Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and

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An approach to the use of Jatropha curcas by-

products as energy source in agroindustry

Ramón Piloto-Rodríguez, Indira Tobío, Marianela Ortiz-Alvarez, Yosvany Díaz,

Simon Konradi & Sven Pohl

To cite this article: Ramón Piloto-Rodríguez, Indira Tobío, Marianela Ortiz-Alvarez, Yosvany Díaz,
Simon Konradi & Sven Pohl (2020): An approach to the use of Jatropha�curcas by-products as
energy source in agroindustry, Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental
Effects, DOI: 10.1080/15567036.2020.1749192

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Published online: 23 Apr 2020.

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ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2020.1749192

An approach to the use of Jatropha curcas by-products as energy

source in agroindustry
Ramón Piloto-Rodrígueza, Indira Tobíoa, Marianela Ortiz-Alvareza, Yosvany Díaza,
Simon Konradib, and Sven Pohlc
a
Centro de Estudio de Tecnolgías Energéticas Renovables (CETER), Universidad Tecnológica de la Habana José A.
Echeverría, Marianao, Cuba; bUniversity of Applied Sciences of Mittelhessen (THM), Centre for Energy Technology
and Energy Management-etem.THM, Gießen, Germany; cUniversity of Applied Sciences of Mittelhessen (THM),
Institute of Thermodynamics, Energy Process Engineering and System Engineering, Gießen, Germany

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Jatropha curcas produces several useful by-products. Nevertheless, the appli- Received 12 May 2019
cation of by-products in gasification and pyrolysis is not well studied. Revised 3 March 2020
A comprehensive review of the state of arts of the use of Jatropha by- Accepted 26 March 2020
products in thermochemical processes focused on the technical characteristics KEYWORDS
of by-products and their use for self-energy requirements in agroindustry is in Jatropha curcas; gasification;
this paper developed. The survey is focused on husk, cake, and shell. The pyrolysis; by-products;
proximate, ultimate analysis, chemical composition, ash composition, and biomass
technologies used for thermal processes are analyzed. A disparity in the
number of publications on gasification and pyrolysis is observed. The main
application in gasification is for Jatropha husk as feed. A simulation of the
gasification process for Jatropha husk is also in this paper shown, including the
composition of the producer gas. Concerning pyrolysis, the reports are focused
on the use of seed oil cake. By gasification of by-products up to 10% H2 and
20% CO can be reached and 64% with up to 42 MJ/kg for bio-oil production.
Most of the contributions are focused on bio-oil obtaining, due to the technical
advantages it brings. Half of the studies were developed in low scale lab
pyrolyzers. As is demonstrated, JC by-products contribute to a fully sustainable
technology, not only about energy production but also in the production of
heterogeneous catalyzers, sustainability, precursor of activated carbons and
chemicals. Increase of bio-oil yields and its use in diesel engines are current
research subjects. In this respect, bio-oil purification, chemical conversion, and
optimal use in engines should be addressed.

Introduction
At present biomass has an increasing interest as a renewable energy source in the context of energy
security and several related humankind problems. Concerning transportation, bioenergy is the only
fully generalized green technology. It is estimated that by 2050, up to 50% of the world’s primary
energy consumption could be met by biomass (Vassilev et al. 2017). Biomass consists of three major
components (hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin). Normally, cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin
cover 40–60, 20–40, and 10-25% of biomass (on dry basis) respectively (Yang et al. 2006), but the
relative percentage of each component in the biomass composition is fully variable (Akhtar, Krepl,
and Ivanova 2018), shown that any use of biomass should be first focused in the chemical
components and physical properties of the feedstock instead of threat it as just biomass.
Biodiesel production from biomass is a worldwide well-established technology. The conventional
raw feedstocks for biodiesel production are edible oils, such as palm, soybean, sunflower and

CONTACT Ramón Piloto-Rodríguez rpiloto@ceter.cujae.edu.cu Universidad Tecnológica de la Habana José A. Echeverría,

Calle 114, No. 11901 e/119 y 127, Cujae, Marianao 19390, Cuba
© 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 R. PILOTO-RODRÍGUEZ ET AL.

rapeseed oil. A challenge for biodiesel production is to use feedstocks that would not compete with
human food stocks. In that direction, in Latin America and Asia, Jatropha curcas (JC) has been
identified as one of the most promising non-edible oils for biodiesel production (Martin et al. 2010).
Jatropha strains show some differences among them, mainly in the chemical composition, and
influenced by climate, soil, and harvesting conditions (Piloto-Rodriguez et al. 2011; Piloto-
Rodriguez, Sierens, and Verhelst 2009). It contains non-edible oil due to esters which are toxic
(Martiñón et al. 2018).
The production of biodiesel from Jatropha generates a significant amount of seed cake (Guedes,
Luna, and Rodrigues 2018), husk, and shell. The seed cake can be used as a bio-fertilizer (Jingura and
Kamusoko 2017), for combustion, and for biogas and charcoal production. The cake contains
proteins and carbohydrates, but it cannot be used for animal feed due to its toxicity, but is useful
for energy production due to its characteristics (Kethobile, Ketlogetswe, and Gandure 2019;
Kongkasawan, Nam, and Capareda 2016). The oil content of the seed is about 40% of the mass.
Oil yield after the processing is about 25-28% of mass of the seed input and the energy content is
37 MJ/kg (Steinbrück et al. 2019; Thapa, Indrawan, and Bhoi 2018).
The present review paper brings novelty in the field of Bioenergy and particularly in the use of
Jatropha curcas by-products. Most of the articles about JC are focused on fuel properties of biodiesel,
approaches, and techniques to produce biodiesel, yield, evaluation of fuel properties, and the comparison
with the produced from other feedstocks. Others are focused on the assessment of the environmental
impact of biodiesel production. Even at agroindustry sector for medium and low scales, the energy
potential of Jatropha curcas by-products is undervalued and the use of industry outputs is in many cases
isolated, not integrated, and based on non-energy uses. A comprehensive review based on the potential of
Jatropha curcas by-products for gasification and pyrolysis, integration in the Jatropha system, and the
approach to the green energy contribution is quite limited. This paper enlightens the existing knowledge
and gaps available in this specific subject with the objective to provide a complete analysis of the potential
energy value of Jatropha curcas by-products in agroindustry. A comprehensive review in this subject let
the decision-makers and the scientific community to identify potential applications and develop more
integrated systems, more focused on clean energy production than in traditional uses.

Biodiesel production from Jatropha curcas and its by-products

Production of biodiesel from Jatropha oil follows the classic route via transesterification. This technology
is not complex and well-studied worldwide. The production cost of biofuel from Jatropha is lower than
other feedstocks (Joshi et al. 2017). The current world’s production of JC oil, taking into account only the
main producers is focused on Asian countries. The main producers are China and India, but taking into
account the 10 main producers, 30,212,600 tons of oil per year are produced (Mkoma and Mabiki 2011,
2012; Pambudi et al. 2017; Trabucco et al. 2010), representing roughly 26,045,344 tons of biodiesel,
generating more than 66,800,000 tons of husk and cake, which represent more than 990,000 TJ per year.
It denotes significant benefits just thinking about energy issues.
Before the conversion to biodiesel, the oil content must be extracted. There are two routes to
extract oil from Jatropha curcas: chemical and mechanical extraction. In practice, both methods are
usually combined (Navarro-Pineda et al. 2016). About 18% of JC oil is extracted from the seed using
mechanical expellers and the remaining cake is often treated as waste (Sharma et al. 2009). From the
expeller machine, Jatropha kernels emerge, along with a by-product (shells or husk). The oil
production results in a by-product of roughly 3 tons of de-oiled cake per ton of biodiesel produced.
A schematic mass balance for the basic process of biodiesel production is shown in Figure 1.

Potential use of Jatropha curcas by-products in thermochemical processes

The by-products of Jatropha curcas that are outputs of biodiesel industry may be considered as
energy sources (shell, husk, and seed cake). The calorific values of JC oil cake (18.25 MJ/kg) and fruit
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 3

Figure 1. Mass balance for biodiesel production from Jatropha curcas.

shell (15.5 MJ/kg) are near half the value of the produced oil (38.0 MJ/kg) (Ghosh, Chikara, and
Chaudhary 2011). It demonstrates why according to an energy approach, these are more co-products
than waste; besides other non-energy applications, mainly as animal feed and organic fertilizers. The
seed cake has an empirical formula of C1.53O0.4N0.07S0.0008 with an H/C ratio of 1.53 (Primandari
et al. 2018) and can be easily converted to briquettes (Brunerová et al. 2017; Ivanova et al. 2018;
Jingura, Musademba, and Rutendo 2010; Singh et al. 2008). On the other hand, JC has a ratio
content of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin of 56:18:24 (Gonzalez-García 2018) and 37:5:40 in the
case of husk (Kabir and Hameed 2017). It is found to be a sustainable precursor of activated carbon
and biocomposites production through thermochemical treatment (AbdulKhalil et al. 2013; Garg
and Das 2018; Yahya, Al-Qodah, and Zanariah 2015), also a pathway to a sustainable agroindustry.
The search for efficient technologies, which will allow the Jatropha system reach the zero waste
concepts, is technically viable and is a huge contribution to agroindustry sustainability (Giwa et al.
2018; Rezaei and Mehrpooya 2018; Zetzl et al. 2011). The processes could include densification,
transesterification, pyrolysis, gasification, direct combustion, and anaerobic digestion (Adinurani
et al. 2015). A general flowsheet of a Jatropha curcas near zero-waste system, including most of
possibilities of biomass conversion and uses is shown in Figure 2. The production of energy from JC
4 R. PILOTO-RODRÍGUEZ ET AL.

Figure 2. Jatropha curcas near zero-waste flowsheet.

would contribute to the sustainability of the system Jatropha, beside the impact reduction of the
biodiesel production from it (Portugal-Pereira et al. 2016; Rodríguez et al. 2018).
The literature survey analyzed in sections 3.1 and 3.2 is focused on the use of Jatropha curcas by-
products (husk, shall and cake) in gasification and pyrolysis processes only, as the main two routes,
in an efficient way, to produce energy by thermochemical conversion.

Gasification of Jatropha curcas by-products

By gasification, solid biomass is converted into a synthesis gas consisting primarily of nitrogen,
hydrogen, and CO, with lower amounts of CO2, H2O, CH4, hydrocarbons, and solid particulates; the
reaction conditions can be selected in order to enhance the production of a particular gas (Watson
et al. 2018). The gasification process occurs between 300-1000°C.
In spite of the biomass selected, high moisture and ash content have a negative impact on the
combustion or conversion process; both directly reduce the specific calorific value. Generally, the ash
content in biomass varies from 10-40%, but ash content over 10% is considered a disadvantage for
gasification (Salaheldeen et al. 2014). Concerning moisture content, up to 60% is feasible for using in
updraft gasifiers, between 5-60% in circulating fluidized bed and 10-25% in downdraft gasifiers.
According to the moisture content reported for husk and cake of Jatropha curcas shown in Table 1,
both are suitable for gasification. A detailed data collected from literature reports related to the
proximate and ultimate analysis of the by-products of JC, including ash composition, are also in
Table 1 included. In this case, the feedstocks are detailed, avoiding ambiguous classification, which is
usually found in literature (Eg. husk and shell as the same).
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 5

Table 1. Proximate, ultimate, and ash analysis of Jatropha by-products.

Proximate analysis (wt.% dry basis)
Fixed
Feedstock carbon Volatiles Ash Moisture Reference
Press cake 18.7 79.2 1.5 0.4 (Sharma, Sheth, and Gujrathi 2016)
19.7 70.9 5.9 3.3 (Jourabchi, Gan, and Ng 2014)
44.4–57.7 72-88.3 3-6.5 8.3 (Titiloye, Bakar, and Odetoye 2013; Titiloye, Bakar, and Odetoye
2013; Brunerová et al. 2017)
14.1 79.8 3.4 2.6 (Kim et al. 2013)
16.1 70.9 4.3 8.7 (Raja et al. 2010)
ns ns 4.0 3.0 (Vdyalaya 2007)
Shell ns 82.2 4.3 13.4 (Hsu et al. 2018)
16.4 68.73 5.0 10.0 (Vdyalaya 2007)
22.3 65.0 3.8 8.9 (Pambudi et al. 2017)
21.9 66.3 11.8 ns (Maiti et al. 2014)
Husk 25-31 65-71 3-5 ns (Navarro-Pineda et al. 2016)
25.0 71.0 3.9 10.7 (Vdyalaya 2007)
(wb)
17.7 64.9 3.9 8.9 (Salaheldeen et al. 2014)
31.9 52.9 6.6 8.6 (Murata et al. 2012)
25.0 71.1 4.0 ns (Vyas and Singh 2007; Singh et al. 2008)
Ultimate analysis (wt.% dry basis)
Feedstock C H O N Reference
Press cake 52.3 6.5 26.8 5.2 (Sharma, Sheth, and Gujrathi 2016)
45.7 6.2 38.2 3.6 (Jourabchi, Gan, and Ng 2014)
50.5 6.1 39.4 2.3 (Kim et al. 2013)
59.2 6.5 33.9 0.4 (Raja et al. 2010)
46.0 5.8 33.2 3.0 (Renny et al. 2016)
53.4 6.8 29.3 0.5 (Sharma and Sheth 2015)
Husk 48.0 5.8 ns 1.6 (Mochizuki et al. 2013a; Mochizuki et al. 2013b)
50.3–50.9 5.8–6.6 38.3–39.5 0.2–1.8 (Navarro-Pineda et al. 2016)
50.9 5.8 39.5 0.8 (Salaheldeen et al. 2014)
Shell 50.9 5.8 39.5 0.8 (Kratzeisen and Müller 2013; Pambudi et al. 2017)
42.4 5.1 50.8 1.6 (Maiti et al. 2014)
Ash composition (main components in wt.%)
Feedstock K Mg Fe Si Reference
Husk 85.6 8.5 1.8 1.6 (Mochizuki et al. 2013a; Mochizuki et al. 2013b)
Shell 16.8 3.8 0.5 ns (Maiti et al. 2014)
25.9 14.9 1.6 1.6 (Kratzeisen and Müller 2013)
ns: not specified; wb: wet basis

Concerning the ash content, for downdraft, updraft and circulating fluidized bed, less than 25% is
required while less than 6% for downdraft (Pfeil, Konradi, and Pohl 2017). According to Table 1, the
overall elemental composition is in the order reported for many biomasses and in several issues
(including HHV) (Basu 2010) is significantly better than rice husk, a highly reported feedstock for
biomass gasification. On the other hand, the ash melting behavior is an important parameter for the
reliable operation of any gasifier. If the melting temperature is under 800°C, formation of clinkers
inside the gasifier is presented, increasing cost of technologies and maintenance. The deformation
temperature of Jatropha shells is reported at 1185°C (Maiti et al. 2014) and for pruning wastes is
higher than 1600°C (Pari et al. 2018), adequate for downdraft gasifiers. This is a specific feature of
Jatropha by-products compared to other feedstocks.
According to Table 1 the press cake tends to form tar in higher amount than husk and shell. All
the characteristics exposed in the upper part have direct impact on the gasification efficiency. Table 1
shows low moisture content for all by-products of Jatropha.
Figure 3 shows the proximate analysis of Jatropha husk and cake and a comparison with several well-
known selected feedstocks. As is observed, JC cake and husk have a proximate profile close to several
feedstocks, some of them widely used for gasification such as rice husk. Most of the feedstocks are based
on agroindustry wastes with the same origin and concept of the Jatropha by-products. Compared to rice
6 R. PILOTO-RODRÍGUEZ ET AL.

Moisture Ash Volatiles Fixed carbon

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

Figure 3. Proximate analysis of Jatropha husk and cake compared to selected feedstocks.

husk (Kwofie, Ngadi, and Sotocinal 2017), both by-products of Jatropha show very low ash and more
volatiles, bringing advantages for thermochemical conversion. Nevertheless, rice industry has more
disposal of husk according to production volumes, but the JC husk and cake are suitable inside the
system Jatropha itself, and according to Figure 3 are higher quality biomasses for gasification.
A simulation flowsheet corresponding to a gasification facility using JC by-products as feed is
shown in Figure 4. It covers from entering of the JC by-product, a first step of drying the biomass
until the obtaining of the gas producer. The simulation was developed by the authors of this paper
and uses as feedstock husk and shell from biodiesel production and a gasifier with a feed flow of
35 kg/h. The gas producer has a calorific value of 11 MJ/kg and its composition as function of the
air–biomass ratio is shown in Figure 5. The energy content of the gas producer is enough to cover
the full energy demand of a biodiesel facility with a production capacity of 800 l per day.
Pambudi et al. (2017) developed a simulation of gasification of Jatropha curcas shell. In this
respect, for drying and pyrolysis processes, they selected a yield reactor while for oxidation and

Figure 4. Flowsheet of a JC gasification model for husk and cake.

 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 7

100

CH4 H2 CO2 CO N2

75
GAS COMPOSITION

50

25

0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

AIR-BIOMASS RATIO

Figure 5. Effect of the air–biomass ratio on the gas producer’s composition.

reduction, a Gibbs reactor. Simulation used Peng–Robinson as is most reported for solid biomass
and because of the reactor high temperature. The reactor temperature was set between 1000-1400°C
at 1.05 bar. The feedstock had a feed flow rate of 1 kg/h. The prediction of CO composition at 1000°
C ranges from 40.54% to 52.32%; hydrogen between 27.07% and 35.91%; CO2 between 5.43% and
28.29%; CH4 0.49–9.96%.
Several authors developed experiments in order to assess the JC by-products performance in
gasification. Maiti et al. (2014) studied the husk with a calorific value of 17.2 MJ/kg, in a 15 kg/h
downdraft gasifier. Producer gas having a calorific value of 5.2 MJ/m3 was obtained, with an
efficiency of 64.8% after 8 h of continuous operation. The gasifier was coupled to a producer gas
engine. According to energy calculations, the power obtained was suitable for the energy require-
ments of dehulling, screw pressing, oil refining, transesterification, glycerol purification, and soap
making in the integrated biodiesel production process. This result is remarkable since the gasifica-
tion of the husk covers the main internal energy requirements of self-industry and is in agreement
with the results above obtained by the authors of this paper.
Vyas and Singh (2007) reported an investigation to study the fuel properties of Jatropha husk and
its gasification feasibility in a downdraft gasifier. The system included two heat exchangers, blower,
and filtering systems. The maximum gasification efficiency was 68.31% at a gas flow rate of 5.5 m3/h.
The producer gas composition was 10% of H2, 20% of CO, and 1.7% of CH4. The gas calorific value
was 4.6 MJ/m3. These works demonstrated that Jatropha seed husk could successfully be used as
feedstock in downdraft gasifiers.
Prasad (2015) also developed a gasification study to JC husk. The calorific value of the producer
gas was lower compared to wood at the same operating conditions of the gasifier. The low bulk
density and irregular shape of the Jatropha shells were according to the authors, the main cause of
low carbon conversion. The composition of the producer gas was not varying much during
gasification (6.72% of H2, 9.99% of CO, 1.06% of CH4, 9.51% of CO2, and 72.71% of N2).
A temperature above 850°C in the oxidation zone helped the cracking of tar resulting in low tar
content in the producer gas.
Thiagarajan, Srividya, and Balasubramanian (2018) studied the gasification and co-gasification of
Jatropha seed cake and wood as separates feedstocks but blended. Both residuals were subjected to
8 R. PILOTO-RODRÍGUEZ ET AL.

gasification followed by co-gasification at different mass ratios (75:25; 50:50; 25:75). As part of the
research, TG analysis was also applied. Degradation of JC seed cake took place in two steps up to
800°C (removal of moisture, 35-195°C; devolatilization and oxidation, 200-397°C). The activation
energy of the Jatropha by-product was 51.24 kJ/mol. Significant differences between wood and
Jatropha cake were found concerning activation energy, reaction order, and thermal profiles. A 1 kW
fixed-bed downdraft gasifier was used and the gasification and co-gasification were run on batch,
with air as a gasifying agent. The highest production of CO and H2 (8.9% and 6.7%, respectively) was
obtained for a 75% of JC and 25% of wood blend.
A report of the use of producer gas in dual mode or blend in a diesel engine is reported (Nayak,
Pattanaik, and Nayak 2014; Rinaldini et al. 2019). A downdraft type biomass gasifier was used for
obtaining the producer gas (Nayak, Pattanaik, and Nayak 2014). The producer gas and air were
mixed in the intake pipe and then entered the engine. The engine was operated at its rated speed of
1500 rpm, injection timing of 23° before top dead center and an injection pressure of 220 bar.
Nevertheless, solid separator, passive and fine filters were needed to pass the gas producer through it
in order to eliminate solid particles, tar, and ash; avoiding a negative impact on the diesel engine.
Few reports are found on the gasification of Jatropha curcas by-products. The only reports are shown
in Table 2. The lack of papers could be related to the disposal of the residual in industrial activities
compared to other feedstocks. On the other hand, the relative high ash content in the husk could lead to
incomplete gasification (Kratzeisen and Müller 2013) and clinker formation. Nevertheless, the ash
content is quite lower than rice husk as is observed in Figure 3. This relative amount of ash in the husk
cannot be a major fact in gasification, as compared to rice husk, which is more than reported for
gasification (Chen and Zhang 2015; Makwana et al. 2015; Olupot et al. 2016; Zhai et al. 2016). The use of
Jatropha by-products for bioenergy at a low scale is a potential solution to local energy problems. Since
relative large amounts of husk and cake with relative high calorific value are locally generated,
researching in gasification of Jatropha husk and cake must be attended. The resulting syngas of JC
wastes can be burned to generate the self-internal heat and power requirements of the industry or being
used as raw material for the production of chemicals and liquid fuels (pyrolysis). Therefore, the
gasification process has the potential to be an alternative to direct combustion.

Pyrolysis of Jatropha curcas by-products

Pyrolysis is a thermochemical process in which biomass is heated to between 400-800°C, producing
three products: solid phase (charcoal), liquid phase (bio-oil and tar) and a gaseous phase. Based on
the reaction temperature and residence time, pyrolysis can be divided into conventional, fast, slow,
and flash pyrolysis (Kasmuri et al. 2017). Through pyrolysis, carbon-carbon bonds are broken and
carbon-oxygen bonds are formed. Part of the biomass is reduced to coal and the other part is
oxidized and hydrolyzed to organics which combine to form more complex molecules such as
polymers (Pandey et al. 2014). An extensive identification of organic compounds by GC-MS
presented in bio-oil is reported (Kanaujia et al. 2016). Currently, more attention is paid on bio-oil
production instead of gasification (producer gas), due to the advantage of obtaining a liquid fuel.
The improvement of physical and chemical properties is an important task to be an effective
substitute of crude oil. Pyrolysis produces high-grade biofuels having a yield of 22-75% depending
upon the temperature of process, type of biomass and reactor (Patel, Agrawal, and Rawal 2019).
Among the slow, fast and flash pyrolysis, the fast pyrolysis requires lower investments and brings up
to 75% of biofuels.
Pyrolysis of Jatropha by-products is reported. Murata developed two researches focused on the
pyrolysis of by-products (Murata et al. 2016, 2012). Both works were addressed to the catalyzer
assessment, based on Ni and microporous materials (zeolites), using Jatropha residues (husk, shell,
and branch) as feedstocks. Pyrolysis was performed on a Py-2020iS pyrolyzer. When the Jatropha
residues were used with Ni-Mo(O)/Y at 500°C, the bio-oil yield was 49.9%, including 21.3% of
organic liquid. Ni-based catalysts such as Ni-Mo(O)/Y were found to be effective and comparable to
Table 2 Gasification and pyrolysis applied to Jatropha curcas by-products.
Thermal
Feedstock process Reactor Experimental conditions Target Product characteristics Reference
Husk Gasification 20 kW downdraft gasifier Moisture of shells: 12.82% Producer gas 64% of efficiency. (Prasad 2015)
Producer gas 2.55 MJ/Nm3
Downdraft 12 kW coupled to Bulk density of biomass, Gas for power Thermal efficiency of 64.8% (Maiti et al. 2014; Susastriawan
a power generator 223. 09 kg/m3. generation and Saptoadi 2017)
5.5 m3/h
RYield and RGibbs 1000-1400ºC at 1.05 bar. Hydrogen production H2 (27-36%) (Pambudi et al. 2017)
1 kg/h of feed CO2 (5-29%)
CH4 (0.5-10%)
CO (40-52%)
Husk Fast Single-shot micro-pyrolyzer Oven dried for 24 h at Bio-oil Upgraded bio-oil (Kaewpengkrow, Atong, and
pyrolysis (PY-2020iD) 383 K. Sricharoenchaikul 2017)
Heating rate: 1000ºC/min Support with
(Ce(NO3)3 · 6H2O Pd(NO3)2,
Ni(NO3)2 · 6H2O)
Seed oil cake Fast PY-2020iS pyrolyzer coupled Ni-modified zeolite catalyst Bio-oil 50% yield. (Murata et al. 2016)
pyrolysis to GC-MS Acid value of 1.99 mg-KOH/kg
Husk Fast Micro-pyrolyzer (PY-2020iD) Zeolites as catalysts Hydrocarbons and Gas phase (30-38%) (Mochizuki et al. 2013b)
pyrolysis coupled to GC-MS. gas HC (43-51%)
By-product ns Fast PY-2020iS pyrolyzer Samples of 0.4 mg rapidly Hydrocarbons Aromatics formed above 90% of the (Murata et al. 2012)
pyrolysis connected to GC-MS pyrolyzed at 550ºC focused on aromatics obtained organic products.
Residue ns Pyrolysis Micro-pyrolyzer (PY-2020iD, 75–150 μm biomass particle Bio-oil High ash content (17.8 wt.%) (Mochizuki et al. 2013a)
coupled to GC-MS. size. C 46.3 wt.%
SiO2 catalyst. N2 1.6 wt.%
500ºC
ns: not specified
ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
9
10 R. PILOTO-RODRÍGUEZ ET AL.

Pt-Pd based. In the absence of catalyst, a range of aromatic hydrocarbons, phenols, alcohols, and
aldehydes, was obtained.
The micro-pyrolyzer Py2020 is formed by a pyrolysis reactor tube from which the pyrolysis
products are carried by a carrier gas such as helium and later introduced in a GC-MS system
(Rodríguez-Machín et al. 2018). Pyrolysis coupled to Gas Chromatography (Py-GC) allows
analysis of biomass, without any pretreatment of samples. Its use for assessment of pyrolysis
process to Jatropha curcas by-products at lab scale is well reported. There are single and double
shot devices where the volatile components and fragments originated from pyrolysis can be
separated and analyzed by GC-MS. The single shot represents fast pyrolysis and double shot
a multistage one. A basic scheme of a lab-scale pyrolyzer type Py-2020 is shown in Figure 6, and

Figure 6. Basic representation of lab-scale micro-pyrolyzer type Py-2020.

 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 11

Figure 7. Basic representation of reactors used for thermo conversion of JC by-products.

the corresponding to basic downdraft gasifier and fixed-bed conventional pyrolyzer in Figure 7.
These three devices and thermo conversion techniques are the most reported for Jatropha curcas
by-products, according to the literature survey. Figures 6 and 7 do not represent relative scales
among them.
Mochizuki et al. (2013b) performed a zeolite catalyzed fast pyrolysis of the JC husk at 300-600°C
and compared it with cedar biomass, in order to study the effect of thermal decomposition. The
study was developed using various zeolites as catalysts, in a micro-pyrolyzer. All the zeolite samples
were calcined at 550°C for 2 h and mixed with biomass samples before the pyrolysis. The lignin
concentration in Jatropha husk (20.2%) was lower than in cedar. The amount of ash formed by the
pyrolysis of JC husk (20.7%) was higher than that formed by cedar (0.6%). The experiments were
conducted with and without catalyzer. In particular, aromatic hydrocarbons were produced in a large
amount during the pyrolysis of the Jatropha husk sample in the presence of zeolite. In other
publication, Mochizuki et al. (2013a) reported the study of a Jatropha residue for catalytic and non-
catalytic fast pyrolysis using SiO2 as a catalyst at different pore sizes. All SiO2 catalysts showed
activity in reducing the number of oxygenated compounds.
Another test of pyrolysis developed with a Pyroprobe Py-2020iD was reported by Vichaphund,
Sricharoenchaikul, and Atong (2017). The authors investigated the effect of Jatropha waste: catalyst
ratio of 1:1 or 1:5, catalysts (CaO, Ni/CaO, and Fe/CaO). The sample was pyrolyzed set at 500°C for
30 s. Approximately 0.4 mg of Jatropha by-products were used in each experiment. The pyrolysis
vapors were identified by GC-MS. Without a catalyst, the fast pyrolysis of Jatropha residues led to
the formation of a wide group of organic compounds that were classified into 10 groups. The major
product was fatty acids 50.7%, mostly linoleic acid (C18:2). The level of nitrogen-containing
compounds in the non-catalytic bio-oil derived from Jatropha residues was 20.3%. The formation
of volatile organic compounds resulted from the decomposition of lignin, depolymerization of
cellulose and hemicellulose and pyrolytic ring break of cellulose. Ni/CaO showed the highest
hydrocarbon selectivity (47.5%) at a 1:5 biomass:catalyst ratio.
Kaewpengkrow, Atong, and Sricharoenchaikul (2014) developed a catalytic upgrading of the
pyrolytic vapors after fast pyrolysis of Jatropha cake. Pyrolysis experiments were also carried out
in a pyroprobe, PY-2020iD. The GC-MS analysis for pyrolysis vapors showed a range of aromatic
12 R. PILOTO-RODRÍGUEZ ET AL.

hydrocarbons such as phenols, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, acids, and esters among others. Catalytic
testing was performed by using Al2O3, ZrO2 based catalysts and their modified ones with impreg-
nation of Pd, Ru, and Ni, respectively. The hydrocarbon yields increased with increasing catalyst to
Jatropha ratio in all catalysts. N-compounds formation suggested that further denitrogenation is
required while pyrolysis with ZrO2 had a disadvantage on the high yield of acid which could cause
a further corrosion problem.
Experiments conducted in standard pyrolyzers are also reported. Jourabchi, Gan, and Ng (2014)
tested JC seed oil cake in fixed-bed pyrolysis. The experimental conditions and features are shown in
Table 3. Moisture, volatiles, fixed carbon, and ash contents were estimated by thermogravimetric
analysis, which is a well-reported analytical tool for thermochemical conversion of biomasses, and
reported for Jatropha curcas simulation (Rastrogi, Jha, and Sharma 2016; Vamvuka et al. 2016). The
biomass characterization showed that 70% of the total volatile separation took place below 377°C,
reducing the energy consumption during the pyrolysis. According to their findings, below 300°C, no
bio-oil was obtained, as the heat was only to crack hemicellulose and to produce mainly CO and
CO2. Within 350-500°C, between 32-50% of bio-oil yield was achieved with a heating value of
9–16 MJ/kg. The authors conducted another research to optimizing bio-oil production (Jourabchi,
Gan, and Ng 2016), applying fast pyrolysis and comparing with conventional one using the same
tubular furnace fixed-bed reactor. At optimum reaction temperature for fast pyrolysis, 40.93% of
biomass was converted into bio-oil with a gross calorific value of 16.92 MJ/kg. The final bio-oil was
suitable as burner fuel and for direct emulsification in 90% of diesel fuel.
Kongkasawan, Nam, and Capareda (2016) applied pressurized pyrolysis to Jatropha seed cake.
Concerning the physical and chemical characterization, the oil cake had a HHV higher than other
seed cakes such as Pongamia and higher than other biomass wastes used for energy production such
as rapeseed oil, corn stover, sugar cane bagasse, rice husk, and cotton stalk. According to their
findings, the amount of biochar decreased with the increase of temperature. Pyrolysis gas production
increased with temperature but the pyrolysis temperature did not affect the liquid product yield.
Among all products at different operating temperatures, biochar yielded the highest amount at 37-
44%, liquid product 24-27% and gas 13-21%. The high carbon content found in the biochar showed
a high potential application for activated carbon or fuel substitute.
Flash pyrolysis to Jatropha oil cake in a fluidized bed reactor is reported by Raja et al. (2010).
Particularly, the influence of pyrolysis temperature, particle size range, and nitrogen gas flow rate on
the product yield. A fluidized bed reactor was used. Nitrogen was used as the fluidizing gas. The
yield of bio-oil was increased from 42.15% to 64.25% when the pyrolysis temperature was increased
from 350 to 500ºC. They reported that the concentration of fuel components in gas was increased
with particle size increased from 0.6 to 1 mm. The maximum oil yield of 64.25% was obtained at
a pyrolysis temperature of 500°C, particle size of 1 mm and nitrogen flow rate of 1.75 m3/h. The
calorific value of pyrolysis bio-oil was found to be 19.66 MJ/kg.
Kim et al. (2013) studied the pyrolysis of Jatropha seed cake and compared it with palm kernel
shell and empty palm fruit bunches, as waste from the palm and Jatropha oil industries, in a fluidized
bed reactor. The pyrolytic liquid product and fractionated oil yields of Jatropha cake were max-
imized at 48% and 32% with an increase of bed temperature. The pyrolytic oils obtained from the
wastes were characterized by more oxygen and nitrogen, lower HHV and less sulfur than petroleum
fuel oils. The oils from Jatropha and palm contained more fatty acid and glycerides than other oils
from lignocellulose biomass as they found, comparing with other wastes and feedstocks. Also,
a catalytic pyrolysis of JC seed cake and compared it with wood is reported (Imran et al. 2016).
The catalytic pyrolysis was carried out in two modes: in-situ catalytic pyrolysis and post-treatment of
the pyrolysis vapors. The in-situ catalytic pyrolysis was carried out in an entrained flow reactor
system using a premixed feedstock of Na2 CO3 and biomass, and a post-treatment of biomass
pyrolysis vapors was conducted in a downstream fixed-bed reactor. Both types of catalyzers were
found to be used for the production of a high-quality bio-oil from catalytic pyrolysis of oil-
impregnated-wood and Jatropha cake. The catalytic bio-oil had very low oxygen content and
Table 3. Gasification and pyrolysis applied to Jatropha curcas by-products.
Feedstock Thermal process Reactor Experimental conditions Target Product characteristics Reference
Seed oil cake Pyrolysis Fixed-bed pyrolysis Pyrolyzed over (300-800ºC). Bio-oil 50% of the waste (Jourabchi, Gan, and Ng
N2 at 7.8 · 10−5 m/s to 6.7 · 10−2 m/s cracked down into bio- 2014)
oil, with less than 30%
water content,
15.12 MJ/kg.
Seed oil cake Pyrolysis Batch pressure reactor (Series Max yield at 600ºC with energy Bio-oil, biochar and Biochar (37-44%) bio- (Kongkasawan, Nam,
4580 HP/HT Reactors, Parr content of 4.2 MJ/kg. Pyrolysis at gas oil (24-27%) gas (13- and Capareda 2016)
Instrument) 500ºC optimum with 89% of mass 21%)
conversion and 77% energy recovery.
Wastes ns Fast pyrolysis Pyrolyzer, PY-2020iD Catalyst ratio of 1:5 optimal for Hydrocarbon Ni/CaO showed the (Vichaphund,
enhancing aliphatic hydrocarbon production highest hydrocarbon Sricharoenchaikul, and
production selectivity (47.5%) at Atong 2017)
a 1:5 biomass: catalyst
ratio
Seed oil cake Flash pyrolysis Electrical heated fluidized bed Sample fed at 30 g/min Bio-oil Maximum oil yield of (Raja et al. 2010)
reactor Gas flow rates of 1.25–2.4 m3/h 64.25 wt.%
350-550ºC of pyrolysis temp. Calorific value of bio-
oil: 19.66 MJ/kg.
Seed oil cake Fast pyrolysis Fluidized bed reactor (0.102 m id. Pyrolysis at 380-530ºC with N2 flow of Bio-oil, biochar and 27.2% of liquid oil (oil (Kim et al. 2013)
and 0.97 m high) 15–41 L/min at 25ºC. gas phase), 20.6% of liquid
oil (water phase),
24.4% of gas and
27.8% of char
ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
13
14 R. PILOTO-RODRÍGUEZ ET AL.

a high calorific value up to 41.8 MJ/kg. The post-treatment of the pyrolysis vapors over a fixed bed of
Na2CO3/γ-Al2O3 produced higher quality bio-oil compared to in-situ catalytic pyrolysis with Na2
CO3.
Sharma and Sheth (2015) used the JC seed cake to generate producer gas but and also for bio-oil
production. The experimental conditions are shown in Table 4. In this study, the pyrolysis was
developed in a fixed-bed reactor at temperatures between 350-750°C. The yield of bio-oil initially
increased and then decreased. A continuous fall was observed in char yield whereas the gas yield
decreased for the initial runs and then continuously increased with increasing temperature. The
maximum yield of oil was 31.17% at 500°C. Nevertheless, the authors did not compare or show
results concerning the gasification of this waste, contrasting with the defined title of the paper.
Naik et al. (2016) studied the product distribution of the co-pyrolysis process involving ligno-
cellulosic biomass and bituminous coal. Pyrolysis was carried out in a continuous, electrically heated
SS316 fixed-bed tubular reactor. JC cake was blended with bituminous coal in a ratio of 1:1 and used
as feedstock for carrying out co-pyrolysis. The pyrolyzer temperature was increased from ambient
temperature to 550°C at a heating rate of 5°C/min and finally kept constant for another 30 min. The
study was focused on the study of the pyrolytic oil obtained after co-pyrolysis. A 1:1 blend of
Jatropha curcas seed cake and bituminous coal was selected as feedstock and was pyrolyzed under an
inert environment in a fixed-bed reactor. The resulted pyrolysis oil was separated into aqueous and
organic phases and treated by liquid-liquid extraction. The results were compared to pyrolytic oils
obtained from the feedstock separately. The organic phases revealed 25.1% hydrocarbons in Jatropha
and coal-derived pyrolysis.
Slow pyrolysis applied in a fixed-bed reactor to seed-cake is reported (Kumar and Kumar 2013).
The reaction temperature was set up at 450-550°C. The increase in nitrogen flow rate from 50 to
200 mL/min decreased the char mass from 94.88 to 87.09 g. The higher residence time of volatiles in
the reactor causes secondary decomposition of higher molecular weight products. The maximum
bio-oil mass was obtained at a pyrolysis temperature of 500°C and a gas flow rate of 150 mL/min.
The yield of oil increases from 17.7% to 18.42% when the pyrolysis temperature was increased from
500°C to 530°C. Renny et al. (2016) also studied the pyrolysis of Jatropha seed cake in a rotary
pyrolyzer in presence of N2 and steam. The residence time of the reactor was adjusted to a maximum
of 50 rpm with a total volume of 2.5 l. Ni-based steam reforming catalysts were used for pyrolysis
process. It gave a highest bio-oil liquid yield of 43%. The steam reforming of bio-oil resulted in H2
yield of 0.245 g H2/g bio-oil at 95% of conversion. At 550°C, a maximum bio-oil yield was achieved .
According to the experiments, increase in bio-oil yield when temperature is increased from 400°C to
550°C was observed in spite of the carrier gas used.
Torrefaction or mild pyrolysis is biomass upgrading by increasing the calorific value and carbon
content. This technique is adequate for the pre-treatment of seed cake for further combustion,
gasification, or pyrolysis. The application of Torrefaction to de-oiled seed of Jatropha is reported
(Gan et al. 2019). A simple experimental setup including a tubular reactor and two gases washing
steps was settled. The fuel properties of the torrefied biomass were improved at 300°C for 60 min.
The highest improvement in HHV was obtained at 0.5–1.0 mm particulate size and was enhanced
by 24%.
Onifade et al. (2017) tested Jatropha curcas shell for bio-oil production. The samples were
previously sun-dried and ground into fine particle size. After that, each sample was mixed with
sodium anhydrous in order to dry them and remove totally the moisture content. A lignocellulosic
extraction from the by-product previous to pyrolysis was established and then pyrolyzed in batch-
type reactors. Pyrolysis process was for 2 h between 200°C and 400°C. Bio-oil was obtained with
a density of 947.5 kg/m3 and a calorific value of 14.2 MJ/kg. The authors made a deep characteriza-
tion of the organic composition of bio-oil, but the relative yield was not reported. Odetoye, Abu-
Bakar, and Titiloye (2018) also obtained bio-oil, in this case using a tubular reactor at 450°
C. A vertical split furnace was used as a source of heating. Nitrogen gas flow was maintained at
a flow rate of 50 cm3/min. The heating rate of the reactor was 25°C/min while the residence time was
Table 4. Gasification and pyrolysis applied to Jatropha curcas by-products.
Feedstock Thermal process Reactor Experimental conditions Target Product characteristics Reference
Seed oil cake Fast pyrolysis Fixed bed reactor with carbolite Heating rate of 25.6 K/s Bio-oil 40.93 wt.% of biomass (Jourabchi, Gan, and Ng
tubular furnace converted into bio-oil with 2016)
16.92 MJ/kg.
Seed oil cake Pyrolysis Fixed bed cylindrical reactor with 350-750°C. Nitrogen is purged for Bio-oil Max. yield of 31.2% at 500°C. (Sharma and Sheth 2015)
15.5 cm diameter and 30 cm height 10 min at a flow rate of 2 L/min Char yield decreases with temp.
Seed oil cake Pyrolysis Circulating Fluidized 0.85–0.90 bar Bio-oil Bio-oil yield of 43 wt%. (Renny et al. 2016)
bed reactor 1540 mm length 0.6 kg of capacity.
50 rpm max.
flow 0.83 kg/min
Seed oil cake blended Pyrolysis SS316 fixed bed tubular reactor Batch of 100 g increasing Bio-oil 13% of CH4 in the gases (Naik et al. 2016)
with bituminous coal temperature to 550ºC at 5ºC min/ 29.5% of organic oil phase and
(1:1) min 27.7% in aqueous phase
Seed oil cake Fast pyrolysis Pyrolyzer, PY-2020iD Al2O3, ZrO2 based catalysts Bio-oil Fatty acids (palmitic acid, oleic (Kaewpengkrow, Atong,
acid and acetic acid) with and Sricharoenchaikul
carboxylic acid of 41.11–63.86%. 2014)
ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
15
16 R. PILOTO-RODRÍGUEZ ET AL.

25 min. The presence of valuable chemicals suggests a potential use for several industrial applica-
tions. Nevertheless, all derivate from Jatropha bio-oil must be upgraded before they can be used as
a fuel in diesel engines, due to the complex content of organic compounds with varying composition.
In order to increase bio-oil yield in pyrolysis, parameters such as temperature, heating rate, residence
time, pressure, and catalyst, biomass type, and characteristics (particle size, shape, and structure), are
extremely important (Murata et al. 2016). Bio-oil produced can be directly applied in boilers, industrial
kilns, diesel engines, and gas turbines (Majhi et al. 2015; Vichaphund, Sricharoenchaikul, and Atong
2017). Nevertheless, the direct use of bio-oil in diesel engines is not recommended, at least in those
designed and regulated for standard diesel fuel. Corrosiveness, high viscosity, and low thermal stability
make bio-oil unsuitable for substituting fossil fuels in diesel engines. It is also necessary to reduce oxygen
and nitrogen and increase the fraction of hydrocarbons and aromatics before their use in diesel engines.
On the other hand, pyrolytic bio-oils can be directly applied in boilers, industrial kilns and gas turbines.
However, the properties of bio-oils are quite different from that of petroleum oil. In general, bio-oil
contains high oxygen content (30-40%), low heating value, high viscosity, chemical instability, and
acidity, which are also the main issues to deal with. Kort-Kamp et al. (2011) studied the pyrolytic bio-oil
of Jatropha seed-cake as one component in a blend with standard diesel fuel (2-20% of bio-oil in diesel
fuel). Fuel blends showed higher viscosity and density compared to diesel fuel. The authors did not report
the engine tests to assess performance, either a corrosion test in engine parts, but the results showed
a good blending capacity between bio-oil for seed-cake and diesel fuel.
One possibility of use of bio-oil directly in diesel engines is through emulsification without any
engine modification (Jourabchi, Gan, and Ng 2016; Yuan et al. 2018), but in this case two main
issues should be attended: increase in viscosity with water content and a formulation that made
effective the microexplosion phenomena (Melo-Espinosa et al. 2016). Another possibility is after the
bio-oil obtain, to develop a catalytic cracking of bio-oil produced, as one of the recent interests of
today’s research in which bio-oil is combined with different hydrocarbon-rich materials to produce
more effective products (Akhtar, Krepl, and Ivanova 2018).
Another potential application of thermal processes is the obtaining of heterogeneous catalyst or activated
carbons through pyrolysis of different husk types (Kaewpengkrow, Atong, and Sricharoenchaikul 2017;
Ramakrishnan and Namasivayam 2009; Sathishkumar, Arulkumar, and Palvannan 2012; Tongpoothorn
et al. 2011), which according to the present research, is not well reported for Jatropha but widely for rice husk
(Li, Chen, and Zhu 2013; Li et al. 2014). The obtaining of a solid catalyzer useful for the transesterification
reaction inside the Jatropha system could contribute to cost reductions, environmental impact reduction,
and sustainability, mainly applied in rural areas and at a local scale.
Several facts were stated after the survey of the state of arts. According to our findings, most of
the publications about thermochemical conversion of JC by-products report pyrolysis instead of
gasification. All reports on gasification of these by-products used downdraft gasifiers; 71% fed the
system with husk or shell instead of seed cake. This is due to the by-product content of residual oil
and moisture. On the other hand, for pyrolysis, more attention was paid to the seed oil cake with
most reports. This is related to the disposal of by-products due to a higher trend to use
a combination of both extraction routes (mechanical and chemical). Most contributions were
focused on bio-oil obtaining (80%) and near half or reports used low scale lab pyrolyzer of the
series Py-2020. Studies more focused on the bio-oil obtaining are related to more interest and
technical advantages of bio-oil obtaining, which is more compatible with the actual diesel engine
technology. Fast pyrolysis is the most applied with 40% of reports mainly due to researches focused
on bio-oil production, which is enhanced through it. By gasification of by-products up to 10% H2
and 20% CO can be obtained, but one study reports 52% CO and 36% of H2. Concerning bio-oil
production, up to 64% with up to 42 MJ/kg can be reached, showing a potential for a liquid biofuel
for transportation. Only focusing the analysis in gasification of husk and shell, this thermochemical
process brings the energy needed for biodiesel production, which is the agroindustrial activity that
generates these by-products, contributing to the sustainability of the industrial activity.
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 17

Conclusions
Jatropha curcas by-products as biomass feedstocks for gasification and pyrolysis has been reviewed
based on a significant number of relevant articles. The chemical and physical characteristics of the
analyzed by-products of Jatropha showed that these are excellent for pyrolytic production of gaseous
and liquid fuels. A disparity in the number of publications on gasification and pyrolysis is observed.
All reports on gasification of these by-products used downdraft gasifiers. Concerning pyrolysis, the
reports were more focused on the use of seed oil cake as feed. Most contributions were focused on
bio-oil obtaining (80%) due to the technical advantages it brings and one-third used low scale lab
pyrolyzers. By gasification of by-products up to 10% H2 and 20% CO can be reached even when one
study reports 52% CO and 36% of H2. Concerning bio-oil production, up to 64% with up to 42 MJ/
kg can be reached. Jatropha curcas by-products demonstrate that through pyrolysis and gasification
they produce enough energy as power or electricity to cover the energy demand of a biodiesel plant.
Although the increase in the number of papers about the use of Jatropha curcas by-products as
biomass for energy production, further research, however, is required in several areas such as
increase in the yield of bio-oil in case of pyrolysis, integration of subsystems of the system
Jatropha on an efficient way. Thus, further research will bring to a sustainable and environmentally
friendly approach of energy and biofuels generation, reducing investment and production cost of
bioenergy. Increase of bio-oil yields and its use in diesel engines are current research subjects. In this
respect, bio-oil purification, chemical conversion, and optimal use in engines should be addressed.

Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their thanks to Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF), funding the
project entitled “Potentiale biogener Ressourcen für eine nachhaltige und umweltverträgliche energetische Nutzung in
Kuba (BioReSCu)”, because of their greater support to this research, which was performed under this project.

Funding
This work was supported by Potentiale biogener Ressourcen für eine nachhaltige und umweltverträgliche energetische
Nutzung in Kuba (BioReSCu).

Notes on contributors
Ramón Piloto-Rodríguez PhD in Engineering. Head Professor and Senior Researcher at Universidad Tecnológica de
La Habana. Head of a Research Group on Bioenergy, with more than forty-five papers published in the field of
Bioenergy, fuel Emulsions, Diesel Engines and Life Cycle Assessment. Advisor of several PhD and Master thesis.
Coordinator of a Master Program in Renewable Energies.

Indira Tobío PhD student with a Master Degree in Renewable Energies. Chemical Engineer. Lecturer at Universidad
Tecnológica de La Habana since2018. Teaching in Fluid Mechanics. Several papers published in the field of Bioenergy.
Member of a Research Group on Bioenergy at the Center of Studies of Renewable Energies of Cuba.

Marianela Ortiz-Alvarez Master student in Renewable Energies. Civil Engineer. Lecturer at Universidad Tecnológica
de La Habana since 2017. Several papers published in the field of Bioenergy. Member of a Research Group on
Bioenergy at the Center of Studies of Renewable Energies of Cuba.

Yosvany Díaz PhD in Engineering. Assistant Professor at the Universidad Tecnológica de La Habana. Master in
Sciences in Environmental Engineering. He is member of the Research Group of Alternative Fuels with several
publications in the fields of biogas, biodiesel, biomass and diesel engines assessment.

Simon Konradi PhD student and Researcher at THM. Coordinator at Energy Technology and Energy Management-
etem. THM of several project with energy sector.Among other subjects, he has been working on bbiomass gasification:
Energy and CO2-balance, gasification of different waste biomass substrates.

Sven Pohl Full Professor at THM of energy process engineering since 2016 (focus: material and energetic use of
biomass, hydrogen technologies and technical environmental protection). Professor Pohl has 12 years of professional
18 R. PILOTO-RODRÍGUEZ ET AL.

experience in international plant engineering at Air Liquide (Lurgi). There he worked for many years in research and
development. Parallel to his teaching, Professor Pohl is also involved in research in the establishment of international
cooperation.

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