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RADIANT HEATING
by
A DISSERTATION
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DOCTOR OF PHILOSGFirf
Approved
December, 1981
73
Iff:I
ry^^ /A ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
encouragements, the success of this work would have never been possible.
Carper and Dr. Luther D. Clements for their constructive criticism and
Special thanks goes to Mrs. Judy Pearce for her beautiful typing
of this manuscript.
who made my graduate studies possible by her immense sacrifice and moral
support.
11
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii
ABSTRACT v
NOMENCLATURE xi
I. INTRODUCTION 1
3.5 Condenser 36
4.1 Introduction 46
V. THER14AL ANALYSIS 54
iii
5.2 Solution to the Problem of Heat Conduction
in Tube Wall 61
REFERENCES 127
APPENDICES
IV
ABSTRACT
radiant heating.
simulated using high intensity, line source quartz lamps providing con-
mentation included inlet fluid flow rate, inlet and exit fluid pressure
the coil. The incident radiation field was mapped using a Gordon type
heat flux transducer calibrated for the quartz lamp spectrum. An up-
stream hot oil heat exchanger provided inlet fluid conditions to the
test section consistent with the segment of the receiver being simulated
V
A numerical analysis was developed to predict the local internal
compared with values for high quality. At low quality, the highest
farthest from the axis of the coil. At high qualities, this changes to
yield the highest coefficients on the tube surface closest to the coil
tion, induced secondary flow, flow acceleration along the flow axis,
for the subcooled liquid and two-phase were correlated against dimension-
less parameters of the flow such as the Reynolds number, Prandtl number,
VI
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
Different Stations 32
Vll
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
as a Function of Location 12
Lamp Panels 38
Asymmetrical Heating 58
Vlll
5-5.a,b Cosine and Circular Incident Flux Distributions 69
IX
6-16 Axial Distribution of Heat Transfer Coefficients,
Run 100 105
A area, ft 2
d tube diameter, ft
D coil diameter, ft
2
P pressure, psia
P, heated perimeter, ft
h
Pr Prandtl number, dimensionless
2
q heat flux, Btu/hr-ft
XI
— 2
r tube radius, ft
R tube radius, ft
S standard deviation
T temperature, °F
V velocity, ft/hr
X quality, dimensionless
h_^^0.9.vf]0.5r..^0.1
^yf^
X Lockhart-Martinelli parameter, dimensionless
yg
axial direction
AMB ambient
C critical
c coil
calc calculated
cr critical or transition
d bubble departure
ex exit
Xll
f saturated liquid properties
i coil inlet
inc incident
i liquid
m average
S straight pipe
sat saturated
TP two-phase
w wall
z axial location z
Greek Symbols
e emissivity
Tj viscosity
p density
a Stephen-Boltzman constant
9 circumferential direction
Xlll
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
interest, however, has been boiling heat transfer and two-phase flow.
The state of the art is still far from being established and very few
dynamic and heat transfer mechanisms are very closely related, and have
The pressure drop in two-phase flow depends upon the flow pattern
of the amount of heat being added to or removed from the flow. The
changes in flow pattern will also cause variations in local heat trans-
fer coefficient.
namically fully developed. These, along with the effect of time varying
properties that one may encounter, make the problem very difficult if
heated uniformly over its entire length with a low heat flux. Subcooled
liquid is pumped from the bottom of the tube at such a rate that the
In the entrance region of the tube, both tube wall and liquid
temperature increase, but they are still below the value required for
high enough to start the nucleation process, after which the wall temper-
still well below the local saturation temperature and, therefore, the
bubbles collapse as they separate from the wall. This is the subcooled
"^i^'i^'a^ii^
Drop Liquid
flow deficient region
Forced
Annular convective heat
flow transfer through liquid
film
i;
Slug
flow
Saturated
nucleate
boiling
Bubbly
9*
•*
«C
• flow
I
Subcooled boiling
B
Single-phase Convective
liquid heat transfer
to liquid
is high enough to prevent the bubbles from collapsing. The bulk fluid
but it always stays a few degrees above the bulk liquid temperature.
Now the tube is filled with a bubbly flow, and coalescence of these
thin liquid film attaching to the inner tube wall is such that the heat I
known as "dry out" and the region between this and the dry saturated
The dry out point represents the effective limit on the amount of
The definitions of a few terms that will be used later during the
course of this study are worth mentioning here. These are the pre-
viously mentioned term "dry out" and the term "departure from nucleate
boiling" (DNB).
heat flux imposed on the tube surface is increased gradually, the posi-
tion of the point where complete evaporation of liquid film occurs (the
dry out point) will move downward along the tube. As long as this point «
called the dry out point. But if the imposed heat flux is increased
such that the complete evaporation of the liquid film on the wall occurs
when the process of heat transfer in the tube is nucleate boiling, then
the heat flux, the bubble population on the wall increases so much that
these bubbles form a thin blanket of vapor on the wall, preventing the
liquid from wetting the wall. This will change the mechanism of heat
present which at lower pressures causes the liquid at the center of each
tube cross section to be driven outward (farther from the coil axis) in
the center section of the tube and toward the center of curvature along
its outer walls. Figure 1-2 illustrates the effect of pressure and
mass velocity on the flow pattern and the location of dry out in two-
phase, helical coil flow. It has been shown that at high pressures of I
13 I
more than 160 atm, mass velocity will be the major factor affecting the
Iti B f.
location of dry out and local flow pattern [6]^ At low mass velocity,
the liquid will be flowing in the bottom of the tube due to the effect
of gravity, while at higher mass velocities the liquid will move radi-
ally outward attaching to the wall of the tube farthest from the center
secondary flow in the gas core causes a circulation in the liquid film.
Liquid film is carried with the gas flow from the channel wall close to
the center of curvature across the tube center and is deposited on the
the wall close to the center of curvature due to the circulation in the
film and separation of liquid droplets from the gas core due to centri-
fugal force maintains the inner tube wall wet up to very high qualities,
CO
E
CO
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Q.
iJ
Low mass velocity
Q.
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Axis of
helix
heated steam, by transferring the energy from the solar flux incident
upon its outer surface to the working fluid (water/steam). The effluent
steam is then taken to the power plant for the generation of electricity,
this concept. The receiver system is supported from the top and is
from the sun. At or near solar noon and zero incidence angle for the
dish collector, the receiver will be located such that at any specified
axial location, any differential area around its periphery can see the
same amount of mirror surface. Thus, the flux distribution around the
the length.
\
valid for flow in channels with direct, uniform heating, while the
experiences, one would need to have a long coil and some means of pro-
viding the incident radiation for the whole length of the receiver coil.
11
it was decided that a test facility be built that could be used to test
the liquid heating region, the boiling region, the superheated region,
This test facility should also have the characteristic that would
allow the testing of the performance of the receiver under the conditions
conditions.
along the receiver at solar noon and zero degree incidence angle, where )
of these tests, the best that could possibly be done was to average the
No. of segments
4 5 6 7
700
600
500
C
3
CO 400
c
o
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•u
c
a; 300
•J
c
o
o
i
200
100
LITERATURE SURVEY
have been mostly related to boiling inside the straight tubes, their
results have been very helpful in understanding the flow patterns and
these papers, but these are the major works that are relevant to the
present study.
Martinelli [18]. These authors correlated the pressure drop and liquid
They obtained their data for simultaneous flow of air and liquids,
pipes with diameters ranging from 0.0586 to 1.017 inches. They concluded
of flow exist. The two-phase pressure drop for each of these four flow
root of the ratio of the single phase pressure drop in the pipe if the
liquid was flowing alone to the single phase pressure drop if the gas
13
14
was flowing by itself. Liquid holdup was also correlated for all of
curves by means of which the pressure drop during boiling can be esti-
mated once the exit quality, the boiling pressure, and the pressure drop
phase Reynolds number. Then using these two functions, he was able to
results (over 600 data points) showed an average deviation of ±12 percent.
phase flow was the subject of an investigation by Ito [16]. His experi-
mental data were obtained from measurements of the pressure drop for
ments on friction factor and heat transfer for the laminar flow of oil
and the turbulent flow of water in tube coils having ratios of coil to
tube diameter of 17 and 104. The ranges of Reynolds numbers varied from
12 to 65000. They concluded that their results for the friction factors
when for non-isothermal flow the properties are evaluated at the mean
for both laminar and turbulent flow were correlated with the Reynolds
number.
friction factor for turbulent flow of water through steam heated, coiled
tubes is reported by Rogers and Mayhew [30]. Three coils with ratios
of coil to tube diameters of 10.8, 13.3, and 20.12 were constructed from
0.5 inch O.D. copper tubing. The range of Reynolds numbers covered was
forced convective heat transfer in curved pipes with laminar [22] and
turbulent [23] flow under the condition of uniform heat flux. They
against Dean number and Reynolds number. They also studied the effect
16
the Nusselt number for heat transfer in a curved pipe does not differ
The effect of coil diameter, pitch, and the diameter of the tubing
used on the friction loss for Newtonian fluids flowing through helical
coils was studied by Mishra and Gupta [21]. A wide range of variables
were included. Pressure drop data in the laminar and turbulent region
for flow through 60 different helical coils was reported and correlations
tions for pressure drop and heat transfer for the flow of fluids in coils
the diameter of the circle into which the tubing is bent. They also
reviewed the existing correlation for critical Reynolds number and pro-
two phases.
spirally coiled steam generating tubes at pressures from 500 to 3300 PSI.
The tubes were exposed to furnace heat and were heated on only one side
were performed with water boiling in helical coils at 2600 PSI. Two
constructed from 0.42 inch I.D. stainless steel tubing and were heated
II. Coiled tubes have higher average DNB steam qualities than do
)
i
straight vertical tubes.
IV. In the coil with the smaller coil to tube diameter ratio, DNB
occurs at higher steam qualities than in the coil with the larger ratio
phase axial mixing in coils constructed by winding 0.5 inch I.D. tubing
2 propanol. Liquid holdup was measured by both the tracer method and
coils of 9.86 and 20.5 inches in diameter with tube inside diameter of
Martinelli parameter for higher qualities, using almost the same experi- ,
mental set up. The range of the pressure in these experiments was
0-35 PSI.
liquid to the surface of the tube is very important and due to this,
cent, the heat transfer coefficient at the location on the tube farthest
from the axis of the helix decreases, but it essentially remains high at
19
the location closest to the axis of the helix even up to qualities close
to 100 percent.
confirmed the existence of the secondary flow and its effect on distri-
drop and holdup for concurrent gas liquid flow in helical coils. Nine
helical coils with coil diameters of 6, 9, and 12 inches and helix angles
four other coils were constructed from stainless steel tubes of diameters
coils. They found that small helix angles had no effect on pressure drop
and holdup in coiled tubes and both pressure drop and holdup could be
Bianchi and Cumo [5] reported the results of their study on heat
coil (83 cm coil diameter, 15 mm tube inside diameter, heated over 62.8
that no correlation has been found that accurately correlates their heat
transfer data, but Thom's correlation gives the best result. They found
with a correction factor. Using this approach, the authors were able to
[8] constructed a helical coil with 0.836 m coil diameter from 0.0155 m
I.D. tubing. Subcooled liquid water entered the tube at the bottom and
superheated steam exited at the top. Ranges of pressure and mass velocity
2
covered were 80-170 bar and 1000-2500 kg/m -sec, respectively. They
found that for the ratios of heat transfer to mass velocities of less
than 0.13 KJ/kg, no DNB occurs and, thus, one may consider a boiling
length extended up to 100 percent quality for this range. A mean boiling
becomes evident that most of the work done so far has been related to
flow inside straight conduits or helical coils where the test section
the circumference of the tube cross section (as well as around the
21
periphery of the coil itself in some cases) on the thermodynamic and heat
is needed.
around the circumference of the tube cross section, as well as the change
I
CHAPTER III
incident flux and the state of the working fluid at the test section
heating. The flow loop must have the ability to provide the test section
the pressure at the inlet to the test section. The radiant testing
section inlet.
2. Heat exchanger.
3. Test section.
4. Solar simulator.
5. Condenser
6. Supporting instrumentation.
22
23
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26
pump model 330 which was capable of delivering 4.0 GPM at 1000 psi. This
pump provides a relatively uniform flow, but to insure that even these
minor pump pulsations will not result in any kind of flow instability
that one of these would dampen any pressure fluctuations when the pump
discharge pressure was below 300 psi and the other which had a higher
charge pressure would dampen the fluctuations for pressures above 300
tion dampeners to keep the pump and the other components of the flow
bypass line was provided. This line would return the excess deionized
water back to the supply tank. The flow then passed through one of the
two flow rate monitors with different ranges of flow measuring capability.
The smaller one had a range of 0.05 to 0.5 GPM, while the larger one had
After measuring the total mass flow rate, temperature and pressure
of the fluid, it was delivered to one of the two lines which hereon will
be called the superheated vapor line (line A) and the subcooled liquid
27
line (line B). Each line was equipped with a micrometer needle valve.
The amount of fluid flowing through the subcooled liquid line was
measured by another flow meter with a range of 0.25 to 2.5 GPM. The
difference between the total flow rate and the flow rate through the
subcooled liquid line represents the flow rate through the superheated
vapor line.
The fluid passing through the superheated vapor line was passed
through a shell and tube heat exchanger where it was converted to super-
heated steam.
the system was shut down, the steam or hot water in the heat exchanger
tends to flow backward through the system. As this would possibly result
in damage to the pump, a check valve was installed before the heat
exchanger.
After the temperature and pressure of the steam leaving the heat
exchanger was measured, the subcooled and the superheated vapor flows
were combined. Each of the lines were provided with a check valve before
this connection was made, as the higher pressure in any one of these
lines might force the fluid in the other line to flow in the reverse
direction or probably would tend to stop the flow in the other line.
this junction. Using these measured quantities, i.e., the total flow
rate, the subcooled liquid flow rate and pressures and temperatures
was made, and by a simple energy balance on the system, the enthalpy of
the mixture at the inlet to the coil was calculated. If the state of
28
the system at this point was saturated, the quality would also have to
be calculated.
By changing the total flow rate, subcooled liquid flow rate and
the pressure and the temperature of the discharge steam from the heat
desired was obtained. It was also possible to send the fluid through
to the coil.
sections of the main receiver system in the FMDF system, the test ^
i
facility must be able to provide the test section with a working fluid
I
ranging in temperature from a compressed liquid to a two-phase mixture i
A gas-fired oil heater with an oil to water shell and tube heat
conditions. The heat transfer oil (Exxon Calora HT43) in the system was
ture that this oil can stand without being degraded. The oil heater was
which would shut off the flow of gas to the oil heater as soon as the oil
temperature was within a few degrees of a preset value, while the oil was
The heat exchanger was a Cust-0-Fab, Inc. shell and tube heat
exchanger with a counter flow, one-shell pass, one-tube pass design with
was made from 14.7 feet of type 304 seamless stainless steel tubing with
a 3/8-inch outside diameter and 0.049-inch wall thickness. The coil was
that consecutive turns of the coil were in close contact as was dictated
by the design of the receiver in the FMDF system. The diameter of the
coil, from tube center to center, was 2.74 inches and the coil had a
there was one thermocouple station at each 1 1/3 turns of the coil. At
two thermocouples, one was arc welded on the location of the tube wall
farthest from the coil axis (location A, 6 = 0 ° ) and one was silver
thermocouples along the axis of the coil located 120 degrees apart.
ment would allow the measurement of the temperature variation around the
data logger for readout and recording of the temperatures at each thermo-
couple location on the coil. This data acquisition system scanned and
recorded all of the temperatures and. flow rates measured along the flow
station, and the distance between each thermocouple station and the coil
After the thermocouples were connected, the coil surface was wire
brushed and then coated with Tempil Corporation "Pyromark 2500" flat
black paint. This special paint is reported [371 to have a high absorp-
^^' ^'
-x-'y^
Ci(^
Coil Axis
Table 3-2
Distance
Station Number of
from
Number Thermocouples
Coil Inlet
(inches)
1 2 4.4
2 4 16.2
3 2 27.9
4 2 39.7
5 2 51.5
6 4 63.3
7 2 75.0
8 2 86.8
9 2 98.6
10 4 110.3
11 2 122.1
12 2 133.9
13 2 145.6
14 4 157.4
15 2 169.2
33
After the paint was dry, it was cured in the oven for one hour at 480''F
Figures 3-3.a and 3-3.b show pictures of the coil and the thermo-
The pressure drop across the coil was measured by a Celesco model
switch.
There were also two precision type pressure gauges, Ashcroft 0-1000
psig oil filled gauges, placed at the inlet and exit to the coil. The
combination of the test gauge at the inlet to the coil and the differ-
ential pressure transducer across the coil provided the pressure at the
test section exit with the second pressure gauge at the exit giving a
fashion. The radiative fluxes that this solar simulator must provide
</
&j^^
the mirror surfaces, the incident flux upon the receiver ranges from
30 suns at the bottom of the receiver to 650 suns at the top. Each sun
the earth on a clear day and is taken to be 1000 w/m^. The distribution
of the incident flux at solar noon was presented earlier in Figure 1-4.
This figure also shows how the axial length of the receiver was sub-
divided into nine different segments. The average incident flux for
for use in solar receiver testing. These panels were made available to
between the center of the lamps. The panels were approximately 18 inches
square and were composed of a main reflecting panel and two electrical
during the period when the lamps were on. To achieve this, a cooling
the reflecting panel and 0.5 GPM to each of the busbars. During each
Figure 3-4.
radiant flux incident upon the test section, three of these panels were
in such a manner that the panel in the bottom was fixed and the two side
panels were hinged at the bottom. This arrangement allowed the repro-
duction of the symmetrical flux distributions when the two side panels
The electric power required for the lamp panels was provided by a
lamp panels and the location of the test section at the center of the
triangle, while Figure 3-5.b shows a typical lamp panel arrangement when
3.5 Condenser
the test section indicates that saturation conditions exist at the out-
this two-phase mixture into a subcooled liquid and measure the amount of
heat released during this process. A simple energy balance on the system
Panel Cooling
Serpentine Reflective Back
Panel
ih 'I !! 'i !i ii It!! lull i! i| iM iinN n n i li i li ji ii ii / •rv^
«>~'i /
o r
/
I
I
I
/ » (.--. i /
i f
/
' I 1
I 1 I
i!«
I
I
I I
1 1 '
I I .
/ >«.
--^ u
TET
i :
nu \ r
Teflon Insulator
1 r Cooling
Cooling Water
Water
^^jj^^j^^^^^J^^Jj^^^^^^^y^ln^y,
Therefore, a condenser unit was placed in the flow loop after the
test section. The unit provided was a compact heat exchanger made of a
helically coiled annulus. The outer tube which carried the cooling
water was copper, while the inner passage was made of stainless steel
and temperature of the cooling water at the inlet and exit of the con-
denser and the temperature and pressure of the working fluid at the exit
from the condenser were also measured. Assuming that all of the heat
being removed from the working fluid during the condensation process
was transferred to the cooling water, the quality of the mixture entering
balance on the condenser. In cases where the entering fluid was not
exit of the test section, as well as the amount of incident flux upon
arrangement of the lamp panel cooling water lines, the condenser unit,
The instruments that were used to measure any one of the different
vious sections while describing other major components of the flow loop,
tant ones under a separate heading would serve the purpose better. These
Four flow rate monitor units with different ranges of flow measuring
line indicator.
indicators have an analog readout device which represents the flow rate
digital voltmeter via a rotary switch for instantaneous readout and also
to the data logger for recording of the flow rates during each run.
the purchase and were also frequently checked against each other or re-
The temperature of the fluid flowing through the flow loop was
was very easy to check the fluid temperature at any desired location
lamp panel cooling water. If the temperature of the cooling water after
circulating through the cooling jacket on the panels rose above a pre-
light on the instrument panel would inform the operator of the problem
in the system.
The pressure of the fluid flowing through the test section was
type pressure gauges with a range of 0 to 1000 psi and 5 psi graduations
were used.
At the heat exchanger exit and inlet and at the exit of the test
section, the gauges were oil filled to further increase the accuracy of
the measurements. Pressure drop across the coil was also measured by a
from the test section. If the pressure in the system due to any mal-
value, this device would automatically turn the pump off and inform
the operator by the sound of a buzzer and the indicator light on the
The radiant test facility, composed of the lamp panels and the
frame structure, the test section, and the flow lines, was located in
caution was taken to avoid any personal injury due to exposure to high
pressure steam leaks or high heat fluxes. Figure 3-8 shows the relative
1.
.y
>s u cu
U (U
a B u
u U 3
< a a OJ u
> U4
•^ o
^ CO
C r-t
c
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o
cn e- VM CJ "a
O CO
CN r-t
^ S3 3
5.1 0)
<U
1/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / 7 CO
c c
CO ns
rr 1-1
^ U
X
/ / ctj
(U
u u
<v
Su p
0 CC
iJ / 3 CD
31 c I
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W4 o
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CO •art
5-1
Cd 4_i
f-i OJ
o a
cn H
00
I
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1/ 5-1
3
/ / / / / / / / / / / // / / 00
•H
CHAPTER IV
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
4.1 Introduction
all cases, showed no more than ± 2 psi deviation. On the flow meters,
the turbine flow transducers were checked for cleanliness and free
thermocouple probe type K, 1/8 inch in diameter was inserted against the
tal sections of the flow loop, upstream of any flow control valves and
times during the period of the tests by collecting the effluent of the
For each series of test runs that were executed, the main variable
46
47
solar noon at a zero degree angle of incidence was shown in Figure 1-4.
At this time of the day the distribution of radiant flux around the
and late afternoon the receiver will be subjected to both axially and
from 24.2 to 156 suns and ass3rmmetric flux plots of intensities ranging
from 15 to 220 suns at the peak were mapped. Figure 4-1 is a photograph
of the fluxmeter in the test section. Figures 4-2 and 4-3 are two
heat flux for those tests was chosen and the lamps were placed in the
the desired heat flux level. The oil heater was then ignited and the
48
160-
1501
140-
CN 130-
^ 120-
•J
"^^ 110.
c:
0
100-
u
CO
5a 90-
4J
80-
o
c 70-
CJ
u 60j
cu
3 50-
0
A4
4J 40.
c.•3
-H
30-
5J
06
20-
101
0
-r
—r 90 120 150 130 210 240 270 300 330 360
0 30 60
Caloriineter P o l a r P o s i t i o n (")
Figure 4-2 Symmetric Flux Plot
50
rM
I
5. 13C4
120 ii
UO
u 100
u
3
90'
80 •
70-
60 .
50.
40,
30-
20-
10 -
flow of the working fluid through the coiled tube test section was
started.
When the temperature of the steam at the heat exchanger exit was
about 500**F, the flow of the cooling water through the condenser and the
The total flow rate and the subcooled liquid flow rate was then
adjusted to give the desired flow rate through the heat exchanger. At
this point the power line to the quartz lamps was connected. The temper-
ature of the fluid entering the test section was always a good indicator
Experimental runs during which only single phase fluid was flowing
through the test section was performed for both subcooled liquid and
The subcooled liquid runs were usually the first experiments that
were performed during each day that the system was operated. A few runs
with the liquid at the temperature of the supply tank, but with various
flow rates and different inlet pressures, were performed first. The oil
heater was then ignited and the process of heating the fluid through the
heat exchanger was started. At any point during this process, fluids
The superheated vapor runs were executed in the same manner as the
subcooled liquid runs, except that the inlet pressure was kept below the
52
two streams of fluid, one superheated steam and the other subcooled
liquid, both with known pressure, temperature, and flow rate. Having
these measured properties, one could easily calculate the enthalpy and
hence the quality and other properties of the mixture by a simple energy
After the desired mixture of liquid and vapor at the test section
inlet was reached and it was assured that the conditions were such that
was taken. The next step then was to either change the pressure or the
while the subcooled liquid flow was gradually increased such that the
total flow rate would stay constant. In this manner, at a given total
flow rate, the state of the fluid entering the test section would vary
from a high quality mixture to one with a low quality. Then, the total
flow rate was either increased or decreased and the same process was
repeated in a reverse fashion, such that the compressed liquid flow rate
was decreased and the superheated vapor flow rate was increased while
pressure and temperature of the fluid at the inlet and exit to the test
taken. A change in the pressure at the coil inlet or change in the mass
THERMAL ANALYSIS
the unknown slip ratio (ratio of the gas phase velocity to the liquid
phase velocity) between the phases and the uncertainty about the local
conditions existing at any point in the channel render the problem very
secondary flow in the vapor core which constantly exerts a drag on the
liquid droplets in the flow, causing them to move outward from the
center section of the tube to the outer wall and then circulating along
the tube wall back to the wall closest to the center of the curvature.
mentioned above, along with the fact that the incident flux around the
program for the case of symmetrical heating for a range of flow rates,
54
55
section.
Btu/ft^-hr.
losses from the coil to the ambient air are also considered. In sections
5.2 and 5.3, the general form of the functions representing the circum-
ferential temperature and heat flux distribution of the outer tube sur-
face are discussed. Using these boundary conditions, the heat conduction
equation is solved in the interior of the tube wall. As the final result
of this solution, the heat flux and temperature distribution around the
periphery of the inner wall of the tube cross section is found. Deter-
When all of the necessary quantities for any given axial location
are calculated, the local values of heat transfer coefficient are found
according to:
56
^'R.,9
i'
(R^.e) T^ - T
R.,e ^
1
a frame such that the two side panels were hinged at the bottom edge.
When these two side panels were brought together, the three panels would
with the coiled tube test section in the center was used for the cases
where heat flux around the circumference of the coil was symmetrically
tion of incident flux could also be tested by moving the coil off-center
the variations of the incident flux around it, the problem of the calcu-
lation of the heat input into the test section can be divided into two
general catagories: one with symmetrical heating over the outer surface
of the coil and one with asymmetrical heating. Now, since only half of
the perimeter of the coiled tube can see the radiation source, there
one turn of the coil under actual working conditions could be unwrapped,
it would be noticed that when the incident flux around the coil is
57
circumference of the tube. On the other hand, when the flux around the
the axis as well as along the periphery of the tube section. These two
incident flux around the circumference of the coil for special lamp
bution of flux is the same as that shown along the axis of the tube
tial variation of incident flux around the tube cross section at each
The heat losses from the outer surface of the coil are due to con-
vection and radiation to the outside environment. These heat losses will
losses are represented by q ^^^O) fo^ convective losses and q^^^C©) for
radiative losses.
neglected, the net heat absorbed by the tube surface at any specific
axial location along the coil and at angular position 0 is given by:
q (6) = q. (6) - q (6) - q ,(9) (5.1)
^o ^inc ^conv rad
58
V.
Figure 5-1.a
Symmetrical Heating: Uniform in axial direction,
non-uniform in circumfer-
ential direction
Figure 5-1.b
Asymmetrical Heating: Non-uniform in axial and
circumferential directions
59
where:
2
q. (9) - incident heat flux, Btu/ft -hr
inc
2
qconv (9) = convective heat loss, Btu/ft -hr
2
q ,(9) = radiative heat loss, Btu/ft -hr
section 5.3.
flux around the circumference of the tube cross section is known, then
form of the function qQ(9) representing the net absorbed heat flux can
be evaluated.
tions, this also represents the total heat added to the fluid up to this
axial location.
60
N '2TT
Qn(z) = S {[ qQ(9)d9]Az} (5.2)
i=l >'0
N = Az (5.3)
around the coil circumference, f(z) = b, for all points along the tube
axis.
The general form of the function f(z) is shown in Figure 5-2.
in Tube Wall
the circumference of the tube cross section is larger than that in the
the tube wall can be neglected. The problem at hand thus reduces to a
seen that the distribution of flux around the circumference of the tube
the tube. Therefore, the solution to only one-half of the tube cross
procedure.
Consider the left half of the cross section of the tube as shown
in Figure 5-3.
across the sides, 1 and 2. On the outer surface of the tube at r = R^,
l9 = 0 ^^ 1
T^(0) and q^(e) ^
known at 3
9T ^ ^
33 = 0 at 2
= 0 (5.5)
99
9=0
= 0 (5.6)
9=TT
k^ = q^O) (5.7)
^9r
r=R,0
(5.8)
^ lr=RQ = ^0^^>
63
arbitrary temperature distributions for the outer surface and the inner
surface of the tube was assumed and the temperature distribution inside
the tube wall thickness was calculated. Based on this temperature pro-
file, the heat flux at both surfaces was found. Then, the same tempera-
ture distribution and the calculated heat flux, both at the outer surface,
were used to once again solve for the temperature distribution inside the
tube wall thickness and also the heat flux at the inner surface. The
was repeated several times and the results were compared. The average
surface of the tube, for these test runs was 0.19. Standard deviation
M
r Z (T,-TT)^1/2
J=l ^ ^
S =
M
where:
T = flcalculated - Tassumed)
1
^noae i
64
After the P.D.E. and the related boundary conditions were deter-
mined, the finite difference method was used to solve for the temperature
distribution in the tube wall thickness. The domain of the problem was
the domain was assumed and the thermal conductivity for each node at its
energy balance equation was written for each node. Since, at the out-
side surface of the tube, the nodal temperatures and also the incoming
flux are known, the temperatures of the nodes on the second ring from the
outer surface can be calculated from these equations. Then, the energy
balance equations for the nodes on the second row are written. Again,
since the temperature of the nodes on the first and second row are known,
the temperatures of the nodes on the third row are calculated. Continu-
conductivity for each node at its new temperature are calculated and in
the new and old temperature at each node is less than 1 percent of the
65
started and at the end of each iteration, the convergence of the solution
is checked.
When the converged solution is found, the energy balance for the
inner surface nodes is used to calculate the local rate of heat transfer
Figure 5-4 represents a section of the tube wall with nodal points
and corresponding elements. The energy balance for node (i,j) on the
outside surface of the tube following the sign convention that heat
i,j-l
dr
i,j-l
•d9
+ Qo = 0 (5.9)
where
^ , (dr/2) * dz
o
C2 = (Rn-dr/2)^* de * dz ^^^^^^
For the nodes in the interior of the domain, the term representing
conduction from the node on the previous ring. In this manner, all of
The energy balance for the nodes on the interior surface of the
- Q. = 0 (5.12)
67
where
_„ (dr/2) * dz
^^ = R. * d9 (5.13)
1
n,. - (Ri+cir/2) * d9 * dz .^ ^,.
C4 -^ (5.14)
= q.R.d9dz
^1 1
The heat flux to the fluid at this location is thus given by:
q.(9) = Q./R.d9dz
1 1 1
heat input to the fluid along the length of the heated coil is to sum
up all of the values of the Q. for each and every node at the interior
surface of the tube cross section and repeat the process at different
N M
Q , = Z Z Q. (5.15)
^total . , . , ^1
1=1 J=l
where M is the number of nodal points in the circumference of the tube
the axis of the tube. This total heat input, considering the steady
section 5.1.
Temperature Distributions
The last two boundary conditions, equations (5.7) and (5.8) in the
previous section, and also the equations for calculation of total heat
68
flux in section 5.1, all require a function representing either the heat
obvious that only one-half of the perimeter of each tube cross section
receives the incident radiation and the other half remains in the
face of the tube were considered. The first method was to assume that
tion. For this case, nodal elements on the tube outer surface receive
mc — — '
The second choice was to assume that equal segments of the tube
perimeter on the side of the tube that can see the radiation source will
In either case, for the back side of the tube, where the tube wall
These two types of flux distribution are shown in Figures 5-5.a and
5-5.b.
69
TT/2 -TT/2
-TT/2
were executed in which the entering fluid was a compressed liquid. The
amount of heat that was theoretically added to this fluid was calculated
q (9) around the tube perimeter and multiplying by the appropriate area
earlier.
The total amount of heat that was actually added to the fluid was
inlet or exit to the coil and thereby calculating the fluid inlet and
exit enthalpy, the total heat added to the fluid is found from:
actual, coil ex in
The actual heat added to the fluid was then compared with the
percent of the actual heat as compared to 10-20 percent for the cosine
distribution.
Obviously, one would think that the part of the tube surface which
is closer to the radiation source must receive more radiation flux than
the parts ± 90 degrees apart from this location. But considering that
the tube radius is only 0.1875 inches, it seems like this dimension
compared to the distance between the tube center and the radiation
to this, part of the reflected radiation from adjacent tubes will also
incident flux around the tube cross section more uniform. In fact, it
and then reduces sharply from this point to a very small intensity at
For each experimental run, the actual and theoretical heat trans-
tube, the necessary function was obtained by a curve fit through the
would best fit the existing data was found to have the general form:
where
a = (T^+T^)/2
b = (V^C^/^
with points A and C as shown in Figure 5-3.
the inner surface of the tube was discussed in previous sections of this
pressure drop across the test section, the local values so calculated
72
Local values of enthalpy along the length of the heated tube were found
as:
Q. . 1 V.2 V ^
H =H. ^ ^ + _ t £ t a l + 1 ^ ^ (5.20)
local inlet m Zg
where
Having these two local properties (pressure and enthalpy), the local
from:
q,(e)
h. "• - (5.21)
1 z,9
A T,(9)-T
1 B
where
2TT
T.(9)d9 (5.22)
^i 2TT 1
0
'2TT
qi(9)d9 (5.23)
^i = 2^
0
h. = (5.24)
1
^i-^B
and
h.d
Nu = 1
(5.25)
except when the situation in the channel was such that the deviation
,^ -(c,z*-K:^z*^/^)
AT'' = e (5.26)
74
in which
AT* = AT/ATJ
d
AT = subcooling at axial location z, = T - T^
sat B
AT^ = subcooling at the onset of bubble detachment,
= T ^ - T,
sat d
T^ = bulk temperature at the onset of detachment
h„P Z
C = heat transfer parameter, = -rr-r—p—
f P
_ K H- Z ,
n J ^• ^ 2 f g sb
CT = condensation parameter, = — „ , „
2 ^ ' 3 G A^ C
f P
The pressure and temperature before and after the test section were
not measured exactly at the start and the end point of the coiled tube
pipe sections between the measurement points and the test section inlet
or exit.
19.5 inches before the start of the coil and pressure was measured at
11.75 inches before the coiled section starts. At the exit side,
after the coil ends. Figure 5-6 is a schematic diagram of the test
ature measurements.
75
©
©
f-11.75"
19.5"
Using this value of local pressure, the actual pressure at the coil inlet
or exit was calculated. The bulk fluid temperature at the test section
inlet or exit was then taken as the saturation temperature for the cal-
culated pressure.
was not close enough to saturation pressure at this point to justify the
tion was found. Minor errors that might have occurred during pressure
Since the straight pipe sections before and after the test section were
the enthalpy at the inlet or exit to the test section. The test section
tions as follows.
f^ = 16/Re (5.29)
f = 0.0791(Re)-°-" (5.30)
[10].
2f G^LV. V^
^o = — ^ tl + X ^ ] (5.31)
S D V^
where the two-phase friction factor is given by
-1-0.25
GD (5.32)
f^„, = 0.0791
TPS
_^TP-
"^ + i ^ (5.33)
^TP ^g ^f
77
equations (5.28) and (5.31) where in both of these equations the fric-
tion factor for the straight pipe was replaced by the corresponding
Re(d/D)^ > 6
for
Re(d/D)^ > 6
in which fT,^^, the two-phase friction factor for straight pipe flow,
This chapter will present the results from the experimental test
phase and two-phase states, were completed. For all of the two-phase
runs and all but three of the single-phase runs, the estimated
Reynolds number, based on the assumption that only liquid was flowing
0.32
(Re)
cr = 2 X 10^(DJ
[^ (6.1)
The critical Reynolds number for the test section under study
is 9606.
liquid flowing in the coil. Although the total liquid flow rate and
incident heat flux were adjusted such that the possibility of subcooled
liquid boiling in the test section was remote, Ahmad's method [1] was
for runs 8 and 93 are shown in Figures 6-1 and 6-2. The variation of
78
79
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^3.^ 3
n
OJ 4-J
0^
CO
* * *
Run
0 6=0''
t> e = 180
250 •
o
I
c>4
4-1
14-
I
U
220
pa
CD
190
Mass Velocity 315143 Ib^/(hr-sq.ft)
Pressure 351-349 psia
Temperature 93-134°F
Incident Heat Flux 24.2 Suns
160
CO
CO
cu
3:
130
100
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Station Number
O e = 0'
360
V e = 180
330
o
I
T 300
CQ
270
240
D
X
!-
210
<U
PS
180
Temperature 89-136°F
Incident Heat Flux 89.8 Suns
150
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Station Number
the local Nusselt number around the periphery of the tube cross section
is shown in Figures 6-3 and 6-4. These stations along the coil are
of Nusselt number as the flow progresses through the test section from
inlet to exit.
number at the test section inlet was less than the critical Reynolds
number. Only one run was completely laminar throughout the coil and
for the other two, the Reynolds number at the coil exit was greater
Two correlations were derived for the average Nusselt number for
the subcooled liquid runs. For the first correlation, all of the
laminar and turbulent data were used. The second correlation was
83
17 Station 2
Station 7 /
\
16
Station 14
15
14
Nu
6
Mass Velocity 315143 Ib^/(hr-sq.ft)
5 . Pressure 351-349 psia
Temperature 93-134°F
4 Incident Heat Flux 24.2 Suns
3 X
0 90 180 270 360
9 (Degrees)
Nu
11
Mass Velocity 956169 ibm/(hr-sq.ft)
10 Pressure 282-278 psia
Temperature 89-136°F
9
Incident Heat Flux 89.8 Suns
8
7
0 90 180 270 360
0 (Degrees)
derived using the turbulent data only. The correlating equation for
Nu = a(Re)^(Pr)^ T P
(Dn) (6.2)
T-J lp
The coefficients of the above equation for the two previously
mentioned cases are given in Table 6-2. In Figures 6-5 and 6-6, the
predictions of the above models are compared with the results of the
ing to laminar runs are specified. Although the equation for Figure
6-6 was derived for turbulent data only, it is used to predict the
a = 5.6484 a = 1247.46
b = 0.80 b = 0.8
c = 4.004 c = 6.7493
d = 4.6213 d = 8.3782
e = 0.06126 e = 0.1452
f = -0.5941 f = -0.8644
Prandtl number, and the average Nusselt number in the above equation
CN
'o 5
(i4
^ 4
C>4
4-1
«4-l
I
u
Xi
3
4J
PQ
3 -
CO
4J
3
cu
6
•H
5-1
CU Equation Based on All Data
3.
X
W
O Re > Recritical
.^. T
1^ 2
Re < Re .^. ,
critical
-2
h, Calculated (Btu/hr-ft -''F) * 10
O Re > Re
CM critical
'o 5
Re < Re critical
O
I
CM
4->
<4-l
I
5-1
,C
3
4-1
Cd
4->
3
cu
e
•H
5-1
CU
a
X
w
-2
h. Calculated (Btu/hr-ft -''F) * 10
In all cases, the effluent from the coil was also a two-phase mixture.
During these tests, inlet quality was varied from 2.3 to 65 per-
mass flow rates investigated were from 125 to 500 lb /hr, while coil
m
inlet pressure was varied from 60 to 525 psia. Incident heat flux
of the model are chosen. The experimental conditions for these selected
runs are given in Table 6-3. The results of the experiments for these
runs are presented in Figures 6-7 through 20. The experimental condi-
the incident flux was kept at a fairly low value of 6300 Btu/(sq.ft-hr) ,
the FMDF system. This low heat flux was chosen in an effort to allow
For each run included in this group, the axial variation of the
180°), as well as the variation of the local Nusselt number around the
/—\
CO
^
60
>w' 4-1 iH >3- a\ O
•H CX3 rH <f
o o o O o
r^ rH o o o in 00
3 CX> so a\ o r-i
o «^ ,-^
^ iH 00 00 CM CO
o
•H m rH o
f-i r-{ o> r-i rH
4_l
Cd
ler
cu
CJ
<o 4J
CU O m f^ 1-i CTi .00 r^ in o
iH tH a\ CTi in CM 00 O •<r CJ\ SO
Cd 3 O p>. O O CO cs) CO
•H IH m iH CN SO
<
in
•
r-^
T3 <r CO
Cd
PH
CO
3
3 o
Exit
CN 00 O CO ^ CO C3^ CO
(^
<U
CSI o vO r^ in in in in <r
CN CO <3- vO in in 1-i CM CO
ity
CO
cd
x: iH 4-1 O in SO p^ so un CO
I Cd CU o <r
3 iH CTv sC CN CN CO r^
o CD^ 3 iH CN SO o
in
r^
<!•
CN
r-{ CM
M <r
5-1
m O
I /—\ in
vO Cd 4-J O CO r-{ SO so SO SO •
CO •H •H CT\ C3^ in c^^ r-{ so in
CU 3 CO CN CN CM
r^
r-i
o
CM CO
<r r-i
I—I O X
<-i
x>
cu w
H
CO cu
u
d 3 4-)
o CO CU O vO O o\ o 00 o r^ T-i
a CO I-H iH CN CN
o o Csl so o CM
3 CO CO CO CO in r-i CN
c-u
5 1 h-l ro
CO flH
XJ
3
CU
/—s
e 5-1
•H >< x:
5-1 3 1
CU rH CN CTi C^ cTi C3^ a^ r^ «d- <t- 00
fe 4-» 00 00 00 00 00 O so SO 00
a U-(
v^ on CO CO CO CO
r^ so SO CO
4-1 vO vD vO so so CO so so so
Cd ">«.» CN CM CN
cu 3
X 4-»
>.
4-1 /—\
•H CM
O 4->
M-4 00 CT> \0 CM CM in CN O SO
o
1-i 1 CN CO CN O o\ O
CU 5-1 VO <t <r
CO vt
<
00
! •
in o r^
> X a\ O <r
in CO 00 00 in o in
s^ in 00 r^ so in so so
o
so »3-
in in in in in r-H vO
CO • — ^
rH
<r <r
CO B
iS x>
rH
S
3 in <r CNJ 00 o SO rH o 00
3 =ite CT. r-> in r>.
Pd o
rH o
rH o
iH o
r-\
90
Since the flow patterns and the regimes of the heat transfer for
At relatively low mass flow rate and low qualities, the two phases
strong enough to remove all of the vapor bubbles from the tube wall as
they are formed. Therefore, if the incident heat flux is high enough
to generate any vapor bubble, it will remain attached to the tube wall
until its size becomes large enough that it is swept away from the
wall by the main flow. Since location A (0 = 0°) on the tube wall is
bubbles from the hot tube wall will result in agitation of the liquid
especially close to the wall, and this will tend to lower the tube
subcooled liquid region as was seen from Figures 6-1 and 6-2. In
this low quality region, h and h are both increasing, but probably
h^ as the flow approaches the coil exit. The radial acceleration for
this run ranges from 590 to 880 g's, representing a very weak secondary
Figures 6-9 and 6-10 correspond to run number 104 for which radial
increases, both the stronger secondary flow and increased "g" force
will remove the vapor bubbles from the outer tube wall probably as fast
as they are formed. As a result of this process, the slope of the line
end of the coil the Nusselt number variation around the circumference
ties (outside the quality range of this run), h will assume values
greater than h .
Figures 6-11 and 6-12 show the results for run number 102 for
which radial acceleration increases from 2757 to 5119 g's and the mass
quality ranges from 42.5 to 46.8 percent. Close to the test section
0°), such that except for the liquid droplets that are carried by the
secondary flow from the core section of the tube to the location A,
92
Quality (%)
- — " — - ^
* ^ II _ ^ * — ^
40
35 -
34 •
Nu
33 "" ^ -. ^ — -
•^ ^^ ^ "^
*^
^ ^ ^ ^
32
31
•^0
29
€^4-^4--:^^ o ^v
28
Station 7
27
Station 14
26
0 90 180 270 360
0 (Degrees)
0 0 = 0'
[> Q = 180"
700
Uu
o
Csl
14.H
I
i-l 650 •
3
4-1
pa
3
<U
•ri
u 600
(U
CO
550
5-1
CO
OJ
X
42
41
40
Station 2
39 Station 7
38
37 -
36
Nu
35
34
33
32
O 0 = 0°
> 0 = 180°
650 •
o
I
CN
4-1
>4-H
I
5-1 600 •
X.
4-i
P3
3
CU
•H
u 550 •
cu
o
a
(U
CO
3
CO 500 •
!-i
H
CO
400
42.5 43.5 44.5 45.5 46.5
Quality (%)
40
39
38
37
Station 2
36 Station 7
•- Station 14
35
34
Nu
33
32
31
Mass Velocity 573408 lb /(hr-sq.ft)
30 m
Pressure 320-251 psia
29 Quality 42.5-46.8%
Radial Acceleration (2757-5119) g's
28 Incident Heat Flux 24.2 Suns
27
26
0 90 180 270 360
9 (Degrees)
Because of the higher heat fluxes at this location, the liquid drop-
Figures 6-13 and 6-14 correspond to run number 98, for which the
vertical tube. Collier [10] suggests that for a given heat flux, the
650 •
600 •
o
I
CN
4-1
y-i
I
S-i
550 •
PQ
3
lU
500 B /
•rH 0 9 = 0° \
CU
[> 9 = 180° n^"''^^\0'''''^—^
o
450 •
u
cu
M-H
cn
3
CO
5-1
H
400 »
CO
CU
3:
station 2
•- Station 7
40 Station 14 / s
35
30
Nu
25
20
Mass Velocity 563930 Ib^i/(hr-sq. ft)
Pressure 309-176 psia
Quality 62.6-67%
Radial Acceleration (6021-18940) g's
Incident Heat Flux 24.2 Suns
15
0 90 180 270 360
9 (Degrees)
formation of vapor.
the tube wall is by conduction through the liquid layer at the wall
receiving a higher heat flux than the other, one would expect that the
102
heat transfer coefficients at both sides of the tube would follow the
the back side (location C) being less than that at the front side
experience this sudden drop. Later on, heat transfer at both locations
Although this model does not consider the effect of the secondary
flow, the experimental results indicate that in most cases the trends
of this model are close to the actual behavior of the system under
study. The principle differences between the model and the behavior
of the results can be attributed to the fluid dynamic and heat trans-
low mass velocities, large coil diameters and high pressures. However,
the result that the model of Figure 6-15 would tend to shift to the
cu
CO 5H 3
O
CU O •H
X CO 0
a
00
5-1 CO CU cu O
cu > 33 0 0
3- Pi
^
3 CU
cy3 X II
4J
CD
14-4
0 -o
3
CO CO
3
Q 0
•H O
4-1
CO 11
•H
i-l CD
CO
> 4-1
CO
cu CU
CO X cn
CO •u 4-1
3
X O 3
00 CU
•H
00 3 •H
PH • H CJ
cu 4-) • H
3 <4-l
CU cu 14-1
cn CU
cu o
u CJ
a
cu
PS
5-1
CU
M-l
r-^ CO
CU 3
TJ CO
O U
S H
in
I
sO
TD
CU T3 c CU
rH •H
c
•H
S-I
3
o 3
00 00
0 cr
CJ • H (V
Xi X PC
3
C/2
104
to dryout. Very high incident heat fluxes may result in burnout even
may not be able to remove the local, low quality vapor blanketing
burnout.
least partly because both increasing the pressure and decreasing the
mass flow rate will reduce the strength of the radial acceleration.
tion will effectively lose its importance in the flow in the coiled
tube.
Figure 6-16 represents the results of the experiment for run 100.
is quite similar to run 98 (Figure 6-13), except that the sudden drop
the mass velocity was lower than that of run 98 while the exit pressure
650 • O 0 = 0
600
tlH
o
I
CN
I
X 550
3
CU
500
CU
5-1
0)
14-4
cn
3
CO
5-1 450
e-H
Quality (%)
for run 6. For this run heat flux, pressure, and mass valocity have
much higher values than in runs 98 and 100. Increase in heat flux and
pressure will tend to decrease the quality at dryout point while in-
quality.
higher qualities in run 50, h will become larger than h . Results for
A C
these two runs are shown in Figures 6-18 and 6-19, respectively. The
values for all two-phase runs were correlated against different para-
fer in coils have revealed that the Nusselt number for this type of
the flow such as Reynolds number, Prandtl number, and tube to coil
diameter ratio.
107
0 0 = 0
700
^ 0 = 180
650
o
I
CN
I
5-1
X
600
pa
3
lU
CM
CU
550
o
c^J
5-1
CU
X
C
CO
S-I
H 500
CO
cu
X 1168845 lbm /(hr-ft )
Mass Velocity
Pressure 528-316 psia
450 Radial Acceleration (5408-18100) g's
Incident Heat Flux 89.8 Suns
550
500
o
I
CN
I
5-1
X
450
pq
3
CU
<4-t
cu 400 •
o
CJ
5-1
CU
cn
3
CO
i-l
H
350 Mass Velocity 465592 lb /(hr-ft )
m
CO
X
(U Pressure 60-46 psia
Radial Acceleration (347-9000) g's
Incident Heat Flux 101 Suns
300
X li
550
iii
o
I 500
CN
4-)
M-l
I
5-1
X
3
4J
pa
450
3
CU
ij-i
u-
0)
o
u 400
5-1
CU
<4-l
cn
3 Mass Velocity 460000 Ib^/(hr-ft )
CO
S-I
H
Pressure 107-66 psia
4-t
CO
<U
350
X Radial Acceleration (1295-12450) g's
300
CU 400
o
CJ
S-I
<u
14-1
cn
3
CO
U
H
4-1
350
CO
(U
X
O 0 = 0°
300
> 0 = 180'
Nu = f(Re,Pr,X^^,B0)
tt
regression on the data of the two-phase runs are given in Table 6-4.
a ^ 4.1128
b = 5386 * 10-=
c = 10917 * 10"^
d = -794 * 10-3
e = 27855 * 10"^
112
of the study is made in Figure 6-21. As this figure shows, the devi-
results for flow in coils with small diameters and tightly wrapped turns
with diameters and coil pitches several times that of the test section
used in this study. Thirdly, all of these studies were done on uni-
formly heated coils, and results for non-uniformly heated coils do not
exist.
CM
I
o
/-\
o
I
CM
4J
14H
I
u
X
3
4J
pa
cd
4J
3
cu
e
•H
U
CU
1.^
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
h . Calculated ( B t u / h r - f t ^ - ° F ) x lO"^
straight pipes.
been plotted as N^ vs. (Re * Pr°*^). Also shown in this figure is the
In Figure 6-22, results have also been compared to those for single-
variations in the Nusselt number around the periphery of the tube for a
the assumption that the diffusivities for heat in the radial and cir-
100
1 1 r
9
O Reynolds
8 O -
^ Gartner
7
D Experiment
Seban-McLaughlin
Correlation
Nu 3
a
A D° °
a ° n°
1
D D
O
10 L J L
8 9 10
.^ 0.85^ 0.4. . T^-3
(Re Pr ) * 10
Both methods have been shown to yield expected results for laminar
or turbulent flow for the special case of constant heat flux around the
from their method to that of Reynolds and also to the available experi-
through the discrete heat flux values at the interior surface of the
was found.
number obtained from the experiment and those calculated from the above
the Nusselt number for flow in the coil, however, do not change drasti-
the secondary flow in the tube cross section are such that it effectively
smooths these local values to a level close to an average value for the
117
O Reynolds
369 O
A Gartner
• Experiment
160
O Dittus-Boelter (Nu = 0.023 Re Pr * )
140 - (Dark symbols represent averaged values)
120 h
100
I
80-
X
60- 6 ^
^
40-
Nu(0)
20- A • a-
O D
0 D
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
-120 O -130
-587 A • -383^
-J J—
-140 112.5 135 157.5 180
0 22.5 45 67.5 90
0 (Deg.)
the Nusselt number for each method, as well as the predicted value from
and also Gartner's method, are compared in Figure 6-24. The method by
near the coil inlet, but deviates from them as the flow approaches the
usually higher than the experimental results and, in most cases, com-
0 = 135° and 0 = 180°, the values predicted by these two models are
usually very much apart from the rest of the local values such that,
depending on their sign, the local values at these two angular positions
can bring the average Nusselt number down to a negative value. The
1 1 1 r "I T 1 1 r
P < _ m
CT>
3
CO
D CN cu
<3
•
3
i
5S
D <
CU
D
i2 CO
CO
5-1
CU
S
D as
•n3
z CO
D < - 00 cu
3 3
O
•H cd
D 4J >
Cd
4J
CU
00
C vO
cd
u
cu
D < - in
5
CO D <1 CN
3 SO
CO cu
T5 D CO
^ e < CU
rH CU •H U
o 3 M 3
3 4J CU 00
>, i-l a D csl •H
CU CO <
X (ii
0£i O Cd
O < D D <
_L _L JL
O O o o o o o o O o o
so
CN
o so CN <r vo
00 I I I
^
2
120
these two locations is that both models predict very small wall to
fer results are much lower than the values predicted by either the
sons show that part of the reason for having low values of heat transfer
flux. They also show that although the local values of Nusselt number
Nusselt number for the cross section, the secondary flow present in
coils with uniform heating. From the bulk of results available, those
of Owhadi [27] and Crain [2] were chosen for comparison. Figure 6-25
6^o
oo-
o ^ ^<) Ooo 8
10.0 ocoo
T.P.
ilc
1.0
1/X
tt
results, one could propose that, here again because of the effect of
angular locations around the tube cross section, except at a few points,
are usually lower than those for a uniformly heated tube. In addition
to this, the secondary flow in the tube cross section causes all of
One point that is worth mentioning here is that the heat flux
the tube cross section is heated, are much lower than values used in
effect of heat flux on the heat transfer coefficient has also been noted
included heat flux in their correlation. Crain [11] also reports that
data and two-phase data were correlated for a wide range of heat flux,
to the radiant heating from T-3 quartz lamps. The experimental set up
than the predicted values for the uniformly heated coils. A part of
the reason for having low values of heat transfer coefficient are
flux. It was also found that due to the dampening effect of the pre-
sent secondary flow in the tube cross section, local values of Nusselt
straight pipe the local values at some angular positions can take on
very large positive or negative values. The very small coil diameter
tus) is also believed to have had some adverse effect on heat transfer
123
124
Pressure and mass velocity were found to be two of the major con-
in the coiled tube which in turn defines the strength of the secondary
stronger, the generated bubbles at the tube wall are removed faster,
regions, the secondary flow removes the entrained liquid droplets from
The local fluid pressure through the coiled test section was
straight pipe flow [10]. While this procedure has been successfully
used by prior investigators [5,29] for helical flow with large coil
predictions.
straight and helical pipe flows. Such a study could result in much
125
entrance effects can lead to flow patterns that may take considerable
lengths to reach equilibrium [3], for flow in coiled tubes the effects
FMDF system. The T-3 quartz lamps provided can only be used in a hori-
the lamps are still in a horizontal position, the coil itself could be
angular prism with the three available lamp panels in such a way that
and the lamp panels are placed on the sides in such a manner that the
126
overall system.
REFERENCES
11. Crain, B., Jr. and K.J. Bell, "Forced Convection Heat Transfer
to a Two-Phase Mixture of Water and Steam in a Helical Coil,"
AICHE Symposium Series, 69(131), 30-36, 1973.
12. Crain, B., Jr., "Forced Convection Heat Transfer to^a Two-
Phase Mixture of Water and Steam in a Helical Coil," Ph.D.
Thesis, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, 1973.
127
128
15. Hsu, Y.Y. and R.W. Graham, "Transport Processes in Boiling and
Two-Phase Systems," McGraw-Hill, 1976.
16. Ito, H., "Friction Factor for Turbulent Flow in Curved Pipes,"
J. Basic Engr., Trans. ASME, D, 81, 123-134, 1959.
20. Meyers, C.A., R.B. McClintock, G.J. Silvestri and R.C. Spencer,
Jr., "Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Steam," Pre-
pared for the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1967.
26. Owhadi, A., K.J. Bell and B. Crain, Jr., "Forced Convection
Boiling Inside Helically Coiled Tubes," Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer, 11, 1779-1792, 1968.
29. Rippel, G.R., C M . Edit, Jr. and H.B. Jordan, Jr., "Two-Phase
Flow in a Coiled Tube," I&EC Process Design and Development,
5(1), 32-39, 1966.
30. Rogers, G.F.C and Y.R. Mayhew, "Heat Transfer and Pressure
Loss in Helically Coiled Tubes with Turbulent Flow," Int.
J. Heat Mass Transfer, 7, 1207-1216, 1964.
33. Seban, R.A. and E.F. McLaughlin, "Heat Transfer in Tube Coils
with Laminar and Turbulent Flow," Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer,
6, 387-395, 1963.
130
131
SAMPLE CALCULATION
77.
measured at 11.75 inches before the start of the coil and 17.75 inches
Thus,
percent^ deviation
, . ^. = 223.64-222
j^ _ ^ percent
= 0.7
G D-°-^^
f^p = 0.0791
^P
1 _ _x_ 1-x
y^ = 0.3244 Ib^j/ft-hr
y = 0.03781 Ibnj/ft-hr
Superheated
vapor
© Two-phase
© mixture to
test section
Subcooled
liquid
2
© inlet
©
Figure A-1 Junction of Fluid Streams at
the Test Section Inlet
2 2 2
^1 ^2 ^3
^^«i ^ Ii;) ^ ™2<»2 -^ Ii;) = *3^«3 ^ Ii;)
or
V ^ V 2
\^\ ^ Ii~^ "^ '^2^"2 + if")
H„ =
m. 2g,
^^l^JlV^_ ^ 2
m..H^ + tii-H^ m^ 3
m. 2g,
where
m m V
\ = Pl*l*l =^ 'l = ^ = -A^
m- ™2'^2
"2 = ^2*2*2 =' '2 = - ^ ° ^
•"3 '°3''3
"3 = P 3 V 3 =^ '3 ' P3A3 A3
134
Thus,
m,H, + m„H,
, _ 11 2 2
3=
H: m_
= 593.744 Btu/lbm
H3 - H^
x^ =
'3 H.
fg
593.744 - 365.719
834.99
= 0.2731
V3 = Vf + X3 * v^g
= 0.5756 ft-^/lb
m
135
The second iteration, which will take the changes in kinetic energy
m„v^
V^ = —— = 5879.82 ft/hr
A2
m V
V = -^-^ = 371713.86 ft/hr
•^ ^3
Enthalpy at 3 is then:
"I'^l + •°2'^2 2
m J
Ho = H H
3 3 2g^
Thus,
• u 593.852 - 593.744 ^ ^^
percent change m H„ = CQ^ y, , =0.01 percent.
H3 = 593.852 Btu/lbni
X3 = 0.2732
v, = 0.5759 ft /Ibm
136
and
1 _ 0.2732 . 1 - 0.2732
yTP 0.03781 0.3244
= 9.46604 (Ibm/ft-hr)-1
-0.25
f^p = 0.0792 GD
y,TP
where
r - 270.223
A 2
645706.83 lbm /ft^-hr
T^fo.277^
H 12 J
Thus,
0.2771-0.25
= 0.0791 645706.83 * 12
TP 1/9.46604
= 0.0040813
2 * f G LV V
AP = ^D ^[1 + X -^^]
^f
[1 + 0.2732 * ^^;?Q2?^] *
0.018516^ 32.174 * (3600)^
= 155.08 Ibf/ft
= 1.077 Ib^/in^
pressure.
= 2.71 Ibf/in^
p. = P ^) - AP
^m sat'3
T. = 390.23°F
m
«
H. = 835.36 Btu/lb
fg ^
Thus,
138
tube exit pressure. From Figure 5-6, the locations of temperature and
pressure measurements are at 17.75 and 12.125 inches after the end of
pressure is 110.91 psia. The measured exit pressure is 112 psia. Thus,
tion of the saturation state at this point, the enthalpy and the quality
The fluid leaving the test section passes through the condenser.
Two-phase
mixture leaving ^
the test
section © Condensed
Fluid
©
OT©
Cooling water - in
As a result,
H, = [H^ +z^(H^ - H J ] + ^ ^
4 ^ 5 m,/"7 "6^^ 2g^
where
™4^4
\ = P4\^ =" ^ = -AT
m V
*4 = P5S^5 =^ ^5 = ^
procedure is used in which, for the first estimate of H,, the change
1 ™fi
H4 = «5 + S7<»7 - V
4
For the given conditions:
140
m,
4 = 270.223 lb m/hr
T^ = 335.3°F
P, = 112 psia
T^ = 70.52°F
' H^ = 38.728 Btu/lbni
P,
6 = 38.0 psia
^ )
T = 123.08°F 1
j- H = 91.1687
P^ = 38.0 psia J
= 611.833 Btu/lb
m
First estimate of quality at 4 is then:
»4-»f
"^4 ~ H^
fg
^ 611.833 - 306.3838
883.26
= 0.3458
= 1.338 ft-^/lb
m
141
calculated as:
'4 = ^^T^^fTTiltP = ^ ° — - / -
Enthalpy at 4 is then:
2 2
1 ^5 - ^
H, = H, + - ^ ^
4 4 2g^
= 611.833 - (^Q9955.95)^ - (4936.17)^
2*32.174*(3600)^*778
H. = 611.583 Btu/lb
4 m
X, = 0.3455
4
V, = 1.337 ft^/lb
4 m
The pressure at the location of temperature measurement is now
calculated.
1-0.25
"GD
f^„ = 0.0791
TP
^TP
where:
X 1-x
^P ^g ^i
and
y^ = 0.38666 lb /ft-hr
r m
142
y„ = 0.0352233 lb /ft-hr
g m
Therefore:
= 11.517 (Ibm/ft-hr)^
-0.25
0.277
f^p = 0.0791 645706.83 * 12
1/11.517
= 0.003886
[1 + 0.3461 * _ M i Z 6 _ i * ^
0.017819^ 32.174 * (3600)^
= 211.32 Ib^/ft^
= 1.467 Ib^/in^
pressure. Pressure drop between the coiled tube end point and the
= 4.63 Ib^/in^
Bulk temperature at the exit from the coil is now taken as the
»4-^f
""4 " H^
fg
where at 338.43°F:
611.583 - 309.62 „ ., .,
^4 = 88033 ^'^""^^
ating the pressure drop between the coil inlet and the specified axial
volume and quality are calculated. At the end of this stepwise pro-
are accepted.
144
between the actual and the predicted value is a linear function of the
Therefore, if:
DP = P . - P X
ex) ex)
exp calc
Then, at thermocouple station 9:
lated from the homogeneous model and L^ and L are the total length
i q "^
For the example run under study, the calculated exit pressure
the heated portion of the coil, between inlet and this axial location.
145
In this energy balance both the radiative and convective losses are
accounted for. The total heat absorbed by the fluid in this portion
Qg = 1965.06 Btu/hr
U _ U J. £
9 in Total Flow Rate
= 593.852 + 1965.06
270.223
= 601.124 Btu/lb
m
Two independent properties at this station are calculated. Other
Tg = 364.3°F
Xg = 0.307
as:
T (9) = a + b cos (6)
o
where:
a= (T^+ V / 2
= (385.22 + 371.53)/2
= 378.375°F
b = (T^ - T^)/2
= (385.22 - 371.53)/2
Figure A-3
= 6.845°F Boundary Conditions
Designator
146
q^ce) = p - j l ^ l j
=0 I< 9 < f
where P is the absorbed heat per unit area and time. In calculation
Thus:
o = Stephen-Boltzman constant
angular positions are found. The results for three angular positions
T
Angular Heat Flux w
position (Btu/hr-ft^) ("F)
9 = 0 6899.53 382.36
9 = TT 1869.04 371.03
4374 27 9
''e=Tt/2 = 376.69 - 364.3 = ^53.04 B t u / f t - h r - ° F
Nu = -r—
= 22.635
were calculated by finding a mean value for inside surface wall tem-
r2TT
1
T. = T(9)d9
1 ' 2TT
J 0
<2TT
1
q(9)d9
' ^ ' • " 2TT
0
F—^L_
(T^ - Tg)
Nu = ^j—
k
148
Using these relations:
h = 352.53 Btu/hr-ft^-°F
Nu = 20.89
?d
Re _ pvd _ A ^ Gd
Thus:
V^
R.
A = R ^.. g
coil^
where
V m = pA
-^ = Gv ft/hr
be:
V = 0.88765 ft-^/lb
m
Thus:
^ 645706.8 * 0.88059/3600.0)^
(1.37 * 32.174/12.0)
= 6791.55 g's
heat input into the coil which for this example run is calculated to
be 4853.65 Btu/hr.
On the other hand, total heat added to the fluid is also calcu-
lated from:
Q = m(H - H. )
^ ex in
which for this run:
Q = 270.223(611.583 - 593.852)
= 4791.65 Btu/hr
4853.65 - 4791.65
= 1.29%
4791.65
APPENDIX B
150
151
UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
error analysis.
the variables W. and the uncertainty for the result W_ is given by:
1 1^
h =^ ^ ^ (B-2)
w B
where T and T are the tube inside surface wall temperature and the
w B
fluid bulk temperature at the specified location.
152
8h 1 1
= 0.0289
9(Q/A) T^
w - T^
o = 385.22 - 350.6
9ti _
.__- Q/A _ 6388.8 ^ ._
=5.33 ._ ..
(B-4)
w (T - T^) (385.22 - 350.6)
W D
9ti _ Q/A _
such as:
a - incident flux from the lamp panels upon the test section
Incident flux from the lamps were measured and mapped [31] using
According to Kline-McClintock,
^abs , „3
9T = -4aeTW - hconv (B-7)
w
9Q T-
abs , 3
•^ = 4aeT.-^ + h
^^AMB ^"^ ^ ° ^ ^
or
9Q
^ — = -4.0 * 0.1714 * 10 ^ * 0.9 * (385.22 + 460)"^ - 2.0
w
= -5.7258 Btu/hr-ft^°F
^^abs -4 -^
^^ = 4.0 * 0.1714 * 10 ^ * 0.9 * (350.6 + 460)"^ + 2.0
^^AMB
= 5.2865 Btu/hr-ft^-°F
W = 6388.8 * 0.03 = 191.664 Btu/hr-ft^
inc
W = (—) W
T ^9E''^ EMF
where:
W = [(W )^ + (W )'^]'^^^
EMF thermocouple data logger
154
where 0.089 and 0.033 are the values of EMF corresponding to the un-
"BE^T ^^ ^^^ ^"^^^^ °^ ^^® "^ ^^- ^ ^ ^^^^^ f°^ type K thermocouple
at the measured wall temperature. It is found from thermocouple tables
as:
9T. ^ AT. 386 - 384
9 E ) T ^ AE>385.22 ^ 8.003 - 7.959 = ^5.454°F/M.V.
Thus for T :
w
W
= 45.459 * .095 = 4.315°F
w
Following the same procedure W is found as:
^AMB
W^ = 4.28°F
^AMB
From equation B-6:
1 4. f-i^ 7 9 * /. '3it;\2 1 /c OQ/- 4, /. « o v 2 , l / 2
W = [(1.0 * 191.664)^ + (-5.72 * 4.315)^ + (5.286 * 4.28)"^]
^abs
= 194.57 Btu/hr-ft (B-8)
= 6198.28 Btu/hr-ft^
calculated from:
8
^sat = \ Ai[^n(10P)]^ 0.2 < P < 450 (B-9)
1=0
where:
^) = 35.15789
*i = 24.592
2.118
*2 =
*3 = -0.34144
^ = 0.1574
s =-0.0313
*6 = 0.00386
0.00025
*7 =
08 X lO"''
*8 =
According to Kline-McClintock,
9T ^
Tj =
r
rf
/ sat (B-10)
sat
where, from equation (B-9):
9T
sat
9P = ^{J/if^"<^°''^i'}
8 iA. i-l
= Z -pi [£n(10P)]
i=0
9T
sat = 0.3255287 (B-11)
9P
156
through using the homogeneous model and is corrected for the deviation
calculation. Appendix A ) .
Thus:
- P ,
ex) ex) T
exp calc
PQ
9
= P. - AP,
in homo
+ (-
*S^
If for simplicity, it is assumed that the uncertainty in calcu-
. 2 (B-12)
Wp = ^(2)2 + (^imij * 2)2]l/2 ^ 2.29 Ib^/in
9
W = W = 0.745°F
B sat
Thus from equation (B-3), we have:
2^1/2
W = [(0.0289 * 194.57)^ + (5.33 * 4.315)^ + (5.33 * 0.745) ]
h
2 o.
= 24.0 Btu/hr-ft -°F
^ 24.0 * 100 ^
h 382.03 •^'^
with which the data are taken. In order for a set of data to be
During the course of this study, a few runs were selected randomly,
and it was tried to reproduce the inlet condition to the coil as close
dition at the inlet, but the final results were very close to each
other and certainly within the bounds of the error limit set above.
In Table B-1, the conditions for two such runs are reproduced.
and 9 = 180°, as well as the bulk fluid temperature along the test
TABLE B-1
650
600
400 - 550
350
300
650
600
400 550
350 -
300
161
162
boundary.
terms of heat flux values, for the case of steady-state, two dimension,
^(rq,) + ^ ( q g ) = 0 (C-1)
where:
9T (C-2)
^r = - k r 9r
9T (C-3)
^9 = • r 99
are:
k
= - -?- ^ (C-6)
^9 r=R R d9
o
o
163
(C-7)
97^^\> r=R
R 99^ 9 d9''
o
o
(rq^) - (rq^)
r=R R -Ar
o
Ar R 99'''^9 d9''
o
or:
R
o Ar 9 (k ^ )
\r) R (R -Ar) 99' 9 d9
R -Ar • ("^o-^ o o
o
R H'(9)
o Ar 9 d^. (C-8)
(R -Ar) R (R -Ar) 99' 9 d9
o o o
3 - Equation (C-2) at r = R - dr
_9T
= -kr 9r
R -dr R -dr
o o
or:
_9T
9r
R -dr
ir^r R -dr
o o
, R ^(9)
9T = _ _L{_2—;^_^ " R_(R^-Ar) 99'"9 d9 ""' A(K t)}
9r k (R -Ar) o o
R -dr r o
o
164
- T
R R -Ar , R ^(8)
O ^ 1 r O Ar
Ar —(k ^)}
k^'(R^-Ar) R^(R^-Ar) 99^*^9 d9
and finally:
Ar
R -Ar —(k ^)} (C-9)
o r o Ro (Ro-Ar)
^ 99^*^9 d9
heat flux at the nodal points on a ring of radius R -Ar are found. By
out the tube wall thickness is found. The solution method as outlined
above is a non-iterative procedure, except for the fact that the material
r = R were chosen. The functions selected for this sample problem were:
i
T +T T -T„
T^(9) = - ^ ^ + - i ^ * cos(9) (C-IO)
T +T T -T
T.(9) = ^ 2 - ^ + ^ 2 " ^ * cos(9) (C-11)
where:
T, = 281.0 °F
T^ = 266.0 °F
T^ = 255.0 °F
T, = 240.2 °F
165
The tube wall was subdivided into four divisions in the radial and
as well as the heat flux at the boundary nodes were then calculated.
The results of this part of the calculations are shown in Table C-1.
Once the nodal heat flux values on the exterior surface were found,
these along with equation (C-10) were used as the boundary conditions
expressed by equations (C-4) and (C-5) and the procedure outlined pre-
and the nodal heat fluxes on the interior surface. The results of these
calculations are shown in Table C-2, which compares very favorably with
Table C-1.
166
TABLE C-1
RADIUS(IN. )
TABLE C-2
RAOIUSCIN.)
168
169
522
534
exit
548
540
566
464
459
548
542
510
546
UO
441
490
485
500
464
493
496
519
0 00
~a
CN
U
r-f
JZ
^^
3 4-1
410
403
Inle
413
388
406
338
340
312
359
430
422
393
390
390
393
430
431
402
395
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