DELEGATION

I. INTRODUCTION
Delegation of authority is one of the important factors in the process of
organizing as well in formal organization. Delegation of authority refers to
authorizationof a person to make certain decision. To delegate means to grant or confer
and delegation means conferring authority from one person to another to accomplish a
particular work or activity, itis small slice of the authority of a line superior.
Delegation is the transferring of responsibility to subordinates on behalf of
the manager. It is an act through which a manager gives authority to others to attain
certain assignments. Delegating is a major element of the directing function of nursing
management. Competency by which nurse managers get the work done through their
employees. Delegation is part of management; it requires professional training and
development to accept the hierarchial responsibilities of delegation.
II. MEANING
Delegation of authority refers to authorization of a person to make certain
decision.
Delegate- “to entrust to another; to appoint as one’s representative; to assign
responsibility or authority”.

Delegation - “the act of empowering to act for another”.

.
III. DEFINITION

"Delegation is defined as the transfer of responsibility for the performance of a

task from one person to another".
"Transferring to a competent individual the authority to perform a selected
nursing task in a selected nursing situation . The nurse retains accountability for
delegation".
Delegation can be defined as getting work done through others, or as directing
the performance of one or more people to accomplish organizational goals.

Delegation is the process of assigning responsibility and authority to co-

worker and ensuring his accountability

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 IV. ELEMENTS OF DELEGATION OF AUTHORITY

The process of delegation involves three essential elements or aspects:

 Entrustment of responsibility (duties or work) to another for performance;

 Granting of authority to make use of resources, take necessary decisions and so on for
carrying out the responsibility
 Creation of an obligation or accountability on the part of the person accepting the
delegation to perform in terms of the standards established.

It is important to point out that these three elements are inseparable parts of the
process of delegation. A brief explanation of the components of delegation is given
below:

(i) Entrustment of Responsibility or Duty. Responsibility means the work or duties

assigned to a person by virtue of his position in the organization. In order to enable the
subordinate perform his responsibility well, the superior must clearly tell the former as
to what is expected of him. In other words, the superior must determine clearly the task
or duty to be assigned to the subordinate. The duty must be expressed either in terms of
functions or in terms of objectives. If a subordinate is asked to control the operations of
a machine, the duty is in terms of function. But if he is asked to produce a number of
pieces of a product, the duty is in terms of target or objectives. Determination of duties
in terms of objectives will enable the subordinate to know by what standards his
performance will be evaluated.

(ii) Graning of Authority. Authority is the right or power granted to an individual to

make possible the performance of work assigned. Power to produce or use raw
materials, spend money, or ask for allotment of money to hire and fire people, etc.has
to be delegated to individuals to whom the work is assigned. For instance, if the
General Manager of a plant assigns to the Production Manager the production of
particular goods and services he will also grant him the authority to use materials,
money and machinery hire workers and so on to fulfil the production schedule
prescribed as his duty.

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(iii) Creation of Obligation or Accountability. According to Louis A. Allen,
"Accountability is the obligation to carry out responsibility and exerted authority in
terms of performance standards established”. It means holding an individual
answerable for final results. The subordinate is held accountable to the superior.
Accountability originates because the manager has a right to require accounting for the
authority delegated and task assigned to a subordinate. The process of delegation of
authority is incomplete unless accountability is created.

The term 'accountability' should not be confused with 'responsibility.

Responsibility denotes the work to be done. It can be assigned to the subordinates;
subordinate will perform his responsibility well if he is give sufficient authority along
with it. When the authority is accepted by the subordinate, he commits himself to
account for the use of authority. Thus, accountability is the obligation for the
performance of work assigned and authority delegated. In other words, it is the
responsibility to account for results.

Authority can be delegated but accountability cannot be delegated. When a

senior executive assigns some duties to a junior executive, he has to delegate
corresponding authority also. The junior executive may, in turn, take the help of a
foreman working under him in performing the work assigned. But the junior executive
will continue to be accountable for performance to the senior executive. That means if
the foreman does not do the job properly, it is the junior executive who is responsible to
the senior executive. Thus, accountability can't be delegated, it always moves upward.
In simple words, an executive cannot escape the responsibility (or answerability for the
performance of tasks assigned to him by delegating authority to his subordinates).
However, he can take action against the subordinate for his carelessness or negligence
in doing the job.

Accountability moves upward because a person who is delegated the authority

is always accountable to the superior who delegated him the authority. However, as is
obvious from the mechanism of the delegation process, responsibility and authority
move downward.

The extent of accountability depends upon the extent delegation of authority

and responsibility. A person cannot be held answerable for the jobs not assigned to him
by his superior. For instance, if the production manager is given responsibility and

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 authority to produce a specified quantity and quality of certain product and the
personnel department is given responsibility and authority for the development of
workforce, the production manager cannot be held accountable for the development of
workforce. "Accountability is, by the act which creates it, of the same quality and
weight as the accompanying responsibility and authority."

What can be delegated ?

Authority is delegated when a superior grants some discretion to subordinate.

Superiors can neither delegate authority they do not have and nor they can delegate all
their authority without, in effect, passing on their position to their subordinates. The
authority of a top executive can be divided into three broad categories:

(i) Authority which must be delegated such as authority to take routine decisions for the
accomplishment of tasks;
(ii) Authority which call be delegated such as implementation of policies
(iii) Authority which cannot be delegated at all such as authority to take policy decisions.

A manager must delegate the authority to do the routine work which does not involve
any policy decision. A part of work in every management position consists of activities
which are subsidiary to the primary task of the position itself. The power to perform
subsidiary activities must be delegated to others so that the concerned executive
concentrates on the primary task. For instance, the sales manager of a concern is
responsible for selling its products. In order to sell the products, the sales manager has
to perform many functions like market research, employment of sales force, training of
sales-force, development of means of sale promotion and so on. The sales manager
cannot perform all these functions himself. So he can entrust certain operations to his
subordinates and give them authority to perform them.

There are certain other activities which a manager can entrust to his
subordinates provided the manager has the necessary skill to delegate and the
subordinates have been trained to accept these assignments. These activities relate to
execution of policies. The manager can keep the control mechanism in his hands and let
others execute the policy decisions. However, he cannot delegate the authority to take
policy decisions, develop plans and establish appropriate organization for the execution
of plans. These are managerial functions of higher order on which the manager must

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 concentrate himself. Similarly, control function is also to be performed by the manager
himself. A manager who delegates his authority to others must keep the authority to
control their activities with himself. He should evaluate the functioning of various
subordinates himself and take necessary action wherever necessary.

V. DELEGATION HAS THREE ESSENTIAL ASPECTS OR DIMENSIONS

1. Assignment of duties and task
2. Grant of authority, power, right or permission
3. Creation of accountability

Assignment of duties: As one person cannot perform all the tasks, he must allocate a
part of his to subordinates for the purposes of accomplishment by them
Grant of authority: Delegation of authority means division of authority and powers
downwards to the subordinates. If the delegated duty is to be discharged by
subordinates, they must be entrusted with requisite authority for enabling them to make
such work performance.
Creation of accountability Delegation of duties implies accountability from side of
subordinates. Because of this accountability, the manager must keep for himself some
reserved authority and duties for directing, regulating and controlling the course of
work undertaken by his subordinates

VI. TYPES OF DELEGATION

Delegation of authority may be specific or general, written or unwritten, precise or

vague.

 General and specific delegation

In general delegation, the superior tells his subordinate to do whatever the latter feels
necessary. This is a case of unclear delegation under which the subordinate does not
fully understand the nature of duties and limits of authority. Actually, the usefulness of
delegation will be lost in such cases. There will be overlapping of activities and
misunderstanding among the people. On the other hand, if delegation is specific ie,
precise and clear, there will be no need for the subordinates to wonder how far their

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 authority goes and to experiment by hit or miss. It will also help the boss to hold the
subordinates accountable. Therefore, it is advisable that delegations of authority should
be precise and clear and it would be better if they are in writing.

 Written and unwritten

Some people suggest that especially in the upper levels of management, if the authority
delegations are specific and written, they will bring rigidity in the organization.
Sometimes, particularly for new jobs at the top, delegations cannot be very specific, at
least at the outset. But this situation can be remedied with the passage of time. If the
delegations are not specific, there may be organizational frictions, unnecessary
meetings and negotiations and overlapping of activities. Therefore, delegations should
be specific as far as possible. The fear that specific delegations result in inflexibility
can be best met by developing a tradition of flexibility in an organization.

 Shared and Splintered Authority

Authority is shared when it is delegated to two or more persons together. These persons
are responsible for making decisions without following the chain of command. For
instance, the chief executive of a company may delegate his authority to production
manager, marketing manager and finance manager for diversification of company's
products. In such a case, the authority is shared by three persons who will take the
decisions jointly for diversification of company's products.

Splintered authority exists wherever a problem cannot be solved without

pooling the authority delegations of two or more persons. For instance, if the incharge
of Plant A thinks that costs can be reduced through minor modifications in procedures
in Plan B. he cannot bring about this change. He will have to contact the incharge of
Plant B for taking any decision. The change will take place if they pool their authority.
Individually, their authority is said to be "splintered". It should- also be noted that the
same decision could also be taken by their boss. Such practice should not be
encouraged as the superior will be over-burdened. The managers incharge of both the
plants who have splintered authority can meet and pool their authority delegated to
them and can quickly take the decision jointly.

VII. CHARACTERISTICS:

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 1. Delegation of authority can be exercised only by higher authority: Higher authority
are responsible for delegating the authority to its subordinates.
2. Delegation can be of any kind: there is no rule that delegation to bf a particular kind.
3. Delegation does not mean transfer of final authority: Delegation doesn’t mean that it
is the transfer of final authority, it means delegating the works among individuals to
achieve the organization goal.
4. Does not involve surrender of power: There is no surrender or power when
delegation of work done.

VIII. PRINCIPLES OF DELEGATION:

1. Should be written and specific: There should be written specific delegation which
clarifies the responsibilities that is given to each individuals.
2. Authority and responsibility should be equal: there should not be any disequlibrium
between authority and responsibility. It should be equally distributed.
3. Should be properly planned and exercised: Delegation should not happen at a
sudden. It should be properly planned and exercised.
4. Right person should be chosen: For successful completion of the work, the
delegation should be done by choosing right person.
5. Good reporting system should be established: there should be good reporting system
when planning and delegating the work.
6. Should have certain objectives to get certain results: the delegation of work should
be done with clearly defined objectives so that at the end of the program we can
evaluate whether the objectives are achieved or not.
7. Superiors should be ready to give support and guidance: The superiors should
supervise the works of subordinates.
8. Overall responsibility lies with the superior: Delegation does not mean that giving
overall responsibility to subordinates.
9. There are a few guidelines in form of principles which can be a help to the manager
to process of delegation.
The principles of delegation are as follows: -

1. Principle of result excepted- suggests that every manager before delegating the

powers to the subordinate should be able to clearly define the goals as well as results
expected from them. The goals and targets should be completely and clearly defined

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 and the standards of performance should also be notified clearly. For example, a
marketing manager explains the salesmen regarding the units of sale to take place in a
particular day, say ten units a day have to be the target sales. While a marketing
manager provides these guidelines of sales, mentioning the target sales is very
important so that the salesman can perform his duty efficiently with a clear set of mind.
2. Principle of Parity of Authority and Responsibility- According to this principle, the
manager should keep a balance between authority and responsibility. Both of them
should go hand in hand.
According to this principle, if a subordinate is given a responsibility to perform a task,
then at the same time he should be given enough independence and power to carry out
that task effectively. This principle also does not provide excessive authority to the
subordinate which at times can be misused by him. The authority should be given in
such a way which matches the task given to him. Therefore, there should be no degree
of disparity between the two.

3. Principle of absolute responsibility- This says that the authority can be delegated but
responsibility cannot be delegated by managers to his subordinates which means
responsibility is fixed. The manager at every level, no matter what is his authority, is
always responsible to his superior for carrying out his task by delegating the powers. It
does not means that he can escape from his responsibility. He will always remain
responsible till the completion of task.
Every superior is responsible for the acts of their subordinates and are accountable to
their superior therefore the superiors cannot pass the blame to the subordinates even if
he has delegated certain powers to subordinates example if the production manager has
been given a work and the machine breaks down. If repairmen is not able to get repair
work done, production manager will be responsible to CEO if their production is not
completed.

4. Principle of Authority level- This principle suggests that a manager should exercise

his authority within the jurisdiction/framework given. The manager should be forced to
consult their superiors with those matters of which the authority is not given that means
before a manager takes any important decision, he should make sure that he has the
authority to do that on the other hand, subordinate should also not frequently go with
regards to their complaints as well as suggestions to their superior if they are not asked

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 to do. This principle emphasizes on the degree of authority and the level upto which it
has to be maintained.

5. Unity of Command.

This prince states that accountability is unitary. Each person should be accountable
only to one superior for delegated authority as he cannot serve two masters well. If a
person reports to two superiors for the same duty, confusion and friction will result. He
will find himself frequently receiving conflicting instructions. When this IS the case,
his only hope is to run the risk of displeasing either or both. Therefore, as far as
possible, dual subordination should be avoided.

6. Scalar Chain.

The scalar principle refers to the chain of direct authority relationship from superior to
subordinate throughout the organization. A clear understanding of scalar chain is
necessary for the proper functioning of the organization. Every subordinate must know
as to why the authority has been delegated to him and to whom matters beyond his own
authority must be referred to.

7. Effective Communication.

There should be two-way communication between the superior and the subordinate.
The superior must give the instructions in clear and unambiguous words and he must
also allow the subordinate to seek clarifications and guidance whenever the latter feels
any difficulty.

IX. SYMPTOMS OF POOR DELEGATION

1. Dissatisfied subordinates: When delegation is poor, the subordinates will not be

satisfied with their work and authority.
2. Disorganized effort: when delegation is not good, there will not be any harmony in
the work.
3. Long queue in front of boss office: In poor delegation, the subordinates have to wait
for their boss by standing in the queue instead the boss has to work with the
subordinates.

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4. Boss always busy: if the work is poorly delegated, the the authority will not have any
responsibility so that the boss will be busy.
6. Work never completed in time: The poor delegation will not allow the work to
complete at correct time that they decided during the planning phase.
7. Constant time pressure: There will be constant time pressure when the delegation of
work is not according to the individual capabilities.
8. Hold up of activities due to pending orders from boss: As the boss is not involved in
poor delegation there will be pending of job.

X. STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE DELEGATING

1. Plan ahead: Before strting the programme, the effective planning should be done
by stating the objectives and time.
2. Identify necessary skill and level: We have to identify the necessary skills needed
to complete the task.
3. Select most capable person: According the nature of work the most capable
person should be selected to complete the task.
4. Communicate goal clearly: The objectives or the goals must be stated clearly and
they have to communicate each other so that synchronization of activity is possible
which helps to achieve the goal.
5. Empower the delegate: The delegates should be provided with needed support
and supervision.
6. Set deadlines and monitor progress: The deadlines should be set before starting
the programme, and that should be monitored continuously inorder to avoid
unwanted dues in completing the programme.
7. Model the role: Provide guidance to the delegates to accomplishthe goals.
8. Evaluate performance: The performance should be evaluated at the end of the
programme by assessing the goals achieved or not.
9. Reward accomplishment: the best performance should begiven with reward for
more motivation and support.

XI. RIGHTS TO DELEGATION

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 National Council of State Board of Nursing in the US presented 5 rights to
delegation from the perspectives of both nursing service administrator and staff nurse.
Nursing service administrator is responsible for job description, role delineation,
development of organisational policies, procedures and standards an assurance of
adequate human resources. Staff nurse is responsible for assessing client, delegating
appropriately, communicate clearly, providing monitoring and supervision.
1. Right task
2. Right circumstance
3. Right person
4. Right direction/communication
5. Right supervision/evaluation

1.Right task
Nursing Service administrator(NSA) Staff Nurse
Appropriate activities for consideration in Appropriate delegation activities are
delegation decisions are identified in UAP identified for specific client(s).
job descriptions/role delineation.
Organizational policies, procedures and Appropriate activities are identified
standards describe expectations of and limits for specific UAP.
to activities.

Generally, appropriate activities for consideration in delegation decision-making include

those:

 which frequently reoccur in the daily care of a client or group of clients;

 which do not require the UAP to exercise nursing judgment;
 which do not require complex and/or multi-dimensional application of the nursing
process;
 for which the results are predictable and the potential risk is minimal; and
 which utilize a standard and unchanging procedure.

2.Right circumstance

Nursing Service Staff Nurse

administrator(NSA)

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Assess the health status of the client Assess health status of individual
community, analyze the data and identify client(s),
collective nursing care needs, priorities, analyze the data and identify client
and specific
necessary resources goals and nursing care needs.
Provide appropriate staffing and skill Match the complexity of the activity
mix, with the
identify clear lines of authority and UAP competency and with the level of
reporting, supervision available
and provide sufficient equipment and
supplies to meet the collective nursing
care needs.
Provide appropriate preparation in Provide for appropriate monitoring and
management techniques to deliver and guiding for the combination of client,
delegate care. activity
and personnel.

3.Right person

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 Nursing Service administrator(NSA) Staff Nurse
Establish organizational standards Instruct and/or assess, verify and identify
consistent the
with applicable law and rules which UAP’s competency on an individual and
identify client
educational and training requirements specific basis
and
competency measurements of nurses
andNursing
UAP. Service administrator(NSA) Staff Nurse
Communicate
Incorporate acceptable
competence activities,
standards intoUAPImplement
Communicate delegation development
own professional decision on a
competencies
institutional and qualifications,
policies; assess nurse and
andtheactivities
client based on assessed needs; assess
supervision plan through a description ofUAP
UAP specific and UAP-specific basis. The
a nursing service
performance; perform delivery model,performance;
evaluations detail perform evaluations of UAP
standards
based upon of andupon
based method (oral and
standards; and/or
takewritten)
steps to vary
care,
standards; role take descriptions
and steps to remedyandremedy
with failure
the to meet standards.
policies/procedures.
failure to specific circumstances.
Situation specific communication
meet standards, including reporting
includes:
nurses
a. specific data to be collected and
who fail to meet standards to board of
method
nursing.
and timelines for reporting,
b. specific activities to be performed
and any
client specific instruction and limitation,
and
c. the expected results or potential
complications and time lines for
communicating such information.

4. Right direction/communication

5.Right supervision/evaluation

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 Supervision may be provided by the delegating licensed nurse or by other licensed
nurses designated by nursing service administrators or the delegating nurse. The
supervising nurse must know the expected method of supervision (direct or indirect),
the competencies and qualifications of UAP, the nature of the activities which have
been delegated, and the stability/predictability of client condition.

Nursing Service Staff Nurse

administrator(NSA)
Assure adequate human resources, Supervise performance of specific
including nursing activities or assign supervision to
sufficient time, to provide for other licensed nurses.
sufficient
supervision to assure that nursing care
is
adequate and meets the needs of the
client.
Identify the licensed nurses Provide directions and clear expectations
responsible to of how the activity is to be performed:
provide supervision by position, title, ¨ monitor performance,
role ¨ obtain and provide feedback,
delineation. ¨ intervene if necessary, and
¨ ensure proper documentation.
Evaluate outcomes of client Evaluate the entire delegation process:
community and ¨ evaluate the client, and
use information to develop quality ¨ evaluate the performance of the
assurance activity.
and to contribute to risk management
plans.

XII. COMMON DELEGATION ERRORS

 Under delegating-frequently occurs from managers false assumption is that it may

be interpreted as a lack of ability on his part to do the job correctly or completely.

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 Another cause is manager‘s desire to complete the whole job personally due to lack
of trust in sub-ordinates.
 Over delegating- some managers over delegate burdening their subordinates. Others
do so because they feel insecure in their ability to perform a task, and due to lack of
organisation time. It can decrease the productivity.
 Improperly delegating- it includes delegating the things at wrong time, to the wrong
person or for the wrong reason. Also delegating the yaks and responsibilities that are
beyond the capability of the person to whom they are being delegated or that should
be done by the manager.

XIII. BARRIERS TO DELEGATION

1. Lack of confidence and trust in workers: when the authority does not have trust on
the workers, effective delegation of work will not be possible.
2. Low self confidence, insecurity: When the subordinates have less self confidence,
there will not be effective delegation possible.
3. Vague job description: If the job description is not according to the objectives and
goals and if these are not communicated to the subordinates, there will not be
effective delegation of work.
4. Inadequate training: If the people are not getting adequate training the delegation
will not be possible according to their efficiency.
5. Lack of adequate recruitment and selection
6. Time involved in explaining the task
7. Reluctance to take the risks involved in depending on others.
8. Fear of loss of power
XIV. ADVANTAGES OF DELEGATION
1. Delegation serves as a vehicle of co-ordination. The various levels of the
organization are used appropriately
2. A sound system of delegation tends to develop an increased sense of responsibility
and enhanced potential work capacity of individual employee.
3. It reduces the executive burden- It relieves the superior of time- consuming, minor
duties and allows him to concentrate more effectively on major responsibilities of his
own position.

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4. Delegation minimizes delay when decision have no longer to be referred up the line.
5. As delegation provides the means of multiplying the limited personal capacity of the
superior it is instrumental for encouraging of business.
6. Delegation permits the subordinates to enlarge their jobs, to broaden their
understanding and develop their capacity.
7. Delegation raises subordinates position in stature and importance and increase their
job satisfaction.

XV. DISADVANTAGES OF DELEGATION

1. Frailty (less than normal amount of strength or force) of human life
2. Unfamiliarity with art of delegation
3. Incapacity of subordinates.

CONCLUSION

For the effective administration of any organisation co-ordination and

delegation are essential. Without these two functions it will be difficult to achieve the
organisational goals . The right to delegate and the ability to provide formal reward for
successful completion of delegated tasks reflect the legitimate authority inherent in the
management role. It is a major element of the directing function of nursing
management. It is an effective nurse management competency by which nurse
managers get the work done through their employees. It was essential for management
areas.

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
I. INTRODUCTION

Any organisation in which people interact has a potential for conflict. Health
care institutions include many interacting groups: staff with staff, staff with patients,

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 staff with families and visitors, staff with physicians, and so on. These interactions
frequently lead to conflicts. Conflict relates to human feelings, including feelings of
neglect, of being taken for granted, of being treated like a servant, of not being
appreciated, of being ignored, and of being overloaded. Conflict is related to ignoring
an individual’s self esteem and worth. The individual’s feelings build into anger to the
point of range. This results in overt behaviours like brooding, arguing, or fighting.

II. DEFINITION

An expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties, who

perceive incompatible goals, scarce rewards, and interference from the other party in
achieving their goals. They are in a position of opposition in conjunction with
cooperation.

III. CHARACTERISTICS OF CONFLICT

The characteristics of a conflict situation are:

1) At least two parties (individuals or groups) are involved in some kind of interaction.
2) Mutually exclusive goals and mutually exclusive values exist, either in fact or as
perceived by the patients involved.
3) Interaction is characterized by behaviour destined to defeat, reduce, or suppress the
opponent or to gain a mutually designated victory.
4) The parties face each other with mutually opposing actions and counteractions.
5) Each party attempts to create an imbalance or relatively favoured position of power
vis-a-vis the other.

IV. TYPES OF CONFLICTS

Conflict has been described and studied from the standpoint of its context, or where it
occurs. 3 types of conflicts are

1. Intrapersonal conflict: - an intrapersonal conflict occurs within an individual in

situations in which he or she must choose between two alternatives. Choosing one
alternative means that he or she cannot have the other; they are mutually exclusive.
E.g. we might internally debate whether to complete an assignment that is due the
next day or watch a favourite television programme.
2. Interpersonal conflict: - is conflict between two or more individuals. It occurs
because of differing values, goals, action, or perceptions. For e.g. when you want to

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 go to a science fiction movie, but your partner may prefer to attend an opera.
Interpersonal conflict becomes more difficult when we are involved in issues relating
to racial, ethnic and life style values and norms.
3. Organizational conflicts: - conflict also occurs in organization because of
differing perceptions or goals. Organizational conflicts may be intrapersonal or
interpersonal, but they originate in the structure and function of the organization.
Typically, aspects of the organisations style of management, rules, policies and
procedures give rise to conflict. When a conflict occurs within an organization, it is
important that the conflict be resolved in a constructive way in order to maintain the
team’s motivation. The leader’s role takes on special significance.

Two areas responsible for conflict in organisations are role ambiguity and role
conflict

1. Role ambiguity occurs when employees do not know what to do, how to do it, or
what the outcomes must be. This frequently occurs when policies and rules are
ambiguous and unclear.
2. Role conflict occurs when two or more individuals in different positions within the
organization believe that certain actions or responsibilities belong exclusively to
them. The conflict could relate to competition. E.g. In some hospitals, conflict have
existed between the nurse and the social workers about the responsibility for
providing discharge planning. Both groups see discharge planning as an important
aspect of their own care of the patients.
3. Organisational structure: - may be another source of conflict. Often this is seen as a
conflict over territory. Everyone tries to protect his or her current territory or area of
responsibility and perhaps expand it. This type of conflict increases as organization
grows. To minimize it organizations use job descriptions, organisational charts and
other such mechanism.
4. Scarcity of resources: - resources are not only monetary. Resources may also refer
to employees, space or other elements critical to the operation of any unit within an
institution.

V. THE CONFLICT PROCESS

Before managers can or should attempt to intervene in conflict, they must be able to
assess its five stages accurately

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 1. Latent conflict (also called antecedent conditions).
2. Perceived conflict
3. Felt conflict
4. Manifest conflict
5. Conflict resolution
6. Conflict aftermath.

Latent conflict

The first stage in the conflict process, latent conflict, implies the existence of
antecedent conditions such as short staffing and rapid change. In this stage, conditions
are ripe for conflict, although no conflict has actually occurred and none may ever
occur. Much unnecessary conflicts could be prevented or reduced if managers
examined the organisation more closely for antecedent conditions.

Perceived conflict

If the conflict progresses, it may develop into the second stage: perceived
conflict. Perceived or substantive conflict is intellectualized and often involves issues
and roles. The person recognizes it logically and impersonally as occurring.
Sometimes, conflict can be resolved at this stage before it is internalized or felt.

Felt conflict

The third stage, felt conflict, occurs when the conflict is emotionalized. Felt
emotions include hostility, fear, mistrust, and anger. It is also referred to as affective
conflict. It is possible to perceive conflict and not feel it. A person also can feel the
conflict but not perceive the problem.

Manifest conflict

It is also called as overt conflict, action is taken. The action may be to

withdraw, compete, debate, or seek conflict resolution. People often learn pattern of
dealing with manifest conflict early in their lives, and family background and
experiences often directly affect how conflict is dealt with in adulthood. Gender also
may play a role in how we respond to conflict. Men are socialized to respond more
aggressively to conflict, while women are more apt to try to avoid conflicts or to pacify
them. Power also plays a role in conflict resolution. Therefore, the action an individual

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takes to resolve conflict is often influenced by culture, gender, age, power position and
upbringing.

Conflict aftermath

The final stage in the conflict process is conflict aftermath. There is always
conflict aftermath- positive or negative. If the conflict is managed well, people
involved in the conflict will believe that there position was given a fair hearing. If the
conflict is managed poorly the conflict issues frequently remain and may return later to
cause more conflict.

Outcomes of conflict

We often hear people hear about conflict situation resulting in win-win, win-lose and
lose-lose. Filley(1975) identified these 3 different positions or outcomes of conflict.

Win-lose outcome: - occurs when one person obtains his or her desired ends in the
situation and the other individual fails to obtain what is desired. Often winning occurs
because of power and authority within the organisation or situation.
Lose-lose outcome: - in lose-lose situation, there is no winner. The resolution of the
conflict is unsatisfactory to both parties.
Win- win outcome: - are of course the most desirable. In these situations, both parties
walk away from the conflict having achieved all or most of their goals or desires.

VI. CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

The optimal goal in resolving conflict is creating a win- win solution for all
involved. This outcome is not possible in every situation, and often the manager’s goal
is to manage the conflict in a way that lessens the perceptual differences that exist
between the involved parties. A leader recognizes which conflict management strategy
is most appropriate for each situation. The choice of most appropriate strategy depends
on many variables, such as the situation itself, the urgency of the decision, the power
and status of the players, the importance of the issue, and the maturity of the people
involved in the conflict.

Common conflict resolution strategies

1. Compromising

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 In compromising, each party gives up something it wants for compromising
not to result in a lose-lose situation, both parties must be willing to give up something
of equal value. It is important that parties in conflict do not adopt compromise
prematurely if collaboration is both possible and feasible.
2. Competing
The competing approach is used when one party pursues what it wants at the
expense of the others. Because only one party wins, the competing party seeks to win
regardless of the cost to others. Win-lose conflict resolution strategies leave the loser
angry, frustrated, and wanting to get even in the future. Managers may use competing
when a quick or unpopular decision needs to be made. It is also appropriately used
when one party has more information or knowledge about a situation than the other.
Competing in the form of resistance is also appropriate when an individual needs to
resist unsafe patient care policies or procedures, unfair treatment, abuse of power, or
ethical concerns.
3. Cooperating / Accommodating
Cooperating is the opposite of competing. In the cooperating approach, one
party sacrifices his or her beliefs and allows the other party to win. The actual
problem is usually not solved in this win-lose situation. Accommodating is another
term that may be used for this strategy. The person cooperating or accommodating
often collects IOUs from the other party that can be used at a later date. Cooperating
and accommodating are appropriate political strategies if the item in conflict is not of
high value to the person doing the accommodating.
4. Smoothing
Smoothing is used to manage a conflict situation. One person “smoothes”
others involved in the conflict in an effort to reduce the emotional component of the
conflict. Managers often use smoothing to get someone to get accommodate or
cooperate with another party. Smoothing occurs when one party in a conflict attempts
to compliment the other party or to focus on agreements rather than differences.
Although it may be appropriate for minor disagreements, smoothing rarely results in
resolution of actual conflict.

5. Avoiding

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 In the avoiding approach, the parties involved are aware of a conflict but
choose not to acknowledge it or attempt to resolve it. Avoidance may be indicated in
trival disagreements, when the cost of dealing with the conflict exceeds the benefits of
solving it, when the problem should be solved by people other than you, when one
party is more powerful than the other, or when the problem will solve itself. The great
problem in using avoidance is that the conflict remains, often only to re-emerge at a
later time in an even more exaggerated fashion.
6. Collaborating
Collaborating is an assertive and cooperative means of conflict resolution that
results in a win-win solution. In collaboration, all parties set aside their original goals
and work together to establish a supraordinate or priority common goal. In doing so,
all parties accept mutual responsibility for reaching the supraordinate goal. Although
it is very difficult for people truly to set aside original goals, collaborating cannot
occur if this doesn’t happen. For example, a nurse who is unhappy that she did not
receive requested days off might meet with her superior and jointly establish the
supraordinate goal that staffing will be adequate to meet the patient safety criteria. If
the new goal is truly a jointly set goal, each party will perceive that an important goal
has been achieved and that the supraordinate goal is most important. In doing so, the
focus remains on problem solving and not on defeating the other party.
Collaboration is rare when there is a wide difference in power between the
groups or individuals involved. In collaboration problem solving is a joint effort with
no superior-subordinate, order giving-order taking relationship. True collaboration
requires mutual respect; open and honest communication; equitable, shared decision
making powers.
For a leader to gain competence in facilitating collaboration, the following ten lessons
must be learned.
1. Know thyself - as individuals come to the process of collaboration, they must
be conscious of their own goals and values so that they may be more
reflective.
2. Learn to value and manage diversity - diverse perspective assist with
synthesis and improve quality of the collaboration process. Diversity includes
both gender and cultural differences.
3. Develop constructive conflict resolution skills - conflict resolution skills are
essential for successful collaboration. These skills include an understanding of
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 the conflict process, the nature of emotional versus task conflict, and effective
conflict management.
4. Use your power to create win- win situations - while dominant power has no
place in the collaboration process, the leader can use power to mediate, draw
out others, show respect for members, demonstrate good will, share
information, and use the power of position to facilitate the collaborative
process.
5. Master interpersonal and process skills - interpersonal skills such as flexibility
and cooperation are important as well as the organisational skills of systems
thinking, especially understanding organizational connections.
6. Recognize that collaboration is a journey - establish rapport, clarifying
expectations, and requesting feedback takes time, and lack of time often limits
opportunities for effective collaboration. But each collaborative effort is a step
in the journey to establishing a climate of collaboration for future conflict.
7. Leverage multidisciplinary forums to increase collaboration - shared decision
making is a hallmark of the collaborative process. Use forums to both listen to
others and to put forth your own position.
8. Appreciate that collaboration can occult spontaneously - sometimes, the best
collaboration may begin in a hallway conversation that results in people
beginning to work together and share ideas to solve a conflict. Such exchanges
can be exciting when a shared commitment for action is agreed up on.
9. Balance autonomy and unity in collaborative relationships - the leader must
balance cooperation with the need to meet one’s own needs to find integrative
solutions.
10. Remember that collaboration is not required for all decisions - autonomous
decision making is still vital, and taking the time for the collaborative process
is often not cost effective for many conflict issues.
7. Negotiation
Negotiation is probably the most rapidly growing technique for handling
conflicts. According to Hampton, Summer, and Webber, negotiation includes
bargaining power, distributive bargaining, integrative bargaining and mediation. They
are defined as follows:
 Bargaining power: refers to another person’s inducement to agree to your
terms.
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  Distributive bargaining: What either side gains is at the expense of the other.
Most labour-management bargaining falls into this category.
 Integrative bargaining: negotiators reach a solution that enhances both parties
and produces high joint benefits. Each party looks out for its own interest,
with the focus shifting to problem solving- from reducing demands to
expanding the pool of resources.
 Mediation: mediators attempt to eliminate surrender as a demand. They
encourage each party to acknowledge that they have injured the other, but are
also dependent on each other.
STRATEGIES TO PREVENT CONFLICT IN NURSING

1. Deal with the situation

Most people prefer to avoid conflict. Nurses who actually have quit their jobs
rather than attempt to resolve an interpersonal conflict at work. This almost never is a
good solution, and it usually leads to feelings of regret and guilt. When ignore or avoid
it, it can lead to increased stress and unresolved feelings of anger, hostility and
resentment. When learn to manage conflict effectively, become a better leader, a better
team member and a better person and gain respect, improve self-esteem and build
courage.

2. Think it through

Before addressing the person with whom you have a conflict, consider
discussing the situation with an objective friend or family member. This can help to
clarify issues and needs. Seek feedback and advice in dealing with the situation. But be
careful not to rely on the opinion of an involved third party who may have his or her
own agenda. Plan your strategy, including what you want to say, and then write it down
and rehearse it. Create a note card, if necessary, with your main talking points. This
will help you to feel more in control and stay on target.

3. Talk it out, face to face

Meeting in person can be intimidating, but it is often the best way to go. Face-
to-face communication is more effective than other forms because it allows for an
active exchange of information. It gives you the opportunity to make use of the
handshake, a smile, eye contact, hand gestures and other important body language. It

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also allows you to observe important nonverbal cues from the other party. Set aside
time to meet with the person face-to-face at a mutually convenient time and place.
When possible, meet on “neutral turf” rather than one of your offices so no one has the
“home court” advantage. E-mail and letter writing should be avoided, if possible, to
resolve conflict or to discuss sensitive topics, problems or hurt feelings. It is too
impersonal and indirect and increases the risk of miscommunication and
misunderstanding. A phone call is the next best thing when in-person meetings aren’t
possible.

4. Use a mediator, if necessary

If a situation is particularly volatile or troublesome and other efforts have not

worked and can invite a neutral third party, such as a supervisor, to act as a mediator if
this is agreeable to all concerned. A mediator can remain objective, listen to both sides,
and facilitate resolution and compromise. Be firm on our objectives; there to resolve a
conflict, not defeat an opponent.

5. Apologize when appropriate

Be aware of own part in creating the conflict. If done something wrong or

inappropriate, be willing to acknowledge it and say you’re sorry, even if the conflict is
not entirely a result of your actions. Sometimes you have to meet people halfway to get
to where you want to go. There always will be differing opinions and ways of doing
things. Decide which issues you can live with and which need addressing. If you bring
up only the most important issues, will develop credibility. On the other hand, if make
an issue about everything, will be labeled a complainer.

Take steps to minimize conflict  at work before it happens. Work at

developing good relationships with coworkers and colleagues. Get to know people. Be
friendly and sociable. Everyone has different needs and priorities and comes from
different cultural backgrounds. Contrary to what you’ve heard, familiarity breeds
respect.

7. Work on your communication skills

The ability to express yourself clearly will allow you to say what’s on your
mind, ask for what you want and need and get your point across. There is an expression
that a problem well-stated is a problem half-solved. Avoid troublemakers as much as

25
 possible; they will suck you in and drag you down. Don’t engage in gossip or
backstabbing. Get the facts before jumping to conclusions about something you’re
heard through the grapevine. Know when it’s appropriate to walk away from a
confrontation, and always consider the source in the face of criticism or hurtful
comments.

Conflict can’t be avoided, but it can be minimized and resolved. Although

avoidance sometimes seems like the easy way out, facing conflict head-on in an
appropriate and professional manner will lead to better relationships, a more productive
work environment and empowerment.

SPECIFIC SKILLS IN MANAGING CONFLICT

 Establish clear rules or guidelines and make them known to all.

 Create a supportive climate with a variety of options. This makes people feel
comfortable about making suggestions. It energizes them, promoting creative thinking
and leading to better solutions. It strengthens relationship.
 Tell people they are appreciated. Praise and confirmation of worth are important to
every one for job satisfaction.
 Stress peaceful resolution rather than confrontation. Build a bridge of understanding.
 Confront when necessary to preserve Pease. Do so by educating people about their
behaviour. Tell them the behaviour you perceive, what is wrong with it, and how it
needs to be corrected.
 Play a role that does not create stress or conflict. Do not play an ambiguous and
fluctuating role that creates confusion among employees.
 Judge timing that is best for all. do not postpone indefinitely.
 Keep the focus on issues and off personalities.
 Keep communication two-way
 Emphasize shared interests.
 Examine all solutions and accept the one most acceptable to both parties.
 If conflict is evident at decision making or implementation stage, work to reach an
agreement. Commit to a course of action serving some interests of all parties. Seek
agreement rather than power.
 Understand barriers to cooperation or resolution and focus on the dynamics of conflict
to resolve it.

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 Determine needs that are being ignored or frustrated and require recognition and
nurturing.
 Build trust by listening, clarifying, and allowing the challenges to unwind completely.
Give feedback to make sure you understand. Let people know you care and that you
trust them.
 Renegotiate problem solving procedures to forestall further anger, distrust, and
defensiveness.

MANAGING UNIT CONFLICT

Managing conflict effectively requires an understanding of its origin. Some common

causes of organisational conflicts are

 Poor communication
 Inadequately defined organisational structure
 Individual behaviour (incompatibilities or disagreements based on differences of
temperament or attitudes).
 Unclear expectations
 Individual or group conflicts of interest
 Operational or staffing changes
 Diversity in gender, culture or age.

All these types of unit conflicts can disrupt working relationship and result in lower
productivity. It is imperative, then, that the manager can identify the origin of unit
conflicts and intervene as necessary to promote cooperative, if not collaborative
conflict resolution.

The following is the list of strategies that a manager may use to deal effectively with
interpersonal, organisational, or unit conflict:

1. Confrontation: Many times the subordinates inappropriately expect the manager to

solve their interpersonal conflicts. Managers instead can urge subordinates to attempt
to handle their own problems by using face to face communication to resolve
conflicts, as emails, answering message machines, and notes are too impersonal for
the delicate nature of negative words.
2. Third party consultation: Sometimes, managers can be used as neutral party to help
others resolve conflicts constructively. This should be done only if all parties are

27
 motivated to solve the problem and if no differences exist in the status or power of the
parties involved. If the conflict involves multiple parties and highly charged emotions,
the manager may find outside experts helpful for facilitating communication and
bringing issues to the forefront.
3. Behaviour change: this is reserved for serious cases of dysfunctional conflict.
Educational modes, training development, or sensitivity training can be used to solve
conflict by developing self awareness and behaviour change in the involved parties.
4. Responsibility charting: when ambiguity results from unclear or new roles, it is
often necessary to have the parties come together to delineate the function and
responsibility of roles. If areas of joint responsibility exist, the manager must clearly
define such areas as ultimate responsibility, approval mechanisms, support services,
and responsibility for informing. This is useful technique for elementary jurisdictional
conflict.
5. Structure change: sometimes, managers need to intervene in unit conflict by
transferring or discharging people. Other structure changes may be moving a
department under another manager, adding an ombudsman, or putting a grievance
procedure in place. Often increasing the boundaries of authority for one member of
the conflict will act as effective structure change to resolve unit conflict. Changing
titles and creating policies also are effective techniques.
6. Soothing one party: this is a temporary solution that should be used in a crisis
when there is not time to handle the conflict effectively or when the parties are so
enraged that immediate conflict resolution is unlikely regardless of how the parties are
soothed, the manager must address the underlying problem later or this technique will
become ineffective.

POSITIVE ASPECTS OF CONFLICTS

Not all conflicts are equally serious, ominous or intimidating. Not all conflicts
results in contest. A certain amount of conflict or tension is needed for our personal
growth and development.

1. Conflict is an impetus for change :- conflict may have many positive

consequences. First, it often provides the impetus for change through the
identification of problems or differences in procedures. New methods, procedures,
policies, or approaches will be searched for, evaluated and implemented. A situation

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in which individuals or departments are struggling with one another must be resolved.
Solutions must be found that will result in greater harmony. Thus the conflict results
in stimulating innovation, creativity and change.
2. Conflict helps understand others jobs and responsibilities :- conflict also helps
individual understand one another’s jobs and responsibilities. The health care
environment and the medical, nursing and allied health professionals are becoming
increasingly specialized. The differences provide a fertile ground for conflict. In the
process of looking for solutions to a problem, it is necessary to learn more about the
other person and the factors that impinge on that individual’s workday and
responsibilities. This knowledge results in a great appreciation for others on the team,
creating unification and bonding within the organization. Conflict situation provide an
area in which differences in values and beliefs can be brought out into the open, re-
evaluated or challenged.
3. Conflict opens new channels of communication: - setting conflicts involve
defining and examining a problem. Both these activities require skills in
communication. In the process, new approaches and avenue may evolve. In this sense
conflict can result in providing a formalized channel by which to express a grievance
or once dissatisfaction with the manner in which something is being done. Thus
accumulated hostility can be reduced. Conflict may also result in more equitable
distribution of resources or power within an organization.
4. Conflict as an energizer: - conflict also serves to energise people. It wakes them up
a spicy disagreement between departments or individuals tend to get our attention,
and add a new dimension to the work environment. In this sense conflict also provide
an outlet for pent up emotions.
5. Conflict as a unifier: - there are times in any organization when a staff group can
be united by a threat or challenge from outside the group. The conflict may ultimately
result in strengthening of group identity and sense of togetherness.

VII. THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER IN THE RESOLVE OF THE

CONFLICT
The most precious source of an organization is the human resource undoubtly.
For this reason, during the process of change and development, the evaluation of
human resources in all management activities in the most effective and efficient ways
has become more important . It is necessary for the manager to cease the conflicts
29
between the people and to head for resolving the conflicts in the name of using the
human resources efficiently and effectively. Strategic decision-making influences
organizational performance.
 There are some prominent analyzes that a manager who wants to resolve the
conflicts should primarily do. Who are the conflicting parties? What are the
reasons? What are the phases of the conflict? Moreover, which stage does
exist in it? Moreover, which conflict stage does the organization exist in?
What are the positive effects and negative effects that the conflict has had on
the business organization, which of them take precedence over the others? Can
the conflict be managed? Can it be prevented? What are the solutions fort he
conflicts? The manager who can answer these question with adequate and
valid information can now make decisions more correctly, and the effort to
resolve the conflict in this way can be fictionalized on a more reliable ground.
 The conflict does not become out of a clear sky and win through. It grows
mature by going through different phases. We can explain these phases briefly
as following:
1. First Phase: This is the phase of waiting and foresight. The manager
foresees that different opinions will be manifested due to the reasons that may
cause conflicts and awaits.
2. Second Phase: The symptoms of the conflict become evident slowly. The
indications with respect to that conflict, hardships will show up rear their ugly
heads. •
3. Third Phase: This is the phase of open-ended interview. The change is
mentioned for all of the world the questions are asked and dissents or namely
collisions (difference of opinions) become apparent.
4. Fourth Phase: The subject of the conflict is discussed in this phase.
5. Fifth Phase: The parties finally made their positive or negative decisions
regarding the problem. The struggle has began. Either one will win and the
other will be defeated or a mutual solution will be achieved. The involvement
of the manager in the conflicts will vary in line with the phases. The active
involvement will be made in the first phase while the least active one is done
in the fifth phase. Seeing that which phase is the conflict present, the manager
should choose to prevent the conflict or annihilate it in accordance with the

30
 phase that the conflict is present in. If conflict is moderate, the profits that the
business organization will obtain from are not adequate from the viewpoint of
the manager, he/she can deem to preventing or annihilating the conflict more
profitably. Within this scope, these are the methods he/she can resort.
The methods that prevent and annihilate the conflicts in the organizations are:
a) Commitment. This attitude adds up to ignore the conflict. The manager does not
become a party evidently and doesn’t get involved in the conflict directly. The
decisions regarding the conflict are retarded.
b) Freezing. The water awaits until it calms down a bit. In this case, moderation
method is used. By this way, decreasing the differences between the groups the
emphasis that all the groups have common benefits. By determining more important
purposes, a struggle is made by the parties to incorporate and cooperate for the same
purposes in question by making the parties forget the differences between
themselves.
c) The approach to resolving the problem. By this method, the conflict is given a
hard time without hesitation. The manager enables the conflicting parties to discuss
the matter for all of the world to see by making them confront each other. This
method is very useful especially for those conflicts that stemmed from a lack of
information and communication.
d) Moderating. This way means downscaling the conflict by bringing the collective
benefits or differences between the parties of the conflict into the forefront. The
manager thus leads the conflicting parties to moderating and compromising. For
example, one way is that the manager approaches conflicting parties by saying ‘we
are a family’ moderates the parties.
e) Using power and authority. This means the resolution of the conflicts by using
power, authority and jurisdiction of the manager. The manager that follows this
method says ‘I am the manager here, and this will be as I want’ and this resolves the
problem. It is beyond any doubt that this decision may not bring the parties to an
agreement, but it ceases the conflict.
f) Setting an objective. By setting more important, effective and comprehensive
purposes than the purposes of the conflicting parties, by putting aside the differences
between the conflicting parties, this method enables the parties to unit together in
accordance with these purposes.

31
 g) Making a concession. By this method, it may have power to strike a balance by
making a sacrifice for their purposes. In this way, no party prevails. Both parties
reach an agreement by making concessions.
h) Changing the persons. The prevention of the conflict may be ensured by
assigning which become a party to conflict to other units. This method can be used
in conflicts that harm the organization and bear only negative results.
i) Changing the organizational relations. The rearrangement and development of
the organizational relations decrease the conflicts within the organization.
j) Punishing. At a certain point when the conflict brings damage to people and the
foundation, the ones that caused the conflict may be punished.
k) Mediation. Assigning an expert as an arbitrator between the parties, making
them arbitrate and preparing in an agreement environment between the parties may
be useful so as to prevent the conflict.
l) Competition. Implementing the parties the approach of ‘win or lose’, playing
power games, pushing them to knuckle down are some of the competition methods.
m) Collaboration. Being willing to resolve the problem, confronting with the
differences and exchange of ideas, seeking for coalescent solutions, finding out the
cases as a result of which everyone will be profitable as factors of collaboration
method.

CONCLUSION

The interrelationship among nurses and other personnel, patients, and families
offer many potentials for conflict. For this reason nurse managers should know how
to manage conflict. Conflict management keeps conflict from escalating, making
work productive, and can make conflict a positive or constructive force.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1) BT Basavanthappa; Nursing administration; 2nd edition; Jaypee publications. Pp

534-537.
2) Russel. C.swansburg; introduction to management and leadership for nurse
managers; 3rd edition; Jones and Bartlett publisher. Pp 543-548.
3) Bessie L Marquis; leadership roles and management functions in nursing. 5th edition.
Lippincot publication. Pp 523-543.

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4) Rebecca A Patronis; nursing leadership and management; Jaypee publishers; first
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5) Jogindra vati “ Principles and practice of nursing management and administration
for MSc nursing”, 1st edition(2013), Jaypee medical publishers, Newdelhi.
6) Deepak K “ A comprehensive text book nursing management” , 1st edition(2003)
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