/m²)

20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Month

Figure12.
Figure 12. Monthly
Monthly electricity
electricityconsumption
consumptionfor
forthe
thebase
basehouse
houseand
andsurveyed
surveyedhouses.
houses.

4.2. Courtyard
4.2. CourtyardModel
Model
Thebase
The basehouse
houseinin this
this study
study was
was adapted
adapted withwith an internal
an internal courtyard
courtyard thata floor
that has has aarea
floor
ofarea
16 mof
2,
16shown
as m , as in
2 shown
Figurein13.
Figure
This13.
hasThis has revealed
revealed a decreasing
a decreasing in the
in the house house
floor floor
area, roofarea,
area roof
and area and
external
external walls area by 7.5%, 6% and 22%, respectively. On the other hand, through
walls area by 7.5%, 6% and 22%, respectively. On the other hand, through incorporating 38 m of incorporating
2
38 m2 of area
window window area
to the to the courtyard,
courtyard, the housethe house window-to-wall
window-to-wall ratio has increased
ratio has increased by 2%. by 2%.
 4.2. Courtyard Model
The base house in this study was adapted with an internal courtyard that has a floor area of
16 m2, as shown in Figure 13. This has revealed a decreasing in the house floor area, roof area and
Buildings 7, 17 area by 7.5%, 6% and 22%, respectively. On the other hand, through incorporating
2017,walls
external 12 of 19
38 m2 of window area to the courtyard, the house window-to-wall ratio has increased by 2%.

Figure 13. Floor plans and 3D isometric view of the base house after incorporating the courtyard.
Figure 13. Floor plans and 3D isometric view of the base house after incorporating the courtyard.

4.3. Mushrabiyah Model

Buildings 2017, 7, 17 13 of 20

Subsequently, all windows in the typical house were featured with mushrabiyah, as indicated
4.3. Mushrabiyah Model
in Figure 14. Mushrabiyah is an efficient passive design feature that controls the passage of air
Subsequently, all windows in the typical house were featured with mushrabiyah, as indicated
current to reduce temperature, as it reduces the reflected heat and solar radiation and allows air to
in Figure 14. Mushrabiyah is an efficient passive design feature that controls the passage of air current
pass through freely [52]. Its role towards reducing electricity demand can be understood from the
to reduce temperature, as it reduces the reflected heat and solar radiation and allows air to pass
control through
of direct solar
freely radiation
[52]. on windows
Its role towards reducingand the help
electricity demandin utilising both daylighting
can be understood and natural
from the control
ventilation. It controls
of direct the on
solar radiation passage
windows of and
direct lights
the help and reduces
in utilising the air temperature.
both daylighting Additionally,
and natural ventilation.
It controls the
the mushrabiyah passage
was of directused
originally lightsas
andareduces
water the air temperature.
drinking Additionally,
place; therefore, the mushrabiyah
it has the ability also of
was originally
increasing the humidity. used as a water drinking place; therefore, it has the ability also of increasing the
humidity.

Figure 14. 3D isometric of the base house featured with mushrabiyahs.

Figure 14. 3D isometric of the base house featured with mushrabiyahs.
4.4. Adobe Construction Model
Furthermore, adobe construction has been chosen for this study due to better thermal
performance in comparison to the stone [49]. Tables 4 and 5 provide the thermal properties of the
adobe construction and the materials used in adobe construction.

Table 4. Thermal properties of the materials used in adobe construction.

Buildings 2017, 7, 17 13 of 19

4.4. Adobe Construction Model

Furthermore, adobe construction has been chosen for this study due to better thermal performance
in comparison to the stone [49]. Tables 4 and 5 provide the thermal properties of the adobe construction
and the materials used in adobe construction.

Table 4. Thermal properties of the materials used in adobe construction.

Thickness Conductivity Density Specific Heat Capacity

Material Source
(m) (W/(m·K)) (kg/m3 ) (J/(kg·K))
Adobe wall 0.500 0.730 1650 1000 [66]
Adobe roof/slab 0.300 0.730 1650 1000 [66]
Adobe with straw 0.025 0.180 440 900 [67]
Palm tree fronds-mat 0.015 0.166 600 1200 [68]

Table 5. Description and U-Values for the adobe construction systems.

System Description
(4 mm bitumen layer + 300 mm adobe roof + 15 mm palm tree fronds-mat +
Roof
15 mm gypsum board) U-Value = 1.35 W/m2 ·K
(25 mm adobe with Straw + 500 mm adobe wall + 25 mm Adobe with straw)
External wall
U-Value = 0.90 W/m2 ·K
Slab on-grade (20 mm granite + 25 mm mortar + 300 mm adobe slab) U-Value = 0.41 W/m2 ·K
(25 mm adobe with Straw + 500 mm adobe wall + 25 mm adobe with Straw)
Internal wall
U-Value = 0.83 W/m2 ·K
(20 mm granite + 25 mm mortar + 300 mm adobe slab + 15 mm Palm tree
Internal floor/ceiling
fronds-mat + 15 mm gypsum board) U-Value = 1.18 W/m2 ·K

5. Results
The simulation results of adapting the base house with a courtyard revealed an increase of annual
electricity demand in all of the examined locations (see Table 6). However, the mushrabiyah house has
shown savings in demand for electricity on an annual basis in comparison to the base and courtyard
houses within all locations (see Table 6). Similarly, the adobe construction house has shown more
savings in demand for electricity compared to all of the developed models, as indicated in Table 6.

Table 6. The annual electricity demand in kWh/m2 .

Location Base Courtyard Mushrabiyah Adobe Construction

Dhahran 129 136 125 123
Guriat 92 95 90 87
Riyadh 112 118 109 106
Jeddah 165 175 158 158
Khamis Mushait 60 61 59 58

The simulated monthly electricity consumptions for the adapted models (i.e., courtyard,
mushrabiayah and adobe construction) in each of the climatic zones are shown in Figure 15. It is clear that,
in every case, the base model with modern construction showed higher demand for electricity during at
least part of the year in comparison to houses with mushrabiyah and adobe construction. In particular,
adapting the house with either mushrabiayah or adobe construction has shown a reduction in the demand
for electricity during the summer months from May–September (see Figure 15). Mushrabiyahs have
contributed to reducing the annual electricity demand by between 1% and 4% in Khamis Mushait and
Jeddah, respectively, while adobe construction has helped in reducing the electricity demand by 3%–6%
in Khamis Mushait and Riyadh, respectively (see Table 6 and Figure 16). The simulation results revealed
that, due to the extreme hot climates of the examined locations, the courtyard has increased the annual
electricity demand by around 4% in all locations with the exception of Khamis Mushait, the location with
Buildings 2017, 7, 17 14 of 19

the lowest annual electricity demand, where the results have shown a clear correlation for the monthly
electricity demand between the base and courtyard houses (see Table 6, Figures 15 and 16). In terms of
the peak power demand, the results revealed that mushrabiyah can contribute to reducing the demand
by around 3% in all locations while adobe construction can reduce the demand by between 5% in
DhahranBuildings
to 19% in Khamis Mushait (see Table 7). In fact, the energy reductions from these
2017, 7, 17
vernacular
15 of 20
techniques and construction materials are mainly associated with the demand for lighting and HVAC
systems. In particular, the adaptation of mushrabiyah
Table 8. The annual intoload
demand for HVAC thein base
kWh/mhouse
2.
has shown a reduction
in the HVAC load by almost 4%–6%
Location Basein all locations;Mushrabiyah
Courtyard however, the adaptation of adobe construction
Adobe Construction
has shown a reduction between 6%
Dhahran in Jeddah
84.47 92.34to 13% in80.80
Khamis Mushait78.22 for the HVAC system (see
Table 8). Additionally, Guriat 47.02of the52.12
the adaptation 45.33
courtyard has reduced the demand42.04 for lighting by 8% in
all locations. On the other hand, the courtyard has contributed to increasing61.17
Riyadh 67.60 74.70 64.91 the demand for the HVAC
Jeddah 120.79 131.52 113.90 113.56
system between 9% in Jeddah to 11% in Khamis Mushait (see Table 8).
Khamis Mushait 15.80 17.55 14.94 13.71

(a) Dhahran (b) Guriat

Base Courtyard Base Courtyard
Mushrabiyah Adobe construction 22 Mushrabiyah Adobe construction
22
Monthly Electricity Demand (kWh/m²)

Monthly Electricity Demand (kWh/m²)

20
20
18 18
16 16
14 14
12 12
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
AUG

NOV
JAN

MAR

DEC
JUN

JUL
FEB

APR

MAY

SEP

OCT

JAN

JUL

DEC
MAY

JUN

AUG

OCT

NOV
FEB

MAR

APR

SEP
Month Month
(c) Riyadh (d) Jeddah
Base Courtyard Base Courtyard
Mushrabiyah Adobe construction Mushrabiyah Adobe construction
22 22
20
Monthly Electricity Demand (kWh/m²)

Monthly Electricity Demand (kWh/m²)

20
18 18
16 16
14 14
12 12
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
JAN

JUN

JUL

DEC
AUG

OCT

NOV
FEB

MAR

APR

MAY

SEP

DEC
JAN

JUN

JUL

AUG

OCT

NOV
FEB

MAR

APR

MAY

SEP

Month Month

(e) Khamis Mushait

Base Courtyard
Mushrabiyah Adobe construction
22
Monthly Electricity Demand (kWh/m²)

20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
AUG

NOV

DEC
JAN

JUN

JUL
FEB

MAR

APR

MAY

SEP

OCT

Month

Figure
Figure 15. 15. annual
The The annual electricity
electricity performance of
performance of the
the base,
base,courtyard, mushrabiyah
courtyard, and adobe
mushrabiyah and adobe
construction houses in (a) Dhahran; (b) Guriat; (c) Riyadh; (d) Jeddah; and (e) Khamis Mushait.
construction houses in (a) Dhahran; (b) Guriat; (c) Riyadh; (d) Jeddah; and (e) Khamis Mushait.
Buildings 2017, 7, 17 15 of 19
Buildings 2017, 7, 17 16 of 20

Mushrabiyah Courtyard Adobe Construction

6%

The percentage of the annual saving in

5%
4%
3%

electricity demand
2%
1%
0%
-1%
-2%
-3%
-4%
-5%
-6%
Dhahran Guriat Riyadh Jeddah Khamis
Mushait
Location

Figure16.
Figure 16.The
Theannually
annuallysaved
savedelectricity
electricitybybyadapting
adapting vernacular
vernacular techniques
techniques and
and adobe
adobe construction
construction in
in all locations.
all locations.

6. Discussion and Conclusions

Table 7. The annual peak power demand in W/m2 .
Given the energy and environmental challenges, residential buildings can play a significant role
Location Base Courtyard Mushrabiyah Adobe Construction
in improving the situation. Due to their high temperatures, deserts are among the most challenging
Dhahran
regions when 85.6
it comes to residential energy 90.1
consumption. In this 83.2study, Saudi Arabia81.7 was undertaken
Guriat 57.6 60.4 56.0 51.5
as an example
Riyadh
as it can represent
62.5
various desert
65.2
climatic zones. The
61.0
selected locations57.8
that represent
the Saudi Jeddah
climatic zones in this 90.6study are Dhahran, 95.4 Guriat, Riyadh,
88.5 Jeddah and Khamis 82.4 Mushait. The
SaudiKhamis
residential
Mushaitsector suffers 36.3 from high 37.2 demand for electricity 35.5 to meet the comfort 29.4 and life style
needs for residents. Therefore, it is crucial to consider sustainable energy concepts in this sector, and
the application of ZEHsTable can 8.beThean annual
optiondemand
in this forrespect.
HVAC Vernacular
load in kWh/m 2.
construction techniques and
materials have traditionally been used in this part of the world, though they have ceased to be
employed Location
in the wake of Base the modern Courtyardconstruction boom Mushrabiyah
in recent decades. Adobe Construction
This study aims to
investigate the role of courtyard,
Dhahran 84.47 mushrabiyah 92.34 and adobe construction
80.80 in developing 78.22 ZEHs in all
Guriatof Saudi Arabia.
climatic zones 47.02 52.12 45.33 42.04
Riyadh 67.60 74.70 64.91 61.17
The comparison for the three models (courtyard, mushrabiyah and adobe construction) with the
Jeddah 120.79 131.52 113.90 113.56
base model
Khamisfor each location15.80
Mushait in this study is17.55 based on two parameters:14.94 the annual electricity
13.71 demand,
as a measure of energy efficiency, and the maximum power demand, as an important parameter in
designing the renewable technologies for any ZEH. It was observed from this study that the annual
6. Discussion and Conclusions
electricity consumption for houses in Dhahran, Guriat, Riyadh, Jeddah and Khamis Mushait is 129
kWh/mGiven
2, 91the energy
kWh/m 2, and environmental
112 kWh/m challenges,
2, 165 kWh/m 2 and residential
60 kWh/m2buildings can play
, respectively. Thisaleads
significant
to therole
fact
in improving
that the situation.
the household Duedemand
electricity to their highneeds temperatures,
to be reduced deserts are amongespecially
significantly, the most in challenging
Dhahran,
regions
Riyadhwhen it comesastoitresidential
and Jeddah, is higher than energytheconsumption.
international In this study,values
benchmark Saudifor Arabia
ZEH,was undertaken
which is about
as an example
90 kWh/m . 2 as it can represent various desert climatic zones. The selected locations that represent
the Saudi climaticof
The findings zones in this
this work study
have are Dhahran,
showed electricityGuriat,
savingsRiyadh, Jeddah and
by the adaptation of Khamis
mushrabiyahMushait.
and
The Saudi residential sector suffers from high demand for electricity
adobe construction material in a modern Saudi dwelling in terms of total electricity demand and to meet the comfort and life
style needs for residents. Therefore, it is crucial to consider sustainable
maximum power demand. The use of mushrabiyah can contribute in reducing the electricity demand energy concepts in this sector,
and
and the application
maximum power of demand
ZEHs can bybe upan to option
4% andin 3%,this respect. Vernacular
respectively. The findings construction
also revealedtechniques
that the
and materials have traditionally been used in this part of the world,
mushrabiyahs could save up to 6% of the HVAC load. Interestingly, the maximum electricity saving though they have ceased to
be
byemployed
mushrabiyah in thewas wake of the in
observed modern
Jeddah, construction
where it is boom in recent
an aspect of itsdecades.
vernacular This study
type. aimsistoa
Adobe
investigate the role sustainable
thermally-efficient, of courtyard, and mushrabiyah
durable material and adobe
widelyconstruction in developing
available locally. ZEHs ineasy
It is inexpensive, all
climatic zones of Saudi Arabia.
to produce and requires fewer manufacturing skills and less production energy compared to the
The comparison
currently widely-used for the three models
construction (courtyard,
materials (i.e., mushrabiyah
concrete andand adobeParticularly,
steel). construction) with
the the
adobe
base model for each location in this study is based on two parameters:
construction can reduce the annual electricity demand and peak power demand by up to 6% and 19%, the annual electricity demand,
as a measure Itofcan
respectively. energy efficiency,
also reduce and theload
the HVAC maximum
by up topower
13%. demand, as an important parameter
in designing the renewable
The simulation results technologies
revealed that,for dueanytoZEH. It wasweather
the harsh observed from thisofstudy
conditions that the
the examined
locations, the courtyard has increased the annual electricity demand by around 4% in all locations
Buildings 2017, 7, 17 16 of 19

annual electricity consumption for houses in Dhahran, Guriat, Riyadh, Jeddah and Khamis Mushait is
129 kWh/m2 , 91 kWh/m2 , 112 kWh/m2 , 165 kWh/m2 and 60 kWh/m2 , respectively. This leads to the
fact that the household electricity demand needs to be reduced significantly, especially in Dhahran,
Riyadh and Jeddah, as it is higher than the international benchmark values for ZEH, which is about
90 kWh/m2 .
The findings of this work have showed electricity savings by the adaptation of mushrabiyah
and adobe construction material in a modern Saudi dwelling in terms of total electricity demand
and maximum power demand. The use of mushrabiyah can contribute in reducing the electricity
demand and maximum power demand by up to 4% and 3%, respectively. The findings also revealed
that the mushrabiyahs could save up to 6% of the HVAC load. Interestingly, the maximum electricity
saving by mushrabiyah was observed in Jeddah, where it is an aspect of its vernacular type. Adobe is
a thermally-efficient, sustainable and durable material widely available locally. It is inexpensive,
easy to produce and requires fewer manufacturing skills and less production energy compared to
the currently widely-used construction materials (i.e., concrete and steel). Particularly, the adobe
construction can reduce the annual electricity demand and peak power demand by up to 6% and 19%,
respectively. It can also reduce the HVAC load by up to 13%.
The simulation results revealed that, due to the harsh weather conditions of the examined
locations, the courtyard has increased the annual electricity demand by around 4% in all locations with
the exception of Khamish Mushait, where the results have shown a clear correlation for the monthly
electricity demand between the base and courtyard houses. Although, the adaptation of the courtyard
has contributed to reducing the demand for lighting by 8% in all locations, it has increased the demand
for the HVAC system between 9% in Jeddah and 11% in Khamis Mushait. This can be understood
from the fact that adapting the courtyard has increased the exposed area that includes solid walls and
windows to the direct solar radiations and harsh weather conditions, which result in adding more
loads to the HVAC system and increasing the demand for electricity.
This work showed that houses built with both traditional construction methods, using adobe
as the principal building material, and mushrabiyah as a vernacular design feature could reduce the
annual electricity demand of these houses by 8% in almost all locations and, therefore, recommends
the development of ZEH in Saudi Arabia using them as a step towards reducing the electricity
demand. Moreover, the application of other vernacular techniques, sustainable design features and
energy-efficiency measures should also be taken into account to meet the targeted reduction in demand
for electricity similar to the ZEH benchmark. This work also showed that the courtyard is technically
unviable for Saudi dwellings. In further research, it is essential to investigate the role that can be
played by other vernacular techniques in developing ZEHs. However, attention should be paid to the
fact that the application of some of these techniques may face obstacles especially in terms of their
attractiveness to the Saudi residents.

Author Contributions: Farajallah Alrashed and Stas Burek conceived and designed the modelling work;
Farajallah Alrashed performed the modelling work, Muhammad Asif and Farajallah Alrashed analysed the
results and wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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