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BOUNDARY LAYER Thin region adjacent to surface of a body where viscous forces
dominate over inertia forces
⎛ inertia forces ⎞
Re = ⎜ ⎟ Re >> 1
⎝ viscous forces ⎠
Boundary
layer
separation
Wake:
viscous
effects not
Outer flow Flow field
important
Viscouseffect around vorticity
an not
s negligible Inner flow
arbitraryzero
Vorticity zero Strongshape
(Inviscid viscous
potential flow) effects
Steady ,incompressible 2-D flow with no body
dθ 1 dU τ ∂u n
+ (δ * + 2θ ) = 02 forces. Valid for laminar flow τ0 ∼ ( )
dx θ dx ρU dy
O.D.E for θ ( x )
To solve eq. we first ”assume” an approximate velocity profile inside the B.L
Relate the wall shear stress to the velocity field
Typically the velocity profile is taken to be a polynomial in y, and the degree of fluid
this polynominal determines the number of boundary conditions which may be
satisfied
u
EXAMPLE: = a + bη + cη 2 = f (η ) LAMINAR FLOW OVER A FLAT PLATE:
U
U∞
U≈
0,99U∞
• Laminar boundary layer predictable
• Turbulent boundary layer poor predictability
UL
• Controlling parameter Re =
ν
∂u* * ∂u
*
* ∂u
*
∂P* 1 ∂ 2u* ∂ 2u *
X; +u +ν =− + ( 2 + 2)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x Re ∂x ∂y
viscous terms
P
P* =
∂ν ∂ν ∂ν ∂P 1 ∂ 2ν ∂ 2ν ρU ∞2
Y; +u +ν =− + ( + )
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂y Re ∂x 2 ∂y 2
1
Re → ∞ → 0
Re
U∞
U∞
U (x,y)
y
δ
δ 1
δ* = 〈
L 100
L
δ
δ* = 〈〈1
L
Term Order
(1)
∂u* =1
(1)
∂x*
δ*
∂ν *
=1
δ*
∂y*
v* δ*
∂ν * δ*
=δ*
∂x* 1
∂ 2u * 1
2
∂y*2 δ*
du * ∂u *
u*
=1
dt * ∂x*
∂u* * ∂u
*
* ∂u
*
∂P* 1 ∂ 2u* ∂ 2u*
+u +ν =− + ( 2 + 2)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x Re ∂x ∂y
∂ν * * ∂ν
*
* ∂ν
*
∂P* 1 ∂ 2ν * ∂ 2ν *
+u +ν =− * + ( 2 + *2 )
∂t * ∂x* ∂y * ∂y Re ∂x* ∂y
(δ * ) (δ * )
* (1) (δ ) *
*
2
(δ * ){
δ*
+
δ*
(1) (δ ) (1)2 (δ * ) 2
}
(δ * ) (δ * ) (δ * ) (δ * )
∂P* ∂P* (1)
(δ * ) small relative to
∂y* ∂x*
y
2-D planar x
Governing
∂u ∂v
1) + =0
∂x ∂y eqs.for B.L
B-L.eqs.
∂u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂P ∂ 2u
2) +u +v =− +ν 2 still non-linear
∂t ∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂y
but parabolic type
• 2-D, steady
BCs
• u=ν =0 at y=0
• u=u(y) at x=0
L is small δ invalid
δ* = 〈〈1
L
(3) Where the flow separates not valid beyond the separation point
Separation point
P V2 1 dP 1 dV
+ = constant + 2U =0
ρ 2 ρ dx 2 dx
Valid along the streamlines
1 dP dU
− =U substitute the B.L eqs u,v can be found
ρ dx dx
known
Example 1
Flow over a semi-infinite flat plate
Zero pressure gradient dp p = constant
=0
dx
∂u ∂ν (1)
+ =0
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂ 2u (2)
u +v =ν 2
∂x ∂y ∂y
B.C.
• y=0 u= v =0 (no-slip) & y ∞ ,u U
• x=0 u=U
Blasuis(1908) :
• Recall ; ∂ψ ∂ψ
u= ν =−
∂y ∂x
note that ψ satisfies cont. eqs. substitute intoB.L. mom. Eqs
∂ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 3ψ (2’)
. − . =ν 3
∂y ∂x∂y ∂x ∂y 2 ∂y
• Now, assume that we have a similarity “stretching” variable, which has all velocity
profiles on plate scaling on
δ .
i.e
u y
= f( )
U∞ δ y
δ
x
δ U∞ x 1
x
= g(
ν
) = g (Re)
Re
∼ (δ 2 ) δ∼ ν
νx
δ∼ m2 m δ 1
U∞ . .s = [ m ] ∼ both (δ )
s m x Re x
y
Let η= [-] similarity variable
δ
u
U
η=y ∞ = f (η )
νx U
η
∂ψ y y
νx
u = ψ = ∫ udy = ∫ Uf (η )dy = ∫ Uf (η ) dη
∂y x = fix e d U
0 0 0
η
ψ = Uν x ∫ f (η )dη = Uν xF (η )
0
ψ = Uν xF (η )
F (η )
ψ = Uν xF (η ) η=y
U∞
νx
y
∂ψ ∂ψ
ψ − ψ 0 = ∫ udy dψ = dy + dx
0
∂y ∂x
•Now, substitute ψ into P.D.E for ψ (x,y) to get O.D.E for F(η )
∂ψ 1 U ∞ν ∂η dF
= F + U ∞ν xF ' F' = d 2F
∂x 2 x ∂x F =
''
dη dη 2
∂η 1 U∞ 1 1 ∂ψ 1 U ∞ν ∂ψ U∞
=− y =− η = ( F −η F ' ) = U ∞ν xF ' = U∞ F '
∂x 2 νx x 2x ∂x 2 x ∂y νx
∂ 2ψ U ∂ 2ψ U ∞ '' ∂ 3ψ U ∞2 '''
= − ∞ η F '' = U F = F
∂x∂y 2x ∂y 2
∞
νx ∂y 3 ν x
U∞ ⎡ 1 U ∞ν 12 ⎤⎡ U ∞ 12 ⎤ U ∞2
U ∞ F '(− η F ''') − ⎢ ( ) ( F − η F ') ⎥ ⎢U ∞ ( ) F ''⎥ = ν F '''
2x ⎣2 x ⎦⎣ νx ⎦ νx or
U ∞2 1 U ∞2 1 U ∞2 U ∞2
− η F '' F '− F '' F + η F '' F ' = F '''
2x 2 x 2 x x
1 blasius eq. 3rd order , non linear ODE
F '''+ FF '' = 0
2
U∞
Note: F '''+ FF '' = 0 for η=y BVP
2ν x
BC’s are
At y=0 u=v=0 η =0
BC 1) u y =0 =
∂ψ
=0 U ∞ F ' η =0 = 0 F’(0)=0
∂y y =0
1 U ∞ν F(0)=0
BC 2) ν y =0
=0 −
2 x
( F − η F ') = 0
BC 3) (x,y ∞) U∞
∂ψ 1
→ U∞ U ∞ F ' η →∞ = U ∞ F '(η → ∞ ) F '(∞) = 1
∂y y →∞
F( η) dimensionless function
Or At x=0 u = U∞ U ∞ F ' x =0 = U ∞
η →∞
p.g 121
u
U
η=y ∞ F F'= F ''
νx U∞
0 0 0 0.33206
=y
U∞
γx η
5
5
F’= u U ν
∞ Re x
U∞
0.8
1 U ∞ν
∂ψ 1 U ∞ν η →∞ ν∞ = (5 x1 − 3.28)
ν =− = (η F '− F ) 2 x
∂x 2 x
ν∞ 1
ν 1 − 12 = 0.86
= Re x [η F '− F ] U∞ Re x
U∞ 2
Shear stress distribution along the flat plate
∂u ∂ν ν∞ 1
τ = µ( + ) τ ( x, y ) For Re x = 104 ⇒ = 0.00865 ≈
∂y ∂x U∞ 100
∂u*
∂ν *
∂u ν∞ 1
τ ≅µ For Re x = 106 ⇒ = 0.000865 ≈
∂y* ∂x* ∂y U∞ 1000
∂u
At the wall (y=0) τ 0 ( x) = µ
∂y y =0
τ w ( x)
∂ 2ψ U∞ U ∞3
τ 0 ( x) = µ 2 = µU ∞ F '' η =0 τ 0 ( x) = µ F ''(0)
∂y y =0
νx νx
τ0 2 F ''(0) 0.664 U .x ν
Cf = = = Re x = C f = 0.664
1
ρU ∞2 Re x Re x ν Ux
2
Friction coef.
Note : x→0 ⇒ τ0 → ∞
ν →∞
y
FD = ∫ τ 0 (ζ )d ζ τ
0
↓
x
2 FD = 1.328(b) U µρ x 3
∞ x
2 FD
CD = A=2bx
1
ρU ∞2 A
2 Width normal to the blackboard
1.328
CD = valid for laminar flow i.e for Re x < 5.105 to 106
Rex
for Re x >106 → turbulent drag becomes considerably greater
U∞ u
η=y at η = 5 ⇒ = 0.99 → y = δ (Table)
νx U
U∞ 5x U∞ x
5≅δ δ≅ Re x =
νx Re x ν
Displacement thickness: δ
U∞ U∞
δ* δ
δ*
an imaginary displacement of fluid from the surface to account for “lost” mass flow in boundary
layer
. ∞ ∞ ∞ δ*
mtot = ∫ ρ udy = ∫ ρU ∞ dy = ∫ ρU ∞ dy − ∫ ρU ∞ dy or
0 y =δ * 0 0
− ρU ∞δ *
∞ ∞
u
ρU ∞δ = ∫ ( ρU ∞ − ρ u )dy
*
δ = ∫ (1 − )dy
*
0 0
U∞
if ρ = cons. δ > δ * always by definition
Momentum thickness: θ
U∞
∞ ∞
ρU ∞2θ = ∫ ( ρ udy )U ∞ − ∫ ( ρ udy ) u
0 0
Mass flow in B.L
"lost" momentum
∞
u u
θ =∫ (1 − )dy will occur in B.L eqs.
0
U∞ U∞
notes(remaks)
∗ Various thinknesses defined above are,to some extend,an indication of the distance over which viscous effects extend.
∗ δ*,θ(x) only
∗ δ >δ* >θ (always)
∗ Definition is same for ZPG,APG,FPG,turbulance
5x δ
Fromflat plate analysis δ ≅ u
Rex and δ = ∫ (1 −
x
)dy
0
u∞
u∞ u∞
remember η=y ⇒ dη = d y
νx νx
η =5 η =5
u νx νx
δ* = ∫
0
(1 − )
u∞ u∞
dη =
u∞ ∫
0
(1 − F ' )dη
ν xx x 1.72 x
[η − F ]0 = [ ]
5
5 − 3.283 =
u∞ x Re x Re x
F (5) = 3.283
1.72 x
δ* =
Re x
δ
u u 0.664 x
Similarly, θ =∫ (1 − )d y =
u
0 ∞
u∞ Re x
δ
δ
δ*
δ *
θ
θ
u ( x, y ) = U ( x) f '(η )
where (1) y ζ ( x) - unspecified function of x which will be determined later
η=
ζ ( x)
∂ψ 1
(2) ψ ( x, y ) = U ( x)ζ ( x) f (η ) check : u= = U ( x) ζ ( x ) f '(η )
∂y ζ ( x)
∂u ∂u dU ∂ 2u
B.L eqs. u +v =U +ν 2 (3)
∂x ∂y dx ∂y
∂ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ψ ∂ 2ψ dU ∂ 3ψ
or in terms of ψ ( x, y ) − =U +ν 3 (3')
∂y ∂x∂y ∂x ∂y 2 dx ∂y
B.C.s no-slip, smooth matching
Substitute eq .(2) into (3’) η= y
ζ ( x)
df d2 f
ψ = U ( x )ζ ( x ) f (η ) = ψ ( x , y ) f '= , f "=
dη dη 2
∂ψ
= Uf ' ( = u )
∂y
∂ψ dU dζ df dη
= ζ f +U f +Uζ
∂x dx dx dη dx
dη y dζ 1 dζ
=− 2 = −η
dx ζ dx ζ dx
∂ψ dU dζ dζ
= ζ f +U f −U ηf'
∂x dx dx dx
∂ 2ψ ∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞ ∂ dU ∂f '
= ⎜ ⎟ = [Uf '] = f '+ U
∂x∂y ∂x ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂x dx ∂x
dU df ' ∂η dU ⎡ 1 dζ ⎤
= f '+ U = f '+ Uf " ⎢ −η ⎥
dx dη ∂x dx ⎣ ζ dx ⎦
∂ 2ψ dU U dζ
= f '− ηf"
∂x∂y dx ζ dx
∂ 2ψ ∂ ∂η U
= [Uf '] = Uf " = f"
∂y 2
∂y ∂y ζ
∂ 3ψ U
= 2 f "'
∂y 3
ζ
Substitute above results into (3')
⎡ dU U dζ ⎤ ⎡ dU dζ dζ ⎤U dU U
Uf ' ⎢ f '− η f "⎥ − ⎢ ζ f +U f −U η f '⎥ f " = U + ν 2 f "'
⎣ dx ζ dx ⎦ ⎣ dx dc dx ⎦ζ dx ζ
dU dU 1 dζ dU U
U ( f ') 2 − U ff " − U 2 ff " = U +ν 2 f "'
dx dx ζ dx dx ζ
dU U d dU U
u ( f ') 2 − (U ζ ) ff " = U +ν 2 f "'
dx ζ dx dx ζ
ζ2
To put the eq. into standard form, multiply by
νU
Transformed gov. Eq.
⎡ζ d ⎡ ζ dU ⎤ ⎡
2
⎤
(U ζ ) ⎥ ff "+ ⎢ ( ) ⎤=0
2
f "'+ ⎢ ⎥ 1 − f ' (4)
⎣ ν dx ⎦ ⎣ ν dx ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
α β
If a similarity solution exists, eq.(4) must be an ODE for the function f in terms of η.
So, coefficieuts α & β must be constant for a similarity solution
ζ dU
=0 (6b)'
ν dx
dU
ζ ( x ) ≠ 0 ⇒ (6b ) ' leads to =0⇒ U=const.
dx this means that flat plate at ZPG
dζ 2 ν νx
(6 a ) ' = →ζ 2 =
dx U U
νx
ζ ( x) =
U
1
Step #3 : f '''+ ff '' = 0 f (0) = f '(0) = 0
2
y
η= η → ∞; f ' → 1 compare with Blasius solution
νx
U
⎛ ⎞
⎛ y⎞ ν x ⎜⎜ y ⎟⎟
Step #4 ψ ( x, y ) = U ζ f ⎜ ⎟ = U f
⎝ζ ⎠ U ⎜ νx ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ U ⎠
⎛ U ⎞
ψ ( x, y ) = Uν x f ⎜⎜ y ⎟⎟ ← same as Blasius solution
⎝ νx ⎠
Example #2 FLOW OVER WEDGE
Step #1 α = 1, β = arbitrary constant
d
(6a' )
dx
( )
Uζ 2 =ν ( 2 − β ) ⇒ Uζ 2 =ν ( 2 − β ) x (7)
dU
(6b ') ζ2 = νβ
dx
Divide eq. (6b') by (7)
1 dU β 1
=
U dx 2 − β x
β
β
ln U = ln x + ln c ⇒ U ( x) = cx 2− β outer flow is that over a wedge of angle πβ (Fig.)
2−β
−2(1− β )
dU β
ζ2 = νβ ζ 2c x 2− β
= νβ
dx 2−β
1− β
ν (2 − β )
ζ ( x) = x 2− β
(9)
c
Step #3 Solve the BVP
⎛ y ⎞ 1 ⎛ y ⎞
⎟ = c ( 2 − β )ν x
( 2− β ) ⎜ −(1− β )( 2 − β )
⎟
ψ ( x, y ) = U ( x)ζ ( x) f ⎜ f x
⎝ ζ ( x) ⎠ ⎜
⎝ ( 2 − β )ν / c ⎟
⎠
STAGNATION-POINT FLOW; β = 1 α =1
APPROXIMATE SOLUTIONS:
Solve exact eq. approximately
Von Karman Momentum Integral Eqn
(General Momentum Integral Equation for Boundary Layer)
Idea: Develop an eqn. which can accept "approximate" vel. profiles as input & yield accurate
(close, but approximate) shear stress δ , δ * ,θ as output.
∫0 2u ∂x dy + ∫0 ∂y dy = ∫0 U dx dy +ν ∫0 ∂y 2 dy
(1) (2) (3) (4)
δ
∂ ( uv ) δ
Consider term (2) ∫0 ∂y dy = uv 0
= U v ( x, δ ) − 0
?
δ
Integrate cont. eq. ∫
0
dy
δ δ δ δ
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂u
∫0 ∂x ∫0 ∂y dy = 0 ⇒
dy + ∫0 ∂x dy + v( x, δ ) − 0 = 0 Uv( x, δ ) = −U ∫
0
∂x
dy
δ δ δ
∂ 2u ∂ ⎛ ∂u ⎞ ∂u ∂u ∂u
Integrate term (4) ∫0 ∂y 2 dy = ∫0 ∂y ⎜⎝ ∂y ⎟⎠ ∂y ∂y
dy = = −
∂y
0 y =δ y =0
=0
δ δ
du τ τ ∂u ∂ (u 2 )
τ0 = µ ⇒ (4) ⇒ − 0ν = − 0 Term(1) ⇒ ∫ 2u dy = ∫ dy
dy y =0
µ ρ 0
∂x 0
∂x
δ δ δ
∂ (u 2 ) ∂u dU τ0
B-L. eq. becomes ∫0 ∂x dy − U ∫0 ∂x ∫0 dx
dy = U dy −
ρ
δ
∂u
δ
∂u
δ
⎛ ∂ ( uU ) dU ⎞
U ∫ dy = ∫ U dy = ∫ ⎜ −u ⎟ dy
0
∂x 0
∂x 0⎝
∂x dx ⎠
δ
∂ (u 2 )
δ
∂ ( uU ) δ
dU
δ
dU τ0
Thus, get ∫0 ∂x dy − ∫0 ∂x dy + ∫0 dx ∫0 dx
u dy − U dy = −
ρ
δ δ
∂ 2 dU τ0
∫0 ∂x u (
− uU dy +)∫0 ( u − U )
dx
dy = −
ρ
δ
∂
∫
∂x 0
u (
2
− uU dy)
Using Leibnitz’s rule permits the order of integ. & dif. to be interchanged
δ δ
∂ ⎛ u 2
u ⎞ ⎛u ⎞ dU τ0
∂x ∫0 ⎝ U 2 U ⎠ ∫0 ⎜⎝ U ⎟⎠ dx
U 2
⎜ − ⎟ dy + − 1 U dy = −
ρ
*
evaluate θ(x), δ (x) and τ0 from their definitions.
dθ 1 dU τ0
+ (δ + 2θ )
*
= Steady ,incompressible 2-D flow with no body
dx θ dx ρU 2
forces. Valid for laminar and turbulent flow
O.D.E for θ ( x)
To solve eq. we first ”assume” an approximate velocity profile inside the B.L
Relate the wall shear stress to the velocity field
Typically the velocity profile is taken to be a polynomial in y, and the degree of this polynomial
determines the number of boundary conditions which may be satisfied
u
EXAMPLE: = a + bη + cη 2 = f (η ) LAMINAR FLOW OVER A FLAT PLATE:
U
laminar profile later as an example
or u = a + by + cy 2
B.C 1-)u=0 at y=0 ( η =0) a=0 b=2
u y y
= 2η − η 2 = 2( ) − ( ) 2
U δ δ
Now use the approximate velocity profile to obtain terms in the momentum integral eq.
NOTE: Using the approximate velocity profile across the B.L will reduce the momentum
integral to an O.D.E for the B.L thickness, δ (x).
δ
u y
δ = ∫ (1 −
*
)dy η= dη =
dy
0
U δ ( x) δ
η =1 1 1
u 1 δ
δ = ∫ (1 − )δ dη = δ ∫ (1 − 2η + η 2 )dη
*
δ * = δ (η − η 2 + η 3 ) =
0
U 0 3 0 3
δ η =1
u u u u
θ = ∫ (1 − )dy = δ ∫ (1 − )dη
0
U U 0
U U
1
θ = δ ∫ (2η − η 2 )(1 − 2η + η 2 )dη 2
θ= δ
0 15
du du dη 1 du U
τ0 = µ =µ =µ = 2µ
dy y =0
dη dy η =0 δ dη η =0 δ
or
U (2 − 2η )
η =0
∂ ⎡ y y 2⎤ U
τ 0 = 2ηU 2( ) − ( ) = 2 µ
∂y ⎢⎣ δ δ ⎥⎦ y =0 δ
dθ 1 dU τ0
+ (δ + 2θ )
*
=
dx U dx ρU 2
d 2δ δ 4δ 1 dU 2µU 2ν
( )+( + ) = =
dx 15 3 15 U dx δρU 2 δ U
dU
For a flow over a flat plate U=const. =0
dx
δ
15ν δ 2 15ν x
x
Solving for δ, ∫0 δ dδ = U ∫0 dx ⇒ 2 = U
δ νx
δ = 30
νx νx
5.477 x , Ux , δ =
*
= 1.826
= 5.477 = Re x = 3 U
U U Re x ν
2δ νx , τ0 0.73 U
Cf = =
θ= = 0.73 1
ρU 2 Re x τ 0 = 2µ
15 U
2 ν
Comparing to (exact) blasius solution
δ* 1,826
= = 1.061 ∼ 10%
δ *
blasius 1, 72
θ 0.73
= = 1.099
θ B 0.664
u
= A + Bη + Cη 2 + Dη 3 + Eη 4
U
BC#4 ∂ 2u 2U
( x , 0) = − ≠0
∂y 2 δ2
u
by employing 3rd order profile , i.e = a + bη + cη 2 + dη 3 the above condt. may be imposed
U
More accurate results are obtained
Vel. Dist.
u y
= f ( ) = f (η )
U δ
f (η ) = η
f (η ) = 2η − η 2
,
4.64 0.647 x
3 1 δ= Cf =
f (η ) = η − η 3 Re x Re x
2 2
5.84 0.685 x
f (η ) = 2η − 2η 3 + η 4 δ= Cf =
Re x Re x
π
f (η ) = sin( η ) δ = 4.80 C f = 0.65
2
Note 1: Once the variation of τ0 is known, viscous drag on the surface can be evaluated
by integration over the area of the flat plate.
U = 30 m
s x = 0.24m air ( ν ) δ
=
5.48
= 0.00775
x Re x
viscous effects are confined to a very thin layer near surface of body
Boundary layer seperation
Separation wake formation
increase in drag
Wake total force exerted on body in direction of
fluid motion
For large Re ( 104 or higher) bluff bodies (e.g circular cylinder) pressure drag constitutes
almost all the total drag
3) FLAT PLATE
S ~ No separation
No separation
t
chord
dP
>0 adverse pressure gradient (decelerating external stream) increasing
dx pressure in the flow direction
dP dP
<0 favourable P.G and =0 (zero pressure gradient)
dx dx
NOTE: pressure gradient along a B.L is determined by the outer flow
dU 1 dP (Bern. Eq.)
U =−
dx ρ dx
velocity profiles in a
∂u ∂u ∂u
>0 sep. point =0 <0
∂y 0
Note :shear stress changes∂its
y 0 sign after ∂y 0
separation
Definition of separation point = point at which the shear (or velocity gradient)
vanishes
∂u
( x, 0) = 0, for separation
∂y
• Question show that separation can occur only in region of adverse pressure gradient !
Steady state B.L eqs.
∂u ∂u 1 ∂P ∂ 2u ∂ 2u dP ∂ 3u
u +v =− +ν 2 µ 2 = =0
∂x y =0 ∂y y =0
ρ ∂x ∂y y =0 ∂y dx ∂y 3
y =0 y =0
If dP <0
dx
y U
?
∂u
∂u 2
∂y u
∂y 2
∂ 2u ∂P ∂u u=0
y=0 = >0
∂y 2 ∂x ∂y
∂ 2u ∂u the same
y =δ =0 =0 u =U
∂y 2 ∂y
∂P
case =0
∂x
y y y
constant
slope
∂ 2u ∂u u
=0
∂y 2 ∂y
Case ∂P APG
>0
∂x
y y
y U
PI
PI
∂u u
∂u
2
=0
∂y 2 ∂y
∂ 2u ∂ 2u dP
PI= point of inflection where =0 µ 2 = >0
∂y 2 ∂y wall
dx
Control of separation by suction
Goldstein
Stewartson
impose B.C.s
η =0 0=a Λ:dimensionless variable; a measure of
pressure gradient in outer flow
∂ 2 (u ) δ 2 dU
η =0 U = −Λ = − = 2c
∂η 2
ν dx
η = 1 1=a+b+c+d+e
η =1 0=b+2c+3d+4e
η =1 0=2c+6d+12e
Λ Λ Λ Λ
solution → a=0 b=2+ c=- d=-2+ e=1-
6 2 2 6
u δ 2 dU
= F (η ) + ΛG (η ) (1) Λ (x)= -12 ≤ Λ ≤ 12
U ν dx
where F(η )=1-(1+η )(1-η )3 Pohlhausen parameter
G(η )=η (1-η 3 ) 6
1 1 Λ>0
0.016
Λ=0
Λ<0
Λ < −12
η η
0.25 1
1
u
Λ = 0: = F (η ) Flat surface in which the represantation is a 4 th order polynominal
U
u
Λ >12 >1 vel. in B.L. is not expected to exceed that of the outer flow locally.
U
So Λ must be less than 12
Λ <-12 ⇒ negative velocity ∴ reverse flow.B.L. theory is not applicable after separation
0
U 0
U
1
⎡ Λ ⎤ 3 Λ
=δ ∫ ⎢ (1+η )(1-η )3 − η (1 − η )3 ⎥dη = δ ( − ) (2)
0 ⎣
6 ⎦ 10 120
momentum thickness
1
u u 37 Λ Λ2
θ (x)=δ ∫ (1 − )dη = δ ( − − ) (3)
0
U U 315 945 9072
wall shear stress : τ 0
U ∂ (u U ) U Λ
τ0 = µ τ0 = µ (2 + )
δ ∂η η = 0 δ 6
b
Uθ
Step #3 Plug into the general momentum eq. Multiply the mom. Eq. by
ν
Uθ dθ θ dU τ 0θ
+ (2θ + δ * ) = or
ν dx ν dx µU
1 d θ2 δ * θ 2 dU τ 0θ
U ( ) + (2 + ) = (5)
2 dx ν θ ν dx µU
δ 2 dU
Λ (x)= evaluate each term in terms of Λ (x)
ν dx
θ 2 dU θ 2 37 Λ Λ2 2 θ 2 dU
= 2 Λ=( − − ) Λ = K ( x) = K ( x)
ν dx δ 315 945 9072 ν dx
3 Λ
( − )
δ*
10 120
= = f (K ) (6)
θ 37 Λ Λ 2
( − − )
315 945 9072
f(Λ ) → f(x) but K=K(x) ⇒ f(K)
τ 0θ Λ 37 Λ Λ2
= g ( K ) , g(K)=(2+ )( − − )
µU 6 315 945 9072
U Λ
τ0 = µ (2 + )
δ 6
1 d θ2
U ( ) + [ 2 + f ( K )] K = g ( K ) (7)
2 dx ν
θ 2 dU
where K= = K ( x)
ν dx
θ2 dU
Now , let us take Z= as the new dependent variable so that K=Z and the mom,int. becomes
ν dx
dZ dZ
U = 2 { g ( K ) − [ 2 + f ( K ) ] K } = H ( K ) or U = H ( K ) (8)
dx dx
H(K) is known (1st order nonlinear , ODE for Z , solve numericallay , start x=0 → stop Λ =-12
[separation ] )
but complex H(Λ )
ODE for Z(x) - mom. int. reduces to above form IVP for ODE
for any Λ (x) → K & H(K) may be evaluated H(K)
H(K)=0.47-6K (9)
approximation
0.47
Linear in K over the range of interest K
0.0783
Mom. Int. eq. becomes
dZ dU
U = 0.47 − 6 K = H ( K ) = 0.47 − 6 Z or
dx dx
1 d
5
( ZU 6
) = 0.47
U dx
x
0.47
Z ( x) = 6 ∫ (ς )dς
5
U Mom. int. may be expressed interms of this quadrature
U ( x) 0
θ 2
then , since Z=
ν , the value of θ will be
0.47ν
x
θ ( x) = 6 ∫ U 5 (ς )dς
2
(10)
U ( x) 0
θ 2 dU 37 Λ Λ2 2
= K ( x) = ( − − ) (11) difficult to find Λ (x)
ν dx 315 945 9072
37 Λ Λ2
θ (x)=δ ( − − ) and δ * eq. (2)
315 945 9072
3 Λ
δ* =δ( − )
10 120
u
= F (η ) + ΛG (η ) ← vel. distribution eq (1)
U
U Λ
τ0 = µ (2 + )
u 6
In practice it is difficult to evaluate the quality Λ ( x) from eq (11) unless
Λ is a constant
νx νx x
U = cons tan t eq. (10) → θ 2 = 0.47 → θ =0.686 θ =0.686
U U Re x
dU
= 0 ⇒ eq. (11)
dx
⇓
δ 2 dU
Λ=0 ( )
ν dx
37 νx 5.84 x
From eq. (3) θ (x)= δ → δ =5.84 =
315 U Re x
3 1.75 x
eq.(2) ⇒ δ* =δ → δ* =
10 Re x
3.5% error
U τ0 0.686
eq.(4) ⇒ τ0 = µ 2 ⇒ = Θ
δ 1
ρU 2 Re x Exact 0.664
2
4th order vel. pr 0.686
2nd order vel. pr 0.73
Boundary – Layers
Instabilities
Usually laminar flow becomes turbulent flow
EXAMPLE: Flow over a circular cylinder
CD
~ 82
~ 108
Re
Laminar B.L Turbulent B.L
x
Linear Stability Analysis: The Method of Small Perturbations
Introduce arbitrary small (infinitesimal) disturbance into the flow eqs. & determine whether
this disturbance grows or decays with time
if the disturbance grows with time, the flow (the B.L) will be classified as unstable
if the disturbance decays with time, the flow (the B.L) will be classified as stable
marginal stability (neutral): the disturbance neither grows nor decays
Non linear stability analysis: no restriction on disturbance size
u (x, y, t ) = V (y ) + u '( x, y, t )
v( x, y, t ) = 0 + v '( x, y, t )
p( x, y, t ) = p0 ( x) + p '( x, y, t )
u' v' p'
where << 1 ; << 1 ; << 1
V V p0
A2 Substitute A1 into the N-S eqs. & continuity
∂u ' ∂v '
+ =0
∂x ∂y
∂u ' ∂u ' dV ∂u ' 1 dp0 dp ' ∂ 2u ' ∂ 2V ∂ 2u '
x ; + (V + u ') + v '( + )=− ( + ) +ν ( 2 + 2 + 2 )
∂t ∂x dy ∂y ρ dx dx ∂x ∂y ∂y
∂v ' ∂v ' ∂v ' 1 dp ' ∂ 2v ' ∂ 2v '
y ; + (V + u ') +v' =− +ν ( 2 + 2 )
∂t ∂x ∂x ρ dy ∂x ∂y
Since the perturbation is assumed to be small, products of all primed quantities may be
∂u ' ∂v '
+ =0
∂x ∂y
∂u ' ∂u ' dV 1 dp ' ∂ 2u ' ∂ 2u '
X ; +V +v' =− +ν ( 2 + 2 )
∂t ∂x dy ρ dx ∂x ∂y
∂v ' ∂v ' 1 dp ' ∂ 2v ' ∂ 2v '
Y ; +V =− +ν ( 2 + 2 )
∂t ∂x ρ dy ∂x ∂y
∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ψ dV 1 dp ' ∂ 3ψ ∂ 3ψ
+V − =− +ν ( 2 + 3 )
∂y∂t ∂x∂y ∂x dy ρ dx ∂x ∂y ∂y
∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ 1 dp ' ∂ 3ψ ∂ 3ψ
− −V 2 = − −ν ( 3 + )
∂x∂t ∂x ρ dy ∂x ∂x∂y 2
∂2 p '
A6 Eliminate the pressure term by forming ∂x∂y mixed derivative, above two eqs.
above two eqs. may be reduced to one ,
∂ ∂ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ d 2V ∂ψ ∂ 4ψ ∂ 4ψ ∂ 4ψ
( + V )( 2 + 2 ) − 2 =ν ( 4 + 2 2 2 + 4 )
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x dy ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂ x
Stream function for the disturbance must satisfy this linear , 4th order , PDE
∞
ψ ( x, y, t ) = ∫ φ ( y )eiα ( x −ct ) dα c:time coefficient
0
∫⎣
⎡ ( − iα c + iα V ) (φ "− α 2
φ ) − iαφV "⎤
⎦ e iα (x-ct)
dα
0
∞
= ∫ν ⎡⎣(φ '''− 2α 2φ "+ α 4φ ) ⎤⎦ eiα (x-ct) dα , i 2 = −1 i4 = 1
0
d 2φ d 4φ
φ " = 2 , φ""= 4 ,...
dy dy
Above equation should be valid for arbitrary α . Thus, the integrand should vanish (because eq.
should be valid for arbitrary disturbance)
ν
(V-c)(φ"-α 2φ )-Vφ = (φ ''''− 2α 2φ "+ α 4φ ) (A)
iα
Orr-Sommerfield equation
B.C disturbance should vanish at the surface y=0 and at the edge of the Boundary Layer
u ' ( x, y = 0, t ) = 0 , v '( x, y = 0, t ) = 0
u ' ( x, y, t ) = v '( x, y, t ) = 0 as y→ ∞
∂ψ (B)
v' = − =0 → φ (0) = 0
∂x y =0
φ '( y ) = φ ( y ) → 0 as y → ∞
Solution of the Orr – Sommerfeld Equation
Undisturbed vel. profile V(y) and disturbance wavelength α is specified
V ( y ) & α known
Eq. (A) with BC.(B)represent an eigenvalue problem for the time coefficient , c
c = cr + i ci , ci < 0 ⇒ flow stable
ψ = φ (y) eiα (x-ct)
ci > 0 ⇒ flow unstable
iα ( x − ct ) , ci = 0 ⇒ neutral stablity
stable , ci < 0 Ra = Gr . Pr
α δ*
TL
unstable TH
Stability Diagram:
Orszag (1971):
α
ci < 0
ci > 0
ci < 0
V
typical stability – calculation result for fixed V , α is varied. Then, by considering all
possible values of the undisturbed B.L vel. (which less than the outer –flow vel.) a stability
diagram is constructed
U α cr*
Recr = = 420
ν
stability boundary
α δ *
Schlichting 575 = Recr
0.34
unstable
Uα *
Re =
ν
420
U1
ρ1
U1 u
y µ1
S - shaped free-shear layer
u0 is due to viscous diffusion
U2 ρ2 U2
interface
µ2
( ρ1 , µ1 ) & (ρ 2 , µ2 )
U1 uj
ηj = y , f j′ = , j=1,2
2 xν j U1
ψ j = 2ν jU1 x f j (η j )
U2
y → (-∞) → η → −∞ ⇒ u2 → U 2 → f 2 ' =
U1
u1 → U1 as η → +∞
ηj = 0 → f1 '(0) = f 2 '(0) ≠ 0 = u0 u1 = u 2
∂ψ 1 ∂ψ 2
f1 (0) = f 2 (0) = 0 v1 = v2 ⇒ =
∂x ∂x
ρ 2 µ2
f1 ''(0) = k f 2 ''(0) k=
ρ1µ1
Most practical cases
Beyond the critical parameter, Laminar flow is unstable a new flow regime turbulent
flow
Turbulent
Transition
Laminar
x
Characteristics
1) Disorder : not merely white noise but has spatial structure (Random variations)
2) Eddies : (or fluid packets of many sizes) Large & small varies continuously from shear –
δ ν 3δ 1
layer thickness down to the Kolmogorov length scale , L=( 3
) 4
U
3) Enhanced mixing in laminar flow molecular action
Heat transfer & friction are greatly enhanced compared to Lam. Flow
u
Laminar B.L
t
u
Shedding cylinder
t
Turbulent B.L u
t
Mathematical Description
Problem: wide range of flow scales involved solutions requires supercomputers and
even then are limited to very low Reynolds numbers
But, they are model eqs. which model relation between the fluctuations & mean motion
called turbulence modelling central problem in computing the mean motion of turbulent
flows
Mean Motion & Fluctuations
u = u+u'
v = v +v' In compressible turbulent flows
w = w + w' ρ = ρ + ρ ' ; T = T +T '
p = p + p'
t0 + T
1
u=
T ∫
t0
u dt ← integral is to be taken over a sufficently large time interval T so that u ≠ f (t )
Characterization of fluctuation ⇒ RMS
1
⎧⎪ 1 ⎪⎫
2 2
T u ' = g (t )
u = ⎨ ∫ (u − u ) d t ⎬ u = u + u ' = f (t )
T
⎩⎪ 0 ⎪⎭
steady unsteady
u u steady unsteady
Turb. flow
Lam . flow
u
t
t
Fluctuations u ' , v ' , w ' influence the progrees of mean motion u , v , w , so that mean motion
exhibit an apparent increase in resistance aganist deformation.Increased apparent viscosity is
cenral of all theoretical considerations on turbulent flow
Rules of computation
u =u , u + v = u +v , u .v = u . v
∂u ∂u
=
∂x ∂x
, ∫ udx = ∫ udx ; uv = u v + u ' v ' ; u 'v = 0
∂u
τ xy = τ xy lam + τ xy tur = µ − ρu 'v '
∂y
Additional shear stress
(Reynolds stress)
x
Ex : uv = (u + u ') ( v + v ')=uv + uv '+ vu '+ u ' v '
u v
2
Momentum Turbulent shear stress is higher
exchange 1
Basic Eqs. for Mean Motion of Turbulent Flows
Consider flows with constant properties
Continuity equation
∂u ∂v ∂w
(1) + + u = u+u'
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u ∂u ∂u '
Time − averaging of (1) = +
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂u ∂ v ∂ w
(2) + + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u ' ∂v ' ∂w '
(3) Also , using (1) + + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
Both time average values &fluctuations satisfy laminar flow continuity eq
∂u ' ∂ 2u '
=0 = 0 ← terms which are linear in fluctuating quantities ⇒ 0
∂t ∂x 2
In general , Reynolds stresses dominate over viscous stresses, except for regions
directly at the wall
Closure problem
too few eqs : 4
too many unknowns : 10
Figure some way to approximate Reynolds stresses
Objective : Establish relationship between Reynolds stresses & mean motions, i.e u,v,w
Energy Equation
Consider the energy equation for incompressible flow with constant properties
DT
ρcp = k ∇ 2T + Φ
Dt
Taking the time-average of the energy eq. , we obtain following eq. for the average temp.
field T = ( x, y, z )
∂T ∂T ∂T ⎫
ρ c p (u +v + w ) ⎬ convection
∂x ∂y ∂z ⎭
∂2T ∂2T ∂2T ⎫
=k( 2 + 2 + 2 ) ⎬ molecular heat transport
∂x ∂y ∂z ⎭
∂u ' T ' ∂ v ' T ' ∂ w ' T ' ⎫
-ρ cp ( + + ) ⎬ turbulent heat transport("apparent" heat conduction)
∂x ∂y ∂z ⎭
⎡ ∂u 2 ∂v 2 ∂w 2 ∂u ∂ v 2 ∂u ∂ w 2 ∂ v ∂ w 2 ⎤ ⎪⎫
+ µ ⎢ 2( ) + 2( ) + 2( ) +( + ) +( + ) +( + ) ⎥ ⎬ direct dissipation
⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z ∂ x ∂ z ∂ y ⎦ ⎭⎪
The same eq.holds for the average temp. fields as for laminar temp. fields, apart from
two additional terms
⎡ ∂u 2 ∂v 2 ∂w 2 ∂u ∂ v 2 ∂u ∂ w 2 ∂ v ∂ w 2 ⎤ ⎫⎪
ρ∈ = µ ⎢ 2( ) + 2( ) + 2( ) +( + ) +( + ) +( + ) ⎥⎬
⎣⎢ ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂z ∂ x ∂ z ∂ y ⎦⎥ ⎪⎭
In turbulent flows mechanical energy is transformed into internal energy in two different ways:
1
2
( 1
K ≡ u ′u ′ + v′v′ + w′w′ = ui′ui′
2
)
Einstein summation notation,
ui = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) = (u , v, w)
A conservation relation for K can be derived by forming the mechanical
energy equation i.e., dot product of ui ve ith momentum equation subtract
instantaneous mechanical energy equation from its time averaged value.
Result: Turbulence kinetic energy relation for an incompressible fluid.
DK ∂ ⎡ ′ ⎛ 1 ′ ′ p′ ⎞ ⎤ ∂u j′
=− ⎢ui ⎜ u j u j + ⎟ ⎥ − ui′u j′ +
Dt ∂xi ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ρ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ∂xi
I
III
II
⎡ ⎛ ′ ′ ⎞ ⎤ ′ ⎛ ∂u ′ ∂u j′ ⎞
∂ ⎢ ′ ∂ui ∂u ∂u
νuj ⎜ +
j
⎟ ⎥ −ν j
⎜ i + ⎟
∂xi ⎢ ⎜ ∂x j′ ∂xi′ ⎟ ⎥ ∂ x ′ ⎜ ∂x j′ ∂xi′ ⎟
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ i ⎝ ⎠
IV V
I. Rate of change of turbulent (kinetic) energy
II. Convective diffusion of turbulence energy
III. Production of turbulent energy
IV. Viscous diffusion (work done by turbulence viscous stresses)
V. Turbulent viscous dissipation
Reynolds stress equation: conservation equations for Reynolds stresses
see F. White pg. 406
2-D Turbulent Boundary Layer Equations
Just as laminar flows, turbulent flows at high Re also have boundary layer
character, i.e. large lateral changes and small longitudinal changes in flow
properties.
δ(x)<<x
x
∂u ∂ v
Continuity: + =0 (1)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u dU e 1 ∂τ
x-momentum: u +v ≈ Ue + (2)
∂x ∂y dx ρ ∂y
U e : free stream velocity
⎛ ∂T ∂T ⎞ ∂q ∂u
Thermal energy: ρ c p ⎜ u +v ⎟ ≈ + τ (3)
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ∂y ∂y
∂u
where τ = µ − ρ u ′v′
∂y
∂T
q= k − ρ c p v′T ′ (4)
∂y
turbulent flux
molecular flux
Above equations closely resemble the laminar flow equations except that τ
and q contain turbulent shear stress and turbulent heat flux (Reynolds
Stress) must be modelled.
y-momentum equation reduces to
∂p ∂ v′ 2
≈ −ρ (5)
∂y ∂y
Integrating over the boundary layer yields:
p ≈ pe ( x) − ρ v ′ 2
Unlike laminar flow, p varies slightly across the boundary layer due to
velocity fluctuations normal to the the wall
p + ρ v′2 ≈ const.
no-slip ⇒ v′ ≡ 0 ⇒ p w = pe ( x)
but depend upon the Pr, as in laminar flow. Eqs. 1 and 2 can be solved for
u v if a suitable correlation for total shear τ is known.
n=f(Re)
for many practical flows n = 7
n=10
n 1.0
n=8
8 r/R n=6
7 laminar Turbulent
6 profile
5 0
104 105 106 Re=ρVD/µ 0 u 1.0
Vc
Turbulent profiles are much “flatter” than laminar profile
Flatness increases with Reynolds number (i.e., with n)
Overlap law:
Overlap law:
u ⎛ δ v* y ⎞ U e ⎛ y⎞
= f ⎜ ⎟ = - g ⎜ ⎟
v* ⎝ ν δ ⎠ v *
⎝δ ⎠
From functional analysis: both f and g must be logarithmic functions.
Thus, in overlap layer:
u 1 yv*
Inner variables: * = ln +B
v k ν
Ue − u 1 y
Outer variables: = − ln + A
v *
k δ
Where K and B are near-universal constants for turbulent flow past smooth,
impermeable walls.
K≈0.41 , B≈5.0 pipe flow measurements, data correlations
A varies with pressure gradient ξ (perhaps with other parameters also).
u yv*
Let u + = * , and y+ =
v ν
Inner layer details, Law of the wall.
At very small y, velocity profile is linear.
u
y+ ≤ 5 : τ w = µ or u+ = y+
y
Example: Thickness of viscous sublayer
5ν ν
δ sub = : viscous length scale of a turbulent boundary layer
v* v *
+ +
y =u +e
⎡ +
− KB ⎢ Ku +
e − 1 − Ku −
( Ku ) ( Ku )
+ 2
−
+ 3⎤
⎥
⎢ 2 6 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Notes:
1
u ⎛ r⎞ n
= ⎜1 − ⎟
Vc ⎝ R ⎠
Power law profile cannot be valid near the wall.
1
−1
du Vc ⎛ r⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
= ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎜ − ⎟ Power law profile cannot be precisely valid
n
r=R
du
=∞ However, it does provide a reasonable
dr approximation to measured velocity profiles
r=0
du
≠0 across most of the pipe.
dr
Example:
Water at 20 °C (ρ=998 kg/m3), ν=1.004x10-6 m2/s
Q=0.04 m3/s
D=0.1m
dp
= 2.59kPa / m
dx
4lτ w
∆p = (Valid for both laminar & turbulent flow)
D
(Exercise: Obtain the above equation considering the force balance of a
fluid element)
D∆p (0,1)(2,59.103 )
τw = = Pa = 64,8 N / m 2
4l 4(1m)
64,8 N / m 2
So, v =
*
= 0, 255m / s
998kg / m3
5.1, 004.10−6
δs = = 1,97.10−5 m ≅ 0, 02mm
0, 255
Imperfections on pipe wall will protrude into this sublayer and affect some of
the characteristics of flow(i.e.,wall shear stres & pressure drop)
Q 0, 04m3 / s
V= = = 5, 09m / s
A π (0,1) / 4m
2 2
VD 5, 09.(0,1)
Re = = = 5, 07.10 5
ν 1, 004.10−6
Re = 5, 07.105 ⇒ n = 8, 4
Power-law profile
u r
≅ (1 − )1/ 8,4
Vc R
R
r 1/ n
. = ∫ udA = Vc ∫ (1 −
Q = AV ) (2π r )dr
0
R
n2
Q = 2π R Vc 2
2τ w r
τ= (Valid for laminar or turbulent flow)
D
R=D/2 2(64,8).0, 025
τ (r = 0, 025) = = 32, 4 N / m 2
r 0,1
τ = τ lam + τ turb = 32, 4
du r du V r
τ lam = − µ ; u = Vc (1 − )1/ n ⇒ = − c (1 − )(1− n ) / n
dr R dr nR R
du 6, 04 0, 025 (1−8,4) / 8,4
=− (1 − ) = −26,5
dr r = 0,025
8, 4(0, 05) 0, 05
du du
τ lam = − µ = −(νρ ) As expected
dr dr
Thus = −(1, 004.10−6 ).(998).(−26,5) = 0, 0266 N / m 2
τ turb 32, 4 − 0, 0266
τ turb >> τ lam
= = 1220
τ lam 0, 0266
Turbulent Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate
Problem of flow past a sharp flat plate at high Re has been studied extensively,
numerous formulas have been proposed for friction factor.
-curve fits of data
-use of Momentum Integral Equation and/or law of the wall
-numerical computation using models of turbulent shear
Momentum Integral Analysis
dp dθ C f τ
= 0 (U = const.) = = w2
dx dx 2 ρU
Momentum Interal Equation valid for either laminar or turbulent flow.
For turbulent flow u
a reasonable approximation to the velocity profile = f (y /δ )
U
Functional relationship describing the wall shear stress
Need to use some empirical relationship
∂u
For laminar flow τ w = µ
∂y y =0
Example: Turbulent flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate
Boundary layer velocity profile is assumed to be
u y
= ( )1/ 7 ← power law profile suggested by Prandtl
U δ (taken From pipe data!)
Reasonable approximation of experimentally observed profiles,
except very near the plate,
∂u
= ∞!
∂y y =0
u y
1 = ( )1/ 7
U δ
y Laminar Turbulent
η=
δ Assume shear stress aggrees with experimentally
determined formula
⎧ ν 1/ 4 ⎫
0 C f = 0, 045 Reδ−1/ 4 ⎨or τ w = 0, 0225 ρU 2 ( ) ⎬
0 1 ⎩ Uδ ⎭
Determine; δ , δ * , θ and τ as a function of x. Uδ
w Re =
ν
What is the friction drag coefficient C =?
D,f
Momentum Integral Equation (with U=constant)
dθ C f τ y u y
= = w2 η = ; = ( )1/ 7 = η 1/ 7
dx 2 ρU δ U δ
∞
7δ
1 1
u u u u
θ = ∫ (1 − )dy = δ ∫ (1 − )dη = δ ∫ η 1/ 7 (1 − η 1/ 7 )dη =
0
U U o
U U 0
72
7 dδ ν 1/ 4
= 0, 0225 Reδ−1/ 4 = 0, 0225( )
72 dx Uδ
δ
ν x
∫δ d δ = 0, 231( ) ∫ dx
1/ 4 1/ 4
0
U 0
ν δ 0,370
δ = 0,370( ) x 1/ 5 4/5
or in dimensionless form =
U x Re1/x 5
Boundary layer at leading edge of plate is laminar but in practice,laminar boundary layer
often exists over a relatively short portion of plate.
∴ error associated with starting turbulent boundary layer with δ =0 at x=0 can be negligible.
∞
u u
1
δ 1
δ = ∫ (1 − )dy = δ ∫ (1 − )dη = δ ∫ (1 − η 1/ 7 )dη =
*
0
U 0
U 0
8
δ* 0, 0463
=
x Re1/x 5
7 ν
θ= δ = 0, 0360( )1/ 5 x 4 / 5
72 U
θ 0, 036
= 1/ 5
θ < δ *
<δ
x Re x
1/ 4
⎡ ν ⎤ 0, 0288 ρU 2
τ w = 0, 0225 ρU 2 ⎢ 1/ 5 4 / 5 ⎥
=
⎣ U (0,37)(ν / U ) x ⎦ Re1/x 5
0, 058
Cf =
Re1/x 5
Friction drag on one side of plate,Df
l l
ν
D f = ∫ bτ w dx = b(0, 0288 ρU ) ∫ ( )1/ 5 dx
2
o 0
Ux
A
D f = 0, 0360 ρU 2 where A=b.l area of plate
Re1/l 5
Df 0, 0720 Note:Results presented in this example are
CDf = =
1 Re1/l 5 valid only in the range of validity of original
ρU 2 A data, assumed velocity profile & shear stres.
2
The range covers smooth flat plates
Turbulent flow:δ ( x ) ~ x 4 / 5 ;τ w ( x) ~ x −1/ 5 with 5x105<Rel<107
Laminar flow:δ ( x) ~ x1/ 2 ;τ w ( x) ~ x −1/ 2 See Fig 6-20 (White, page 432)
Example 1 : Momentum Integral Equation-Approximate vel. profile
dθ τ
= w2 dU
dx ρU U = const. ⇒( = 0)
u y dx
= f (η ) η=
δ
δ
U
For 0 ≤ η ≤ 1/ 2 f = a1 + b1η
2 1
f = at η = & f = 0 at η = 0
3 2
∴ a1 = 0, b1 = 4 / 3
u 4 δ /2
= η : 0 ≤ η ≤ 1/ 2
U 3
u 1 2 1
Similarly, = + η for ≤η <1 u
U 3 3 2 2U/3 U
1 1/ 2 1
u u 4 4 1 2 1 2
θ = ∫ (1 − )δ dη = δ ∫ η (1 − η )dη + δ ∫ ( + η )(1 − − )dη
0
U U 0
3 3 1/ 2
3 3 3 3
= 0,1574δ
∂u ∂u 4 U
τw= µ =µ = µ
∂y y =0
∂η η =0 3 δ
dδ 4 ν
0,1574 =
dx 3 δ U
δ
4ν νx
0,1574 ∫ δ d δ = dx ⇒ δ ( x) = 4,12
0
3U U
τw 0, 648
Cf = =
1 Re x
ρU 2
2
Example 2 : Viscous drag in thin plate
1
a) FD ,a = ρU 2 ACD ,a
2
l 1,328 1,328
CD ,a = = & A = 4l 2
Rel Ul
ν
4l
U
4l
U ρ ,U , A is the same
l
1,328 1,328
CD,b = =
Re 4l U 4l
ν
a) b) FD ,a CD ,a
= =2
FD ,b C D ,b
The shear stres decreases with distance from the leading edge of the plate.
Thus, even though the plate area is the same for case (a) or (b), the average
shear stress (and the drag) is greater for case (a).
Example 3: Thin flat plate in water tunnel
∴ Flow is laminar
L
U
b=1 Viscos drag = FD = 2 ∫ τ wbdx (2 sides of plate)
0
m
∂u ∂u ∂η µ
τw = µ =µ . = U (2 − 2η ) η =0
x ∂y y =0
∂η ∂y η =0 δ
L=0,
2 µU
3m =
δ
5, 48 x
δ=
Re x
2 µU dx 8bµU
L L
4 U UL
FD = 2∫ bdx = bµU ∫ =
0
δ 5, 48 ν 0 x 5, 48 ν
FD = 1, 62 N
Continuity eq. for incompressible flow,
Qinlet = d 0 2U = (0.3*0.3) *0.7 = 0.063 m3 / s
Qinlet = Q( x) = UA = U (d − 2δ * ) 2
A : effective area of the duct (allowing for the decreased flowrate in the b.l.)
Thus,
d 0 2 = (d − 2δ * ) 2 = 0.09 ⇒ d = d 0 + 2δ * = 0.3 + 2δ * [ m ]
νx 1.5*10−5 x
δ = 1.72
*
= 1.72 = 0.00796 x [ m ]
U 0.7
d = 0.3 + 0.0159 x [ m]
d ( x = 3m) ≅ 0.328 [ m ]