1. What is artificial intelligence?

It is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer
programs. It is related to the similar task of using computers to understand human intelligence, but AI
does not have to confine itself to methods that are biologically observable.

2. how should a machine perform in order to be called as intelligent?

 Ability to interact with the real world

 to perceive, understand, and act

 e.g., speech recognition and understanding and synthesis

 e.g., image understanding

 e.g., ability to take actions, have an effect

3. application area of artificial intelligence

 Post Office

 automatic address recognition and sorting of mail

 Banks

 automatic check readers, signature verification systems

 automated loan application classification

 Customer Service

 automatic voice recognition

 The Web

 Identifying your age, gender, location, from your Web surfing

 Automated fraud detection

 Digital Cameras

 Automated face detection and focusing

 Computer Games

 Intelligent characters/agent
 4. define an agent with an example and it’s type

 Definition: An intelligent agent perceives its environment via sensors and acts rationally upon
that environment with its actuators.

 An agent perceives and acts in an environment, has an architecture, and is implemented by an

agent program.

 Task environment – PEAS (Performance, Environment, Actuators, Sensors)

 An ideal agent always chooses the action which maximizes its expected performance, given its
percept sequence so far.

 (1) Simple reflex agents

 are based on condition-action rules, implemented with an appropriate production

system. They are stateless devices which do not have memory of past world states.

 (2) Model-based reflex agents

 have internal state, which is used to keep track of past states of the world.

 (3) Goal-based agents

 are agents that, in addition to state information, have goal information that describes
desirable situations. Agents of this kind take future events into consideration.

 (4) Utility-based agents

 base their decisions on classic axiomatic utility theory in order to act rationally.

5. list and explain different classification of learning problem

6. can computers talk? Describes in detail with conclusion

 This is known as “speech synthesis”

 translate text to phonetic form

 e.g., “fictitious” -> fik-tish-es

 use pronunciation rules to map phonemes to actual sound

  e.g., “tish” -> sequence of basic audio sounds

 Difficulties

 sounds made by this “lookup” approach sound unnatural

 sounds are not independent

 e.g., “act” and “action”

 modern systems (e.g., at AT&T) can handle this pretty well

 a harder problem is emphasis, emotion, etc

 humans understand what they are saying

 machines don’t: so they sound unnatural

 Conclusion:

 NO, for complete sentences

 YES, for individual words

7. list and describe (at least 4) fields of studies that contributes for foundation of AI

 Philosophy

 made AI conceivable by considering the ideas that the mind is in some ways like a
machine, that it operates on knowledge encoded in some internal language, and that
thought can be used to choose what actions to take

 Mathematics

 provided the tools to manipulate statements of logical certainty as well as uncertain,

probabilistic statements. They also set the groundwork for understanding
computation and reasoning about algorithms.

 Economics

 formalized the problem of making decisions that maximize the expected outcome to
the decision maker

 Neuroscience

 how the brain works and the ways in which it is similar to and different from
computers
 Psychology

 idea that humans and animals can be considered information processing machines

 Computer engineering

 provided the ever-more-powerful machines that make Al applications possible

 Control theory

 designing devices that act optimally on the basis of feedback from the environment.
Initially, the mathematical tools of control theory were quite different from AI, but the
fields are coming closer together

 Linguistics

 Used knowledge representation which is the study of how to put knowledge into a
form that a computer can reason with

8. Rational agent depends on the task environment list and describe those task
environment

 RA is one that does the right thing.

 It depends on:

 Performance measure - The performance measure that defines the criterion of success

 Environment - The agents prior knowledge of the environment

 Actuators - The actions that the agent can perform

 Sensors - The agent’s percept sequence to date

 We’ll call all this the Task Environment (PEAS)

9. list and describe properties of environment

 Fully Observable/Partially Observable

 If an agent’s sensors give it access to the complete state of the environment needed to
choose an action, the environment is fully observable.

 Such environments are convenient, since the agent is freed from the task of keeping
track of the changes in the environment.

 Deterministic
  An environment is deterministic if the next state of the environment is completely
determined by the current state of the environment and the action of the agent.

 In a fully observable and deterministic environment, the agent need not deal with
uncertainty.

 Static/Dynamic.

 A static environment does not change while the agent is thinking.

 The passage of time as an agent deliberates is irrelevant.

 The agent doesn’t need to observe the world during deliberation.

 Discrete/Continuous.

 If the number of distinct percepts and actions is limited, the environment is discrete,
otherwise it is continuous.

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Chapter -2

10. list and describe sequence of actions problem solving agent follow to achieve a
goal

 Problem-Solving Steps:

1. Goal transformation: where a goal is set of acceptable states.

2. Problem formation: choose the operators and state space.

3. Search

4. Execute solution

11. list and explain in detail component of problem description ( see an example in ppt)

 Components:

 State space (explicitly or implicitly defined)

 Initial state
  Goal state (or the conditions it has to fulfill)

 Available actions (operators to change state)

 Restrictions (e.g., cost)

 Elements of the domain which are relevant to the problem (e.g., incomplete knowledge
of the starting point)

 Type of solution:

 Sequence of operators or goal state

 Any, an optimal one (cost definition needed), all

 Optimal solution: best solution

 Feasible solution: all solution

 Example Problems:

 Toy problems:

 8-puzzle

 8-queen/n-queen

 Crypt arithmetic

 vacuum world

 missionaries and cannibals

 Real World

 Traveling Salesperson

 VLSI layout

 robot navigation

12. describe BFS and DFS and their deference

BFS

 Expand shallowest unexpanded node

 Implementation:

– A FIFO queue, i.e., new successors go at end

 DFS

 Expand deepest unexpanded node

 Implementation:

– A LIFO queue, i.e., a stack

Knowledge-based Agents
Percepts
Sensors
State

How the world What the world is

evolves like now
What my
Env.t
actions do
What will it be like if I
do action A Environment
Knowledge Reasoning
Base

Goals What action I

should do now
Actions
Jg Actuators
Agent

• Knowledge is contained in agents in the form of sentences in a knowledge representation

language that are stored in a knowledge base. 3
• A knowledge-based agent is composed of knowledge base and an inference mechanism.

• It operates by storing sentences about the world in its knowledge base

• using the inference mechanism to infer new sentence, and

• using these sentences to decide what to take

14. differentiate prepositional logic and FOL(first order logic)

PL

• A very simple but powerful logic

 • Syntax, Semantics, Inference algorithm

• It is a simple language consisting of propositional logic and logical connectives.

• Centered around propositions

• Statements about the world that may be true or false

• e.g., Grass is green; Water is wet; It snowed last Tuesday.

• It can handle propositions that are known true, known false or completely unknown.

• The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences.

• Atomic sentences

• Consist of a single proposition symbol

• Symbols that start with uppercase letter and may contain other letters or
subscripts

• Complex sentences

• Constructed from simpler sentences, using parentheses and logical connectives.

• Propositional symbols with fixed meaning

• TRUE is always-true proposition

• FALSE is always-false proposition

• Propositional logic is declarative

• Pieces of the syntax corresponds to facts.

• Propositional logic allows partial / disjunctive / negated information

• (unlike most data structures and databases)

• Propositional logic is compositional:

• e.g. B1  P2 is derived from meaning of B1 and of P2

• Meaning in propositional logic is context-independent

• (unliPropositional logic has limited expressive power unlike natural language.

• e.g. The given statement is very hard to model in propositional logic:

 • “If your roommate is wet because of rain, your roommate must not be carrying
any umbrella”

• Propositional logic cannot represent objects therefore cannot handle them.

• No notion of objects

• No notion of relation among objects.

• ke natural language, where meaning depends on context)

FOL

• Whereas propositional logic assumes the world contains facts;

• First-order logic (like natural language) assumes the world contains

• Objects

• E.g. people, houses, numbers, theories, colors, football games, wars, centuries,
…

• Relations

• E.g. red, round, prime, bogus, multistoried, brother of, bigger than, inside, part
of, has color, occurred after, owns, comes between, …

• Functions

• E.g. father of, best friend, third quarter of, one more than, beginning of, …

User defines the following primitives

• Constant symbols

• Represent primitive objects. Each constant symbol names exactly one object in the
universe of discourse but:

• Not all objects have symbol names;

• Some objects have several symbols names

• Function symbols – mapping individuals to individuals

• e.g., father-of(Mary) = John, colorof(Sky) = Blue

• Predicate/relation symbols – use to represent a relation in the universe of discourse.

 • e.g., greater(5,3), green(apple), color(apple, Green)

15. Given an example of kinship domain for an object people define the following predicates

A. Female(x), parent(x,y), spouse(x,y)

• Object – people

• Functions: Mother(x), Father(x)

• Predicates: Female(x), Parent(x, y), Spouse(x,y)

• Definitions:

• x Male(x)  Female(x)

• x y y = Mother(x)  Female(y)  Parent(y, x)

• x y y = Father(x)  Male(y)  Parent(y, x)

B. Child(x) grandparent(x) brother(x)

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Chapter-4

planning

16. define planning with in the concept of AI and show it diagrammatically

• Generate sequences of actions to perform tasks and achieve objectives

• Until recently, AI planning was essentially a theoretical endeavor: It‘s now becoming useful in
industrial applications
 Planning Agent
AGENT Sensors
Percepts

? Environment

Actuators Actions

Agent

A A A
1 2 3 3

17. differentiate planning and problem solving

• Planning and problem solving methods can often solve the same sorts of problems

• Planning is more powerful because of the representations, methods used and accurate o/p.

• States, goals, and actions are decomposed into sets of sentences (usually in first-order logic)

• Search often proceeds through plan space rather than state space (though first we will talk
about state-space planners)
 • Sub goals can be planned independently, reducing the complexity of the planning problem

18. define the term consistent action

• The purpose of applying an action is to ‘achieves a desired goal’

• We should be careful that the action does not undo a desired literal (as a side effect)

• A consistent action is an action that does not undo a desired literal

19. list and explain components of a plan

1. A set of actions

2. A set of ordering constraints

• A p B reads “A before B” but not necessarily immediately before B

• Alert: caution to cycles A p B and B p A

3. A set of causal links (protection intervals) between actions

• A B reads “A achieves p for B” and p must remain true from the time A is
applied to the time B is applied

• Example “RightSock RightShoe

4. A set of open preconditions

• Planners work to reduce the set of open preconditions to the empty set who
introducing contradictions

20. explain the concepts in probability (i,e Frequentists and Bayesians)

• Probability is the formal measure of uncertainty. There are two concepts:

• Frequentists: believe that probability represents something objective, and compute

probabilities by counting the frequencies of different events

• Bayesians: believe that probability represents something subjective/particular, and

understand probabilities as degrees of belief.

• They compute probabilities by starting with prior beliefs, and then updating
beliefs when they get new data.

• Example: Your degree of belief that a bird can fly is your measure of belief
in the flying ability of an individual based only on the knowledge that the
individual is a bird.
 • Other agents may have different probabilities, as they may have had
different experiences with birds or different knowledge about this particular
bird.

• An agent's belief in a bird's flying ability is affected by what the agent

knows about that bird.

21. exercise on examples from ch-5

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Chapter-6

22. define learning and its advantages to AI agent

• an agent tries to improve its behavior through observation, reasoning, or reflection

• learning from experience

• memorization of past percepts, states, and actions

• generalizations, identification of similar experiences

• forecasting

• prediction of changes in the environment

• theories

• generation of complex models based on observations and reasoning

23. list and explain in detail components of learning agent

 learning element
• responsible for making improvements

• uses knowledge about the agent and feedback on its actions to improve performance

 performance element
• selects external actions

• collects percepts, decides on actions

• incorporated most aspects of our previous agent design

• informs the learning element about the performance of the action

• must use a fixed standard of performance

 • should be from the outside

• an internal standard could be modified to improve performance

• sometimes used by humans to justify or disguise low performance

 problem generator
 suggests actions that might lead to new experiences

 may lead to some sub-optimal decisions in the short run

o in the long run, hopefully better actions may be discovered

 otherwise no exploration would occur

24. define neural network

• What is a neural network ?

• A machine designed to model the way in which the brain performs a particular task or
function of interest; the network is implemented by using electronic components or is
simulated in software on a digital computer .

• Viewed as a adaptive machine, a massively parallel ,distributed processor, made up of

simple processing units which has propensity for storing experiential knowledge and make
it available for use

• complex networks of simple computing elements

• capable of learning from examples

• with appropriate learning methods

• collection of simple elements performs high-level operations

• thought

• reasoning

• Consciousness: being able to use your senses and mental powers to understand what
is happening

25. describe a multi- layer network using diagram (two layer network)

• research in the more complex networks with more than one layer was very limited until the
1980s
 • learning in such networks is much more complicated

• the problem is to assign the blame for an error to the respective units and their
weights in a constructive way

• the back-propagation learning algorithm can be used to facilitate learning in multi-layer

networks

• two-layer network

• input units Ik

• usually not counted as a separate layer

• hidden units aj

• output units Oi

• usually all nodes of one layer have weighted connections to all nodes of the next layer
Diagram Multi-Layer Network
re • two-layer
Oi network
• input units Ik
Wj • usually not counted as a separate layer

• hidden units aj
i
•aoutput
j units Oi

• usually
W
all nodes of one layer
havek weighted connections to
allj Inodes of the nex
t layer
k

44

Chapter -7

26. define NLP

• NLP is the branch of computer science focused on developing systems that allow computers
to communicate with people using everyday language.

• Also called Computational Linguistics

– Also concerns how computational methods can aid the understanding of human
language

27. define the term syntax ,semantics ,pragmatics with in the concept of NLP

• Syntax concerns the proper ordering of words and its affect on meaning.

– The dog bit the boy.

 – The boy bit the dog.

– * Bit boy dog the the.

– Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.

• Semantics concerns the (literal) meaning of words, phrases, and sentences.

– “plant” as a photosynthetic organism

– “plant” as a manufacturing facility

– “plant” as the act of sowing

• Pragmatics concerns the overall communicative and social context and its effect on
interpretation.

– The ham sandwich wants another beer. (co-reference, anaphora)

– John thinks vanilla. (ellipsis)

28. compare and contrast Natural Language VS computer languages

• Ambiguity is the primary difference between natural and computer languages.

• Formal programming languages are designed to be unambiguous, i.e. they can be defined
by a grammar that produces a unique parse for each sentence in the language.

• Programming languages are also designed for efficient (deterministic) parsing, i.e. they are
deterministic context-free languages.

29. what is morphology?

• Morphology is the field of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words.

• A morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning

– e.g. “carry”, “pre”, “ed”, “ly”, “s”

• Morphological analysis is the task of segmenting a word into its morphemes:

– carried  carry + ed (past tense)

– independently  in + (depend + ent) + ly

– Googlers  (Google + er) + s (plural)

– unlockable  un + (lock + able) ?

 (un + lock) + able ?

30. what is the purpose of semantics parser?

• A semantic parser maps a natural-language sentence to a complete, detailed semantic

representation (logical form).

• For many applications, the desired output is immediately executable by another program.

• Example: Mapping an English database query to Prolog:

How many cities are there in the ETHIOPIA?

31. list advantages of learning approach

• Large amounts of electronic text are now available.

• Annotating corpora is easier and requires less expertise than manual knowledge
engineering.

• Learning algorithms have progressed to be able to handle large amounts of data and
produce accurate probabilistic knowledge.

• The probabilistic knowledge acquired allows robust processing that handles linguistic
regularities as well as exceptions.