CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Due to the continuous increase in energy demand associated with growing

environmental protection awareness, alternative or renewable energy sources have drawn
great attention worldwide. With the availability of several forms of renewable energy
sources such as solar energy and wind energy technologies which are widely used and more
suitable for many geographical locations. However, independent Photovoltaic (PV) or wind
turbine generator (WTG) alone cannot provide reliable power supply due to the intermittent
nature of solar irradiation and wind. To solve this issue, back-up diesel generator (DG) or
large storage system is required for consistent operation. Moreover, in order to enhance the
reliability of renewable energy sources, hybrid connection of PV and wind energy systems
with storage device is the key solution.
Wind and solar complement each other and provide many advantages and a good
potential when combined into a hybrid PV wind power generation system. Many existing
researches have focused on this type of connected power system to power remote locations
of this region. Most of the studies are mainly proposing different ideas for load
management, optimum sizing of the different component of the hybrid system, developing
control strategy for power converter and conducting economic analysis of the hybrid
system. These selected areas of concentration are individually discussed in different studies.
In this thesis discuss about the supervisor control for a stand-alone hybrid generation
system with different load conditions.

1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Due to high demand of energy and limited availability of conventional energy, non-
conventional sources become more popular among researchers. A lot of research work is
going on to enhance the power efficiency of non-conventional sources and make it more
reliable and beneficial.
Hybrid generation system uses more than one source, so that we can extract energy
from different sources at the same time which enhances the efficiency. S.Meenakshi,
1
K.Rajambal, S. Elangovan [2] and Nabil A. Ahmed, Masafumi Miyatake [3] presents the
working of PV /Wind hybrid system is understood, different topologies that can be used for
the hybridization of more than one system and also about advantages and disadvantages of
hybrid system. T.Salmi, M. Bouzguenda, A. Gagtli [1], M. G. Villalva, J. R. Gazoli [4],
Habbati Bellia, Ramdani Youcef, Moulay Fatima [18] and Marcelo Gradella Villalva, Jonas
Rafel Gazoli [5] presents the basic details of PV cell, PV module, PV array and their
modeling are studied. Also, the behavior of PV modules at varying environmental
conditions like solar irradiation and temperature are studied. Different MPPT techniques,
their advantages and disadvantages and why MPPT control is required is explained in Zhou
Xuesong, Song Daichun, Ma Youjie, Chen Deshu [6], Azadeh Safari, Saad Mekhilef [7]
and Mihnea Rosu-Hamzescu, Sergiu Oprea [8]. The wind energy system, its working and
also techniques to extracts the maximum power from the wind energy system is understood
from T.Taftichat, K. Agbossou [9], Roger Gules, Juliano De pellegrin Pacheco [10], S.
Rahmani, Ab. Hamadi, A. Ndtoungou [11], Majid Jamil, Ravi Gupta [12] and Eftichios
Koutroulis,Kostas Kalaitzakis [13]. C. Lin, S. yang, G.W. Wu [14], M. Ahmadi, K. Shenai
[15] and Zhilling Liao, Xinbo Ruan [16] carried out the study of different type of bi-
directional converters, their working and how to use them in battery charging and
discharging. Fernando Valenciaga and Paul F. Puleston [17] present the study about
Supervisor Control for a Stand-Alone Hybrid Generation System Using Wind and
Photovoltaic Energy. Bandana Bhutia, Dr. S.M.Ali, Narayan Tiadi [19] explained the
Design of Three Phase PWM Voltage Source Inverter for Photovoltaic Application. P. A.
Dahono and A. Purwadi, Qamaruzzaman [20] presents an LC filter design method for
single-phase PWM inverter.

1.3 RESEARCH MOTIVATION

Recently, the availability of power in India have not just increased but also
improved, although the demand consistently rose more than the supply. That’s why non-
conventional sources have become the center of attraction. Among these fast growing non-
conventional sources the wind energy system and solar photovoltaic system are very
common. Now India has become fifth in installed capacity of both wind and solar power
plant. As of 30th September 2013 the installed capacity of wind power in India was
19881MW. But, as the wind is season and region based, it was not so reliable so we go for
hybrid system of power generation.
2
1.4 OBJECTIVE

The main objective of the project is to implement a supervisor control for a stand-
alone hybrid generation system to satisfy the load power demand and to maintain the state
of charge of the battery bank to prevent blackout and to extend the life of the batteries.
This proposed hybrid system would provide a power system for any remote location where
grid extension is difficult or expensive.

1.5 THESIS OVERVIEW

The chapter 1 on the Introduction to the project is followed by chapters which are
delineated below:
Chapter 2 explains about Working of PV cell, Modeling of PV cell, Maximum
power point tracking, Battery charging and Bi-directional DC-DC converters.
Chapter 3 explains about Modeling of wind turbine, modeling of permanent magnet
synchronous machines, Types of DC-DC converters, Rectifier, Three phase voltage source
inverter and LC filter design.
Chapter 4 explains about implementation of hybrid system and power management
Chapter 5 explains about simulation results of PV panel, PMSG and Battery and its
power management. .
Chapter 6 explains about conclusion and future scope of project.

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 CHAPTER 2

PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY SYSTEM

History

In 1839, a French physicist Edmund Becquerel proposed that few materials have
the ability to produce electricity when exposed to sunlight. But Albert Einstein explained
the photoelectric effect and the nature of light in 1905. Photoelectric effect state that when
photons or sunlight strikes to a metal surface flow of electrons will take place. Later
photoelectric effect became the basic principle for the technology of photovoltaic power
generation. The first PV module was manufactured by Bell laboratories in 1954.

2.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRANGEMENT

A photovoltaic energy system is mainly powered by solar energy. The configuration

of PV system is manifested in fig 2.1.

Fig.2.1 Overall block diagram of PV energy system

It contains PV modules or arrays, which convert solar energy in the form of solar
irradiation into electric energy. The DC-DC converter changes the level of the voltage to
match it with the electrical appliances that are supplied by this system. This DC-DC
converter may be either buck or boost or buck-boost contingent on the required and
available voltage levels. The maximum power point tracing system coerces the maximum

4
power from the PV modules. A bi-directional converter which is able to supply the current
in both the directions is used to charge the battery when there is a power surplus and the
energy stored by the battery is discharged into the load when there is a power deficit.

2.1.1 PV CELL

Photovoltaic cell is the building block of the PV system and semiconductor material
such as silicon and germanium are the building block of PV cell. Silicon is used for
photovoltaic cell due to its advantages over germanium. When photons hit the surface of
solar cell, the electrons and holes are generated by breaking the covalent bond inside the
atom of semiconductor material and in response electric field is generated by creating
positive and negative terminals. When these terminals are connected by a conductor an
electric current will start flowing. This electricity is used to power a load.

Fig.2.2 Structure of PV cell

2.1.2 PV MODULE

A single cell generate very low voltage (around 0.4), so more than one PV cells can
be connected either in serial or in parallel or as a grid (both serial and parallel) to form a
PV module as shown in fig.2.3. When we need higher voltage, we connect PV cell in series
and if load demand is high current then we connect PV cell in parallel. Usually there are 36
or 76 cells in general PV modules. Module we are using having 54 cells. The front side of
the module is transparent usually buildup of low-iron and transparent glass material, and
the PV cell is encapsulated. The efficiency of a module is not as good as PV cell, because
the glass cover and frame reflects some amount of the incoming radiation.

5
2.1.3 PV ARRAY

A photovoltaic array is simply an interconnection of several PV modules in serial

and/or parallel. The power generated by individual modules may not be sufficient to meet
the requirement of trading applications, so the modules are secured in a grid form or as an
array to gratify the load demand. In an array, the modules are connected like as that of cells
connected in a module. While making a PV array, generally the modules are initially
connected in serial manner to obtain the desired voltage, and then strings so obtained are
connected in parallel in order to produce more current based on the requirement.

Fig.2.3 Photovoltaic system

2.2 WORKING OF PV CELL

The basic theory involved in working of an individual PV cell is the Photoelectric

effect according to which, when a photon particle hits a PV cell, after receiving energy
from sunbeam the electrons of the semiconductor get excited and hop to the conduction
band from the valence band and become free to move as shown in fig.2.4. Movement of
electrons create positive and negative terminal and also create potential difference across
these two terminals. When an external circuit is connected between these terminals an
electric current start flowing through the circuit.

Fig 2.4 Working of PV cell

6
2.3 MODELING OF PV CELL

The photovoltaic system converts sunlight directly to electricity without having any
disastrous effect on our environment. The basic segment of PV array is PV cell, which is
just a simple P-N junction device. The fig.2.5 manifests the equivalent circuit of PV cell
[1]. Equivalent circuit has a current source (photo current), a diode parallel to it, a resistor
in series describing an internal resistance to the flow of current and a shunt resistance
which expresses a leakage current.

Rs

Rp

Fig 2.5 Equivalent circuit of Single diode model of a solar cell

The modeling of PV cell is done by the following equations [18].

K (Top )
Thermal voltage vt 
q
V IRs

NS Ns

I d  ((e nvt c
)  1) I S N P
Diode current

V  IR S
I sh 
Shunt current RP

I ph  ([(Top  Tref ) KI ]  I sc ) I rr
Phase current
I sc
Voc q

I rs  (e ) 1
K .C .Top n
Reversed saturated current at 𝑇𝑜𝑝

7
 q 2 Eg 1 1
( )(  ) Top 3
I s  [e
kn Tref Top
Reversed saturation current ][( ) I rs ]
Tref

Load current I  I ph * N p  I sh  I d

Where
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 =Reference temperature
𝑉𝑜𝑐 =Open circuit voltage
q=Electron charge
KI=short circuit current temperature coefficient
𝐼𝑠𝑐 =Short circuit current
K=Boltzmann constant
C=Cells in module
𝑁𝑠 =Series connected panels
𝑁𝑝 =Parallel connected panels
𝐼𝑟𝑟 =Irradiation
𝑇𝑜𝑝 =Operational temperature
𝑅𝑠 = series resistance
𝑅𝑝 =parallel resistance
n= Ideality factor

I-V and P-V characteristics of PV module are shown in figures 2.6 and 2.7 respectively.

Fig. 2.6 I-V Characteristics of PV panel

8
 Fig. 2.7 P-V Characteristics of PV panel

The two key parameters which are used to relate the electrical performance are the open-
circuit voltage of the cell (𝑉𝑜𝑐 ) and short-circuit current of the cell (𝐼𝑠𝑐 ).
The maximum power can be stated as
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 *𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥

2.4 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

Maximum power point tracing (MPPT) system is an electronic control system that
can be able to coerce the maximum power from a PV system. It does not involve a single
mechanical component that results in the movement of the modules changing their
direction and make them face straight towards the sun. MPPT control system is a
completely electronic system which can deliver maximum allowable power by varying the
operating point of the modules electrically.

2.4.1 NEED FOR MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

In the Power Vs Voltage characteristic of a PV module shown in fig 2.7 we can

observe that there exist single maxima i.e. a maximum power point associated with a
specific voltage and current that are supplied. The overall efficiency of a module is very
low around 12%. So it is necessary to operate it at the crest power point so that the
maximum power can be provided to the load irrespective of continuously changing
environmental conditions. This increased power makes it better for the use of the solar PV
module. A DC/DC converter which is placed next to the PV module extracts maximum
power by matching the impedance of the circuit to the impedance of the PV module and

9
transfers it to the load. Impedance matching can be done by varying the duty cycle of the
switching elements.
2.4.2. MPPT ALGORITHM

There are many algorithms which help in tracing the maximum power point of the
PV module. They are following:
a. P&O algorithm
b. IC algorithm
c. Fractional open circuit voltage
d. Fractional short circuit current
e. Fuzzy logic e.t.c
2.4.3. PERTURB AND OBSERVE ALGORITHM

Each and every MPPT algorithm has its own advantages and disadvantages. Perturb
and observe (P&O) method is widely used due its simplicity. In this algorithm we
introduce a perturbation in the operating voltage of the panel. Perturbation in voltage can
be done by altering the value of duty-cycle of dc-dc converter.

Fig. 2.8 P-V Characteristics (basic idea of P&O algorithm)

Fig 2.8 show the P-V characteristics of a photovoltaic system, by analyzing the P-V
characteristics we can see that on right side of MPP as the voltage decreases the power
increases but on left side of MPP increasing voltage will increase power. This is the main
idea we have used in the P&O algorithm to track the MPP. The flow chart of P&O
algorithm is manifested in fig 2.9.

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 start

Sence V(K),I(K)

Calculation of dP

dV=Vref(K)-Vref(K-1)

Y
dP=0

Y
N
dP>0

Y N N Y
dV>0 dV>0

Vref-incr Vref+incr Vref-incr Vref+incr

return

Fig.2.9 Flowchart of Perturb & Observe MPPT algorithm

As we can see from the flow chart first of all we measure voltage and current, by using
these values we calculate power, calculated power is compared with previous one and
accordingly we increase or decrease the voltage to locate the Maximum Power Point by
altering the duty cycle of converter.

2.5 BATTERY CHARGING- INTRODUCTION

Battery is a storage device which stores the excess power generated and uses it to
supply the load in addition to the generators when power is required. Both PV and wind
energy systems are integrated i.e. connected to a common DC bus of constant voltage and
the battery bank is also connected to the DC bus. Any power transfer whether from
generator to battery bank or generator to load or from the battery bank to the load takes
place via this constant voltage DC bus. As the power flow associated with the battery is not
unidirectional, a bidirectional converter is needed to charge and/or discharge the battery in
case of excess and/or deficit of power respectively.

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2.6 BI-DIRECTIONAL DC-DC CONVERTERS

Bi-directional DC-DC converters are called so due to their ability of allowing the
power flow in both the directions, depending on the requirement. There are many
applications for the bidirectional converter such as Hybrid Vehicles, Uninterruptable
Power Supplies (UPS) and also storage systems powered by Fuel cells and also renewable
energy systems.
2.6.1 CLASSIFICATION

Based on the isolation between the input and output side, the bidirectional
converters are classified into two types. They are
1. Non Isolated type
2. Isolated type
2.6.1.1 NON-ISOLATED BI-DIRECTIONAL DC-DC CONVERTERS

A basic non-isolated bidirectional converter can be derived from the unidirectional

converters by using bi-directional switches. Basic buck and boost converters do not allow
the bidirectional power flow due to the presence of the diodes that are unidirectional
devices. This problem can be solved by using a MOSFET or IGBT with an anti-parallel
diode which allows flow of current in both the directions.
The various non-isolated type bidirectional DC-DC converters are

1. Multilevel converter

2. Switched capacitor converter

3. Cuk/Cuk type

4. Sepic/Zeta type

5. Buck-Boost converter

6. Coupled inductor converter

7. Three-level converter

2.6.1.2 ISOLATED BIDIRECTIONAL DC-DC CONVERTERS

The isolated type converters can operate in wide power ranges. The electrical
isolation is achieved by using a power transformer in the circuit. But the transformer

12
operates only for AC supply. Introducing AC link in the circuit increases the complexity of
the circuit.
Based on the configuration, the isolated bidirectional DC-DC converters can be
categorized into two types:
1. A current fed isolated bidirectional DC-DC converter

2. A voltage fed isolated bidirectional DC-DC converter

The various isolated type bidirectional converters are:

1. Fly-back converter

2. Forward fly-back converter

3. Half bridge converter

4. Full bridge converter

2.6.2 BI-DIRECTIONAL CONVERTER FOR BATTERY CHARGING

As mentioned earlier, the bidirectional converter has many applications and here in
the work, the converter is used for charging and discharging the battery based on the
surplus and deficit of the power respectively.
When there is a surplus energy, i.e. the supply is greater than demand then the battery is
charged, allowing the converter to operate in forward direction. When there is a deficit in
power i.e. the supply is less than demand then the battery starts discharging supplying the
deficit of power to the load. This requires the converter to operate in reverse direction.
Charging/discharging of the battery is done by the help of a bidirectional converter.

Fig. 2.10 Circuit diagram of the bidirectional converter

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 CHAPTER- 3

MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF DIRECT-DRIVE PMSG WIND

TURBINE SYSTEMS

The main component of a direct-drive permanent magnet synchronous generator

(PMSG) is the wind turbine. The wind turbine captures the power from the wind for the
system, and the PMSG transforms the mechanical power into electric power. In this chapter,
the basic principles of the electric power generation will be introduced, and the
mathematical models of the wind turbine and the PMSG will be developed and analyzed.

3.1 MODELING OF WIND TURBINE

In order to investigate the effectiveness of the energy conversion in wind energy

conversion systems, first the available energy stored in the wind needs to be determined.
Actually, the energy in the wind can be treated as the kinetic energy of a large amount of air
particles with a total mass, m, moving at a wind velocity,𝑉𝑤 ,. Assuming that all the air
particles are moving at the same speed and direction before impacting the rotor blades of
the wind turbine, the potential available kinetic energy stored in the wind can be expressed
according to the following expression:
1
𝐸 = 2 ∗ 𝑚𝑉𝑤2 (3.1)

Where, E, is the kinetic energy of the moving air particles, and, m, is the total mass of the
air particles, while,𝑉𝑤 , is the velocity of the air particles (wind speed). Since the air particles
are moving at a speed, 𝑉𝑤 , the total mass,m , of the particles for a period of time, t, can be
rewritten as follows:
𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉𝑤 𝑡 = 𝜌𝜋𝑟 2 𝑉𝑤 𝑡 (3.2)

Where, ρ, is the air density, and A is the swept area of the wind turbine rotor. Here, r, is the
radius of the wind turbine rotor. Substituting expression (3.2) into (3.1), the kinetic energy
of the air particles can be expressed as follows:
1
𝐸 = 2 ∗ 𝜌𝜋𝑟 2 𝑉𝑤3 𝑡 (3.3)

From expression (3.3), the actual wind power at any instant of time can be represented as:
𝐸 1
𝑃𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 = = 2 ∗ 𝜌𝜋𝑟 2 𝑉𝑤3 (3.4)
𝑡

14
Where, 𝑃𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 , is the potentially available power in the wind. From expression (3.4), we can
observe that the wind power is proportional to the cube of the wind speed, which means that
a small increase of the wind speed will result in a large increase of the wind power.
Moreover, the power can also be increased by enlarging the wind turbine rotor radius since
the power is proportional to the square of this rotor radius. This is the reason that more and
more large scale wind turbine systems (up to 10MW) are being investigated and
contemplated nowadays.
However, the power expressed in expression (3.4) can only stand for the maximum
potential power which is available when the wind with velocity,𝑉𝑤 , passes through the
swept area of the wind turbine with radius ,r. In fact, only a portion of this potentially
available power can be captured by the wind turbine. In 1919, a German scientist Albert
Betz had tried to express the action of the air particles (the wind) passing through wind
turbines. According to Betz's idea, after impacting the rotor blades of the wind turbine, the
velocity of the wind decreases from 𝑉𝑤 to𝑉𝑤2 , this means that when the wind passes through
the wind turbine blades, there is still some kinetic power left in the wind. The relationship
between the power that is captured by the wind turbine and the potential maximum power
in the wind can be expressed as follows:
𝑃𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝐶𝑝 = (3.5)
𝑃𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑

Where, 𝑃𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 is the mechanical power captured by the wind turbine, and 𝐶𝑝 is the power
coefficient of the wind turbine which can be expressed as follows:

Where
1
𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶1 (𝐶2 𝛼1 − 𝐶3 𝛽 − 𝐶4 𝛽 𝑥 − 𝐶5 )𝑒 −𝐶6 𝛼 ( 3.6)

1 1 0.035
𝛼
= 𝜆+0.08𝛽 − 1+𝛽 3 ( 3.7)

And,

𝜆 = 𝜔𝑚 𝑟/𝑉𝑤 (3.8)

Where ,β, is the blade angle which is indicated in Fig 3.1, and λ is the tip speed ratio

of the wind turbine, while, 𝜔𝑚 , is the angular speed of the wind turbine generator.

The values of the coefficients (C1~C6) depend on the type of the wind turbine.

15
 (a). Blade angle schematic diagram

(b). Lift and drag force on the blade

(c). Blade at low medium and high angles of attack

Fig 3.1 Diagram of blade angle of wind turbine

16
 As can be seen in Fig 3.1, the blade angle indicates how the wind velocity impacts
the wind turbine blades. The blade angle is the angle between the orientation of the blade
and the wind velocity vector. When, β=0, the blade is fully impacted by the wind velocity,
and the wind turbine will capture the maximum power in the wind. The blade angle is
usually controlled at zero degree when the wind speed is lower than the rated wind speed of
the system to ensure a high efficiency of energy capture. When the wind speed becomes
greater than the rated value, the power captured by the system will exceed the rated power
if the blade angle stays unchanged at zero degree. It will make the generator and the power
devices work under higher than rated output, which is harmful to the system if sustained for
any length of time. Based on this concern, a control system for the modification of the blade
angle according to different wind conditions is needed for the wind turbine. Accordingly,
the power captured by the wind turbine can be rewritten as:

1
𝑃𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 2 ∗ 𝜌𝜋𝑟 2 𝐶𝑝 (𝜆, 𝛽)𝑉𝑤3 (3.9)

3.2 MODELING OF PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS

MACHINES
Permanent magnet synchronous machines/generators (PMSMs/PMSGs) play key
role in direct-drive wind power generation systems for transforming the mechanical power
into electrical power. A rigorous mathematical modeling of the PMSG is the prerequisite
for the design of the machine control algorithms as well as the analysis of the steady-state
and dynamic characteristics of wind energy conversion systems. In this section, the
mathematical model of a PMSG in both the natural abc three-phase stationary reference
frame and dq synchronously rotating reference frame will be developed, and the power and
torque analysis of PMSGs will be given as well.
3.2.1 MODELING OF A PMSM IN THE NATURAL ABC THREE-
PHASE STATIONARY REFERENCE FRAME

Before developing the mathematical model of the PMSM, several important

assumptions need to be made: (1) the damping effect in the magnets and in the rotor are
negligible; (2) the magnetic saturation effects are neglected; (3) the eddy current and
hysteresis losses are neglected; (4) the back electromotive force (EMF) induced in the stator
windings are sinusoidal; (5) for simplicity, all the equations of PMSMs are expressed in
motor (consumer/load) notation, that is, negative current will be prevailing when the model
17
refers to a generator. Negative current means that at the positive polarity of the terminal of a
device the current is out of that terminal Fig 3.2 shows the cross-sectional view of a three-
phase, two-pole PMSM. The fixed abc axes denote the direction of the MMFs (𝑓𝑎 , 𝑓𝑏 and
𝑓𝑐 ) of the a, b and c phase windings, which are induced by the time varying three-phase AC
currents in these stator phase windings. The flux caused by the permanent magnet is in the
direction of the d-axis fixed at the rotor. Here, the dq-axes are rotating at the same angular
speed of the PMs and rotor. Also,θ𝑟 , denotes the angle between the d-axis and the
stationary a-axis.

Fig 3.2 Cross-section view of the PMSM

The state space relationship of the terminal voltages of the PMSM to the phase currents and
the phase flux linkages due to the PMs and stator currents can be written as follows:

𝑣𝑎𝑠 𝑅𝑠 0 0 𝑖𝑎𝑠 λ𝑎𝑠

𝑑
𝑣𝑏𝑠 = 0 𝑅𝑠 0 . 𝑖𝑏𝑠 + λ𝑏𝑠 (3.10)
𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑐𝑠 0 0 𝑅𝑠 𝑖𝑐𝑠 λ𝑐𝑠

Where,𝑣𝑎𝑠 , 𝑣𝑏𝑠 and 𝑣𝑐𝑠 are the instantaneous a, b, and c three-phase stator voltages, and
𝑖𝑎𝑠 , 𝑖𝑏𝑠 and 𝑖𝑐𝑠 , and are the instantaneous three-phase stator currents. Here, 𝑅𝑠 is the stator
winding resistance per phase, and again , λ𝑎𝑠 , λ𝑏𝑠 , and λ𝑐𝑠 are the instantaneous flux
linkages induced by the three-phase AC currents and the PMs, which can be expressed in
expanded form as follows:
λ𝑟 cos(θ𝑟 )
λ𝑎𝑠 L𝑎𝑎 L𝑎𝑏 L𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑎𝑠 2𝜋
λ𝑏𝑠 = L𝑏𝑎 L𝑏𝑏 L𝑏𝑐 . 𝑖𝑏𝑠 + λ𝑟 cos(θ𝑟 − 3 ) (3.11)
λ𝑐𝑠 L𝑐𝑎 L𝑐𝑏 L𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑐𝑠 λ𝑟 cos(θ𝑟 + )
2𝜋
3

18
Where,L𝑎𝑎 , L𝑏𝑏 and L𝑐𝑐 are the self-inductances of the a, b, and c three-phases, and
, L𝑎𝑏 , L𝑎𝑐 , L𝑏𝑎 , L𝑏𝑐 , L𝑐𝑎 and L𝑐𝑏 are the mutual inductances between these phases, while,λ𝑟
is the rotor flux linkage caused by the permanent magnet. The self-inductances and mutual
inductances are all functions ofθ𝑟 . Thus, all of the inductances are time varying Parameters.
3.2.2 MODELING OF THE PMSM IN THE DQ-AXES
SYNCHRONOUSLY ROTATING REFERENCE FRAME
The dq0 Park's transformation is a mathematical transformation which aims to
simplify the analysis of synchronous machinery models, and was first introduced by R. H.
Park in 1929. In the three-phase systems like PMSMs, the phase quantities which include
stator voltages, stator currents, and flux linkages, are time varying quantities. By applying
Park's transformation, which is in essence the projection of the phase quantities onto a
rotating two axes reference frame, the AC quantities are transformed to DC quantities
which are independent of time. The abc to dq0 transformation can be expressed in matrix
form as follows:
2𝜋 2𝜋
cos(θ𝑟 ) cos(θ𝑟 − ) cos(θ𝑟 + )
𝑢𝑑 3 3 𝑢𝑎
2 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑢𝑞 = −sin(θ𝑟 ) −sin(θ𝑟 − ) −sin(θ𝑟 + ) 𝑢𝑏 (3.12)
3 3 3
𝑢0 2 2 2 𝑢𝑐
2 2 2

The inverse Park's transformation is:

2
cos(θ𝑟 ) −sin(θ𝑟 )
𝑢𝑎 2 𝑢𝑑
2 2𝜋 2𝜋 2
𝑢𝑏 = 3
cos(θ𝑟 −
3
) −sin(θ𝑟 −
3
)
2
𝑢𝑞 (3.13)
𝑢𝑐 𝑢0
2𝜋 2𝜋 2
cos(θ𝑟 + ) −sin(θ𝑟 + )
3 3 2

In expressions (3.12) and (3.13), 𝑢𝑎𝑏𝑐 and 𝑢𝑑𝑞𝑜 can represent the stator voltages, stator
currents or flux linkages of the AC machines, respectively. Considering that under balanced
conditions, 𝑢0 =0, the voltage function of the PMSM in the dq-axes reference frame can be
expressed as follows:
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑠
𝑣𝑑𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑠 + 𝐿𝑑 − 𝑤𝑒 𝐿𝑞 𝑖𝑞𝑠 (3.14)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖 𝑞𝑠
𝑣𝑞𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠 𝑖𝑞𝑠 + 𝐿𝑞 − 𝑤𝑒 𝐿𝑑 𝑖𝑑𝑠 + 𝑤𝑒 λ𝑟 (3.15)
𝑑𝑡

Where, 𝑣𝑑𝑠 and 𝑢𝑞𝑠 are the instantaneous stator voltages in the dq-axes reference frame, and
𝑖𝑑𝑠 and 𝑖𝑞𝑠 are the instantaneous stator currents in the dq-axes reference frame. Here, 𝐿𝑑 and
𝐿𝑞 are the d-axis and q-axis inductances, and 𝜔𝑒 is the electrical angular speed of the rotor,

19
while,𝜆𝑟 , is the peak/maximum phase flux linkage due to the rotor-mounted PMs.
According to expressions (3.14) and (3.15), the equivalent circuits of the PMSM in the dq-
axes reference frame can be drawn as shown in Fig 3.3:

Fig 3.3 The dq-axes equivalent circuits of a PMSM

3.2.3 POWER AND TORQUE ANALYSIS OF A PMSM

For any PMSM, the electrical power input can be expressed in the abc reference frame
as follows:
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 𝑣𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑎𝑠 + 𝑣𝑏𝑠 𝑖𝑏𝑠 + 𝑣𝑐𝑠 𝑖𝑐𝑠 (3.16)

Or in the dq-axes reference frame as follows:

3
𝑃𝑑𝑞 = 2 𝑣𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑠 + 𝑣𝑞𝑠 𝑖𝑞𝑠 (3.17)

As a part of the input power, in the motoring mode, the active power is the power that is
transformed to mechanical power by the machine, which can be expressed as follows:
3
𝑃𝑒𝑚 = 2 𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑑𝑠 + 𝑒𝑞 𝑖𝑞𝑠 (3.18)

Where,

𝑒𝑑 = −𝑤𝑒 𝐿𝑞 𝑖𝑞𝑠 = −𝑤𝑒 𝜆𝑞 (3.19)

And

𝑒𝑞 = 𝑤𝑒 𝐿𝑑 𝑖𝑑𝑠 + 𝑤𝑒 𝜆𝑟 = 𝑤𝑒 𝜆𝑑 (3.20)

Here 𝑒𝑑 and 𝑒𝑞 are the back EMFs in the dq-axes reference frame, and 𝜆𝑑 and 𝜆𝑞 are the
dq-axes flux linkages. Substituting expressions (3.19) and (3.20) into (3.18), the active
power can be re-expressed as follows:
3
𝑃𝑒𝑚 = 2 𝑤𝑒 𝜆𝑑 𝑖𝑞𝑠 − 𝜆𝑞 𝑖𝑑𝑠 (3.21)

20
Hence, the electromagnetic torque developed by a PMSM can be deduced as follows:
𝑃 3 𝑝
𝑇𝑒 = 𝑤𝑒𝑚
𝑒 =2 𝜆𝑑 𝑖𝑞𝑠 − 𝜆𝑞 𝑖𝑑𝑠 (3.22)
𝑝 2
2

Or

3 𝑝
𝑇𝑒 = 2 𝜆𝑟 𝑖𝑞𝑠 + 𝐿𝑑 − 𝐿𝑞 𝑖𝑞𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑠 (3.23)
2

Where, p is the number of poles in the machine.

3.3 TYPES OF DC-DC CONVERTERS

DC-DC converter is an electrical circuit whose main application is to transform a

dc voltage from one level to another level. It is similar to a transformer in AC source, it can
able to step the voltage level up or down. The variable dc voltage level can be regulated by
controlling the duty ratio (on-off time of a switch) of the converter.
There are various types of dc-dc converters that can be used to transform the level of the
voltage as per the supply availability and load requirement. Some of them are discussed
below.
1. Buck converter

2. Boost converter

3. Buck-Boost converter
Each of them is explained below.
3.3.1 Buck converter:

The functionality of a buck converter is to reduce the voltage level. The circuit diagram of
the buck converter is manifested in fig 3.4.

Fig. 3.4 Circuit diagram of buck converter

21
When the switching element is in state of conduction the voltage appearing across the load
is Vin and the current is supplied from source to load. When the switch is off the load
Voltage is zero and the direction of current remains the same. As the power flows from
source side to load side, the load side voltage remains less than the source side voltage.
The output voltage is determined as a function of source voltage using the duty ratio of the
gate pulse given to the switch. It is the product of the duty ratio and the input voltage.
3.3.2 Boost converter:

The functionality of boost converter is to increase the voltage level. The circuit
configuration of the boost converter is manifested in fig 3.5.

Fig. 3.5 Circuit diagram of boost converter

The current carried by the inductor starts rising and it stores energy during ON time of the
switching element. The circuit is said to be in charging state. During OFF condition, the
reserve energy of the inductor starts dissipating into the load along with the supply. The
output voltage level exceeds that of the input voltage and is dependent on the inductor time
constant. The load side voltage is the ratio of source side voltage and the duty ratio of the
switching device.
3.3.3 Buck-Boost converter:

The functionality of a buck-boost converter is to set the level of load side voltage to
either greater than or less than that of the source side voltage. The circuit configuration of
the buck-boost converter is manifested in fig 3.6.

22
 Fig. 3.6 Circuit diagram of buck-boost converter

When the switches are in the state of conduction, the current carried by the inductor starts
rising and it stores energy. The circuit is said to be in charging state. While the switches are
in the OFF state, this stored energy of the inductor is dissipated to the load through the
diodes. The output voltage can be varied based on the On-time of the switches. The buck-
boost converter acts as both buck and boost converters depending on the duty cycle of the
switches. For the duty ratio less than 50% it acts as a buck converter and for the duty ratio
exceeds than 50% it acts as boost converter.
As the voltage can be stepped both up and down, we use buck-boost converter for our
convenience in our work.

3.4 RECTIFIER
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which
periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction.
The process is known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found
serving as components of DC power supplies and high-voltage direct current power
transmission systems. Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current
for use as a source of power. As noted, detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas
heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of a flame.
Let us consider a three-phase diode bridge rectifier as shown in Fig. 3.7. The rectifier
consists of a three-phase diode bridge, comprising diodes D1 to D6. In the analysis, it is
assumed that the impedances of the supply lines are low enough to be neglected, and that
the load current Iout is constant in time. This results in an input current equal to zero in the
time interval when the phase voltage is neither maximal nor minimal.

23
 Fig 3.7 Three-phase diode bridge rectifier.
Assuming that Iout is strictly greater than zero during the whole period, in each time point
two diodes of the diode bridge conduct. The first conducting diode is from the group of
odd-indexed diodes {D1, D3 and D5}, and it is connected by its anode to the highest of the
phase voltages at the time point considered. The second conducting diode is from the group
of even-indexed diodes {D2, D4 and D6}, and it is connected by its cathode to the lowest of
the phase voltages. Since one phase voltage cannot be the highest and the lowest at the
same time for the given set of phase voltages.
The average output voltage is given by

3 3
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚
𝜋

Where 𝑉𝑚 is the peak phase voltage

3.5 THREE PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER

The three phase voltage source inverter generates less harmonic distortion in the
output voltage utilized in the phase to phase AC load. Also afford extra productive supply
voltage related to sinusoidal modulation technique. The circuit model of three-phase voltage
source PWM inverter is shown in Fig.3.8. TA+, TA- ;TB+,TB-; to TC+,TC- are the six
power switches that model the output, which are controlled by the switching variables.
When an upper transistor is switched on i.e., the corresponding TA- ,TB-,TC- is 0.
Therefore, the on and off states the upper transistors TA+, TB+, TC+, can be used to
regulate the output voltage. Each power switch can be on and off, ON = 1, OFF = 0.

24
 id
+

Vd/2

TA+ DA+ TB+ DB+ DC+

TC+

Vd 0

TA- DA- DB- DC-

TB- TC-
Vd/2

-
N

A B C

Fig 3.8 Three phase voltage source inverter.

Many applications that require an inverter use three-phase power. Two main examples are
AC-motor drive and Uninterruptible Power Supplies. This lies of three legs, one for each
phase. Each leg is basically setup in the same way as the one-leg inverter described above.
In three phase inverters pulse-width modulations is used in the same way as it is before
except that it much be used with each of the three phases. When generating power to three
different phases one must make sure that each phase is equal, meaning that it is balanced.
The Harmonics in the output are only of concern in the phase voltages. The harmonics
output of each of the legs are exact to the harmonics in Va. The odd harmonics exist as
hidebound, gathers all over mf and it expands, mf is odd. Seeing the harmonic of mf, the
phase difference will be equivalent to zero if mf is odd and a multiple of 3. Sequence, the
harmonic at mf is overcome in the phase to phase voltage Vab. The same is applied in the
elimination of harmonics at the odd multiples of mf, if mf is chosen to be an odd multiple of
3. Therefore, some of the powerful harmonics in the one leg inverter can be erased from the
phase to phase voltage of a three phase inverter. For low values of mf, to erase the even
harmonics, a synchronized PWM should be applied and mf should be an odd integer.
Moreover, mf should be a multiple of 3 to cancel out the most dominant harmonics in the
line-line voltage.

25
3.6 LC FILTER DESIGN

The load side PWM-based inverter will generate unwanted high frequency harmonics
(based on the switching frequency) in the output ac voltage, which is ultimately supplied to
the customer, creating a power quality problem. In this case, the switching frequency (𝑓𝑠 ) of
the PWM inverter is considered as 3 kHz. PWM switching at 3 kHz produces high-
frequency harmonics that can be eliminated using simple passive LC filter.
The l-c filter design is based on following equations:
𝑉0 𝑉 𝑓𝑟 ^2 𝑉
𝐿𝑓 = 𝐼 𝐾 𝑉 𝑑𝑐 1 + 4𝜋 2 𝐾 𝑉 𝑑𝑐 ]}^1/2
0 𝑓𝑠 0,𝑎𝑣 𝑓𝑠 ^2 0,𝑎𝑣

𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝐶𝑓 = 𝐾 𝐿 2
𝑓 𝑓𝑠 𝑉0,𝑎𝑣

Where
K=modulation index
𝑉0 = load voltage
𝐼0 =nominal current
𝑓𝑟 =fundamental frequency
𝑓𝑠 =switching frequency
𝑉0,𝑎𝑣 = Total harmonic load voltage =5% of 𝑉0
𝐿𝑓 = inductance of filter
𝐶𝑓 =capacitance of filter

26
 CHAPTER-4

HYBRID DISTRIBUTION ENERGY SYSTEM WITH STORAGE

Day by day, the demand for electricity is rapidly increasing. But the available base
load plants are not able to supply electricity as per demand. So these energy sources can be
used to bridge the gap between supply and demand during peak loads. This kind of small
scale stand-alone power generating systems can also be used in remote areas where
conventional power generation is impractical.

In this thesis, a wind-photovoltaic hybrid power generation system model is studied

and simulated. A hybrid system is more advantageous as individual power generation
system is not completely reliable. When any one of the system is shutdown the other can
supply power. A block diagram of entire hybrid system is shown below.

Wind
turbine PMSG rectifier DC/DC
converter

inverter load

DC/DC
PV panel
converter

Battery
bank

Fig 4.1 Block diagram of hybrid system

The entire hybrid system comprises of PV and the wind systems. The PV system is
powered by the solar energy which is abundantly available in nature. PV modules,
maximum power point tracing systems make the PV energy system. The light incident on
the PV cells is converted into electrical energy by solar energy harvesting means. The
maximum power point tracking system with Perturb & Observe algorithm is used, which
extracts the maximum possible power from the PV modules. The ac-dc converter is used to
converter ac voltage to dc.
Wind turbine, generator and an AC – DC converter are included in the wind energy system.
The wind turbine is used to convert wind energy to rotational mechanical energy and this

27
mechanical energy available at the turbine shaft is converted to electrical energy using a
generator.
Both the energy systems are used to charge a battery using bi-directional converter.
Bidirectional converter and the battery form the common additional load to the wind and
PV energy systems.
Hybrid generation systems that use more than a single power source can greatly
enhance the certainty of load demands all the time. Even higher generating capacities can
be achieved by hybrid system. In stand-alone system we can able to provide fluctuation free
output to the load irrespective of weathers condition. To get the energy output of the PV
system converted to storage energy, and constant power delivered by the wind turbine, an
efficient energy storage mechanism is required, which can be realized by the battery bank.
The hybrid system consists of PV panel, wind turbine, PMSG, rectifier DC/DC
converters, battery bank, inverter and load.
The simulation process is done by using the following steps:
1. Firstly, model of PV panel is designed by using equations described in chapter-2
2. And then design MPPT algorithm for maximum power extracted from PV panel.
3. The PV panel is connected to the boost converter.
4. The wind turbine model and PMSG model is designed by using equations described in
chapter-3.
5. From PMSG, the AC voltage is converted into DC voltage by using the rectifier.
6. And then it is connected to DC/DC converter to synchronising the voltage of PV boost
voltage. The point of interconnection is called DC bus.
7. From DC bus, connect battery bank and inverter.
8. From inverter connect to the LC filter and then it is connected to the load.
In this project, the main concentration is on the power management by using switches and
timers.

28
PROPOSED TOPOLOGY OF POWER MANAGEMENT

start

Initialize PV,PMSG and

battery power and different
load conditions

Y If
Ppv> Pload

Ppv alone supplies

the load and excess
power will charge the N
battery

Y If
Ppmsg>Pload

Ppmsg alone supplies

the load and excess
power will charge the N
battrey

Y If
(Ppmsg+Ppv)>Pload

Ppmsg and Ppv both

supplies load and excess N
power will charge the
battery

If
(Ppmsg+Ppv+Pbatt)>Pload

Ppmsg,Ppv and Pbatt supplies load

end

Fig 4.2 Flow chart for proposed topology of power management

The above figure represents the flow chart for proposed topology of power
management. In this flow chart firstly initialize PV, PMSG and battery powers. If PV
power is greater than or equal to load power, PV power alone supplies the load and excess
power will charge the battery. If PMSG power is greater than or equal to load power,
PMSG power alone supplies the load and excess power will charge the battery. If both PV
and PMSG powers are greater than or equal to load power, PV and PMSG power both
supplies the load and excess power will charge the battery. If (PV power + PMSG power+
battery power) is greater than or equal to load power, PV power, PMSG power and battery
power supplies the load.

29
 CHAPTER-5
RESULTS

Table 5.1 Parameters used for the modeling of PV module

S.no. Parameters Value

1 Tref 25+273.15 K

2 Voc 21.1V

3 q 1.6e-19 C

4 KI 2.2e-3 A/K

5 Isc 3.8 A

6 K 1.38e-23 J/K

7 C 36

8 Ns 7

9 Np 4

10 Irr 1 KW/m^2

11 Top 40+273.15 K

12 Rs 0.18 Ω

13 Rp 360.002 Ω

14 N 1.36

Table 5.2 Parameters used for the modeling of boost converter (PV side)

S.no. Parameters Value

1 Inductor 1e-3 H

2 Capacitor 50e-4 F

3 Duty cycle 0.8

30
 4 Switching frequency 4860 Hz

The Simulation block diagram of PV panel, MPPT and boost converter is shown below.

Fig 5(a) Simulation diagram of PV subsystem

Simulation results of PV module

Fig 5.1 I-V Characteristics of PV cell

Fig 5.2 P-V Characteristics of PV cell

31
 Time (sec)
Fig 5.3 Maximum Power of PV cell

Time (sec)
Fig 5.4 Output voltage of boost converter

Fig 5.1 and 5.2 are displays the PV panel I-V and P-V characteristics at Voc =147.7 V,
Isc =15.2A and, figures 5.2 and 5.3 displays the maximum power of PV (1600W) and boost
voltage (700 V).

The hybrid system consists of three subsystems

1. PV subsystem (PV panel, MPPT and boost converter).
2. Wind subsystem (Wind turbine, PMSG, rectifier and boost converter).
3. Battery bank (Battery and Bi-directional converter).
Table 5.3 Parameters used for the modeling of wind turbine and PMSG
S.no. Parameter Value

1 Wind speed 12 m/s

2 Number of poles 10

3 Rated speed 153 Rad/s

4 Rated current 12A

32
 5 Armature resistance 0.425 Ω

6 Magnetic flux linkage 0.433 Wb

7 Stator inductance 4 mH

8 Rated torque 40 Nm

9 Rated power 6 KW

Table 5.4 Parameters used for the modeling of boost converter (PMSG side)
S.no. Parameters Value

1 Inductor 2e-3 H

2 Capacitor 50e-4 F

3 Duty cycle 0.36

4 Switching frequency 4860 Hz

The simulation block diagram of hybrid system is shown below.

Fig 5(b) Simulation diagram of hybrid system

33
Simulation results of Wind subsystem

Fig 5.5 Rotor speed of PMSG Time (sec)

Fig 5.6 Torque of PMSG Time (sec)

Fig 5.7 Power of PMSG Time (sec)

Fig 5.8 PMSG voltage and current Time (sec)

34
Fig 5.5 displays the rotor speed of PMSG (around 130 Rad/sec), figure 5.6 displays the
torque of PMSG (around 33 N-m), figure 5.7 displays the power of PMSG (around 5KW)
,and figure 5.8 displays the voltage (around 480V) and current (around 12A) of PMSG.

Fig 5.9 Output of rectifier Time (sec)

Fig 5.9 displays the output of rectifier voltage (around 440 V )

Fig 5.10 DC bus voltage Time (sec)

Fig 5.10 displays the DC bus voltage (around 700V)

Fig 5.11 Inverter one line output voltage Time (sec)

35
 Fig 5.12 Output voltage of inverter Time (sec)
Fig 5.11 and 5.12 displays the o/p voltage of inverter (around 700 V)

Fig 5.13 Load voltage Time (sec)

Fig 5.13 displays the load voltage (600 V)

Fig 5.14 Load power Time (sec)

Fig 5.14 displays the load power when load is 5KW; load voltage is 415 V R.m.s.

36
Table 5.5 Parameters used for modeling of battery
S.no Parameters Value

1 Nominal voltage 700 V

2 Rated capacity 8.6 Ah

3 Initial state-of-charge 20 %

Table 5.6 Parameters used for bidirectional converter (battery side)

S.no parameters Value

1 Inductor 5e-1 H

2 Capacitor 1200e-6 F

Fig 5.15 Battery voltage Time (sec)

Fig 5.15 displays the up to 20sec battery is charged and then it is discharged.

37
 Fig 5.16 Power management waveforms Time (sec)

Fig 5.16 displays the power management of PV, PMSG and battery. From 1 to 4
sec. PV power will supplies the load and excess power will charge the battery. From 4 to 10
sec. PMSG power will supplies the load and excess power will charge the battery. From 10
to 20 sec. Both PV and PMSG powers supply the load and excess power will charge the
battery. From 20 to 25 sec. PV, PMSG and Battery powers supply the load.

38
 CHAPTER-6

CONCLUSION

Wind energy system has been studied and simulated. Maximum power point of
operation is tracked for PV system using P&O algorithm. Both the systems are integrated
and the hybrid system is used for battery charging and discharging. The hybrid system is
modeled to satisfy the different load demand.

FUTURE SCOPE

 MPP can be tracked using different algorithms.

 Battery charge controller can be designed for more reliable operation and better
battery life.
 Use control loops to reduce the transients for power management.

39
PUBLICATIONS

[1] Dr. M Kowsalya, Sumanth Srinivas Gaurav, Bandaru Naga Tirumaleswara Rao, Manem
Hareesh” Modeling of DFIG for the Variable Speed Wind Turbine” 2014 International
Conference on Control, Instrumentation, Communication and Computational Technologies
(ICCICCT).

[2] Bandaru naga tirumaleswara rao and Kowsalya.M “Supervisor control for a stand-alone
hybrid generation system”ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Science. (Scopus
Indexed)

40
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BIO-DATA OF THE CANDIDATE

Bandaru Naga Tirumaleswara Rao received the B.Tech Degree in Electrical and
Electronics Engineering from Bapatla Engineering College, Bapatla, Andhra Pradesh, India,
in 2013. He is currently pursuing M.Tech in Power Electronics and Drives from VIT
University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India. This thesis work has been submitted as a part of
M.Tech final year project.

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