Novel materials for

energy applications
A decade of EU-funded research
success stories
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 EUROPEAN COMMISSION

Novel materials for

energy applications
A decade of EU-funded research

I. Vouldis, P. Millet and J.L. Vallés

Directorate - General for Research, Industrial technologies

2008 Unit G3 ‘Value – added materials’
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Table of contents

4 Materials technologies vital to meet future energy needs

7 Materials for energy in FP5

8 Process advances improve wires for high temperature superconductors (2000-2003)

9 Superconductivity network unites academia and industry (2002-2006)
10 Sun-rechargeable smart cards a step nearer (2000-2003)
11 Novel sol gel technology for long length superconducting coated tapes (2001-2005)
12 Tough transparent alumina ceramics lighten energy drain (2000-2003)

15 Materials for energy in FP6

16 New polymer electrolytes and non-Pt catalysts

extend PEM fuel cell performance (2006-2009)
17 Non-noble catalysts cut fuel cell costs (2007-2010)
18 Thin-film solid electrolytes find optical and energy storage applications (2005-2008)
19 High capacity nickel-metal hydride batteries could boost European industry (2006-2009)
20 Nanostructured superconductors pave the way to high temperature,
high magnetic field applications (2005-2008)
21 MgB2 composite superconductors break new ground (2004-2007)
22 ‘New’ carbon for in-car hydrogen storage? (2006-2009)
23 Al-C composite cables lower electricity transport costs (2004-2006)
24 Novel materials for silicate-based fuel cells (2006-2009)
25 EU-Turkey-China cooperation advances intermediate temperature
fuel cell technology (2006-2009)
26 Si nanofilm process potential for photovoltaics and optoelectronics (2005-2008)
27 Nanocomponents integrated in rechargeable microbatteries (2006-2009)
28 Nanostructured fuel cells as industrial chemicals producers (2004-2007)

4 N OV E L M AT E R I A L S F O R E N E R G Y A P P L I C AT I O N S
Materials technologies vital to meet future energy needs
Reliable and sustainable energy supply is fundamental to
the economic and social fabric of nations, and to the
wellbeing and quality of life for their citizens. In an age
when the demand for traditionally exploited natural
resources is outpacing supply, conventional industrial
practices are contributing to undesirable climatic change
and developing regions are competing for a greater share
of finite fuel stocks, the search for innovative ways to
meet this need becomes more urgent than ever.
Currently over 80 % of Europe’s energy use is based on
oil, gas and coal. Overall consumption continues to
increase, but the growth of renewable sources is lagging,
resulting in a possible 5 % increase on 2006 levels of
greenhouse gas emissions by 2012. In addition, the EU’s
dependence on external suppliers is growing. Today, 50 %
of requirements are met by imports – including products
from potentially insecure regions. Forecasters predict a rise
to around 70 % over the next 20-30 years.
Policy for research in this critical area is framed within the
strategic context of what the European Commission
describes as a ‘Kyoto-Lisbon-Moscow triangle’:
• the Kyoto corner of the triangle represents sustain-
ability – including technologies to improve energy
efficiency, tackle global warming and reduce green-
house gas emissions;
€21.3 million
• Lisbon recalls the Lisbon Council commitment to work-
ing together for growth, jobs and global competitiveness
– via industrial transformation, process enhancements
and the fostering of human creativity;
• the Moscow corner refers to the security of energy
supply – implying the development of new modes of
energy generation and storage, and diversification into
sustainable, locally abundant energy sources.
In January 2008, the Commission announced a package
of measures with 2020 targets of cutting EU greenhouse
gases by at least 20 %, increasing the share of renewable
energies to 20 % and, finally, obtaining a 20 % reduction
in global primary energy use through energy efficiency –
collectively described as the ‘three 20’s’. The emissions
reduction target is likely to be increased to 30 % when
a new global climate change agreement can be reached.
The instruments to implement these policies include the
Action Plan for Energy Efficiency, the Renewable Energy
Roadmap, the N&N (nanosciences and nanotechno-
logies) Action Plan for Europe 2005-2009, and the
European Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-PLAN),
together representing a comprehensive set of actions
leading to a low- carbon future.
EU funding on Novel materials for energy applications
under FP5 and FP6
FP6
€27.6 million
16 projects
FP5
13 projects
 A DECADE OF EU-FUNDED RESEARCH
Important role
for materials science
While materials science is only one aspect of the response
to these daunting challenges, it nevertheless has a cru-
cial part to play in achieving the ambitious goals. In the
past, it has contributed significantly to advances in the
safe, reliable and efficient use of energy and available
natural resources.
With the advent of nano-materials, materials research is
expected to play an increasing role in sustainable techno-
logies for energy conversion, storage and savings. Principal
areas of interest are: solar cells, batteries and supercap-
acitors; fuel cells, thermoelectrics, superconductors, more
efficient lighting and hydrogen technologies.
In most of these areas, incremental improvements of cur-
rent technologies are not sufficient to address the
important issues of durability, efficiency and costs. New
materials research avenues are therefore needed to
design, elaborate and integrate materials for energy
applications. Nanotechnologies and modelling activities
have been instrumental in this respect; for example, in
the development of new electrocatalysts for fuel cells
membrane electrode assembly (MEA) and in the devel-
opment of new materials for solid state storage of
Total number of projects in FP5 per subarea (€21.3 million)
Batteries
3
Superconductors
4
Energy distribution
1
1 H2 storage
2
Energy production
Photovoltaics
1
1 5
Fuel cells
Lighting
 5
hydrogen. New energy-efficient devices also call for
improved processing technologies for materials elabor-
ation and integration. This is the case for superconductor
tapes formed with complex thin-film architectures where
there is a need to control each step of the fabrication –
the final product being tape of several hundred metres
in length with a nanostructured superconducting active
layer of 1 to 3 μm thickness.
Support for projects in this field has therefore featured
strongly in the successive RTD Framework Programmes,
which are the main vehicles for EU funding of collabora-
tive transnational research. The following pages highlight
successful projects funded within this research area by
the NMP Theme.
Although not named as a topic in its own right under the
Fifth Framework Programme (FP5 –1998-2002), 14 projects
relating to materials for energy applications received contri-
butions totalling around €23 million within the GROWTH
(Competitive and sustainable growth) programme.
In FP6, the area was more clearly addressed with a spe-
cific topic in the three calls for proposals under Priority 3
(Nanotechnologies and nano-sciences, knowledge-based
multifunctional materials and new production processes
and devices).
Total number of projects in FP6 per subarea (€27.6 million)
Superconductors
Batteries
2
3
2 Catalysts
Photovoltaics 1
1
Energy distribution
2
Fuel cells
 ✹ Materials for energy in FP5

Types Number of EC funding

contracts
RS 11 €18.0 million
TN 2 €3.3 million
Grand Total 13 €21.3 million

RS = Research Projects
TN = Thematic Networks

8 N OV E L M AT E R I A L S F O R E N E R G Y A P P L I C AT I O N S

Process advances improve wires for high temperature

superconductors (2000-2003)

The development of superconducting wires and tapes brings improved efficiency, smaller size,
and reduced weight for applications in ac power transportation, transformation and storage.

The overall objective of the BIG-POWA project was to pro-
vide the R&D base for fabrication of Bi-2223 conductors
for eventual incorporation into commercially produced
high temperature superconductor (HTS) systems.
In recent years, remarkable progress in the development
of materials has led to a continuous increase in the cur-
rent capacity of HTS wires and tapes. Compared with
other HTS systems, however, Bi-2223 was seen as the
most promising candidate. Its easy processing qualities
facilitate the industrial fabrication of conductors at liquid
nitrogen temperature.
✹ New conductor forms
Over the course of the four-year initiative, the aim was
to produce HTS conductors in a square or round shapes
that would be more appropriate than the existing flat
tapes for the construction of cables, coils and other sys-
tem components. The work was to be supported by new
3D modelling and characterisation studies, aiding the
design of better geometries and permitting quantification
of the conductor benefits.
✹ Project successes
Square wires. Ag-sheathed multifilamentary Bi-2223
square wires were produced in lengths exceeding 200
metres. These exhibited high current density and mark-
edly reduced ac losses. New deformation procedures,
including two-axial rolling, were developed in order to
fabricate wires with special configurations.
New processes. A process for industrial manufacture of
encapsulated precursor rods with highly homogeneous
density has been established. Loading the rods into silver
tubes prior to rolling or drawing produces wires and
tapes with greater uniformity of electrical transport prop-
erties over long lengths than is possible with conventional
powder packing processes.
A technique was also developed for the replacement of
silver by an inexpensive alloy, leading to a substantial
reduction in the cost of fabrication.
Properties modelled. New anisotropy models of cur-
rent density, field distribution, and ac losses have been
established.

Coils produced. Secondary winding coils were pro-

duced using a cable based on the new conductors, which
showed a nominal ac peak current of 200 A.

Cross sections of
mono-core wire 0201dm17.

Transformer during tests.

G5RD-CT-2000-00219 – BIG POWA

High current Bi-2223 conductors with innovative wire geometry for power applications
Total cost: €3 863 631 | EC contribution: €1 199 944
Project duration: March 2000 – May 2003 (39 months)
Coordinator: René Flukiger – University of Geneva, Switzerland
A DECADE OF EU-FUNDED RESEARCH
 9

Superconductivity network unites academia and industry

(2002-2006)

EU-supported networks have enabled dozens of European academic and industrial laboratories
to collaborate for more than a decade on the challenges of high temperature superconductors.

SCENET-2, the FP5 Thematic Network on Superconduc- ✹ Project successes

/EHTS/coated conductors
after gold deposition.
This CC-s are based on
a non-magnetic stainless
steel substrate that
determines their high
mechanical performance
(axial stresses of 650MPa
and 6mm bending radii).
tivity, built on the groundwork of two previous European
networks: SCENET & SCENET-Power, run jointly up to
2001 under the Esprit and Brite-Euram programmes. The
objectives were to continue and extend the links between
academic and industrial laboratories interested in super-
conductivity and its applications, and to promote the
exchange of know-how.
Particular targets were to:
• achieve rapid commercialisation of products;
• study new superconducting materials;
• develop and apply advanced nanotechnologies to HTS;
• create an advanced education and training program.
✹ Special working groups
Six working groups were created to promote pilot
projects and compile specific road maps, respectively
covering: ‘Thin films for microelectronics’; ‘Materials for
power applications and new materials’; ‘High current
superconductors for applications’; ‘Processing of coated
conductors’; ‘Superconducting electronics’; and ‘Energy-
related power systems’. A shared aim was to master
materials and processing on a nanometre scale.
World recognition. SCENET-2 acquired a truly European
scale, and was well recognised worldwide. By its close,
the network comprised 87 nodes, of which 24 were
industrial, distributed over 22 countries. It became a very
powerful agency for bringing together researchers and
industries, and for setting an agreed strategy for future
R&D in the multidisciplinary field of HTS. The partners
delivered a comprehensive strategic vision document,
which has been hailed as a very valuable contribution to
the sector.
Workshops and exchanges. Two topical workshops
each attracted more than 100 participants, while four
annual tutorial schools were organised. In addition
40 exchange visits were awarded to young researchers
during the four years of activity, with priority given to
international transfers and exchanges between industry
and academia.
Dissemination. Twelve newsletters were published and
sent to more than 800 recipients worldwide. SCENET-2
also produced a series of video lectures by world experts
on superconductivity; these were made available on a set
of DVDs.

To encourage the dissemination of information, a com- Work goes on. To maintain the momentum, a similar
mon education and training program organised advanced activity is foreseen under the umbrella of ESAS (the
schools and exchange visits, while newsletters and web European Society of Applied Superconductivity).
pages formed an active channel of communication.

Fault current limiter

demonstrator based
on /EHTS/ YBCO coated
conductor tapes. Very short
quenching time of 0.01 ms
and short recovery time
of 0.5 ms are achieved.

G5RT-CT-2002-05077 – SCENET-2
The European Network for Superconductivity
Total cost: €1 869 600 | EC contribution: €1 866 400
Project duration: April 2002 – July 2006 (52 months)
Coordinator: Massimo Marezio – Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Consortium
de Recherches pour l’Émergence de Technologies Avancées (CRETA),Grenoble, France

10 N OV E L M AT E R I A L S F O R E N E R G Y A P P L I C AT I O N S

Sun-rechargeable smart cards a step nearer (2000-2003)

Ultra-thin batteries rechargeable by solar energy could herald new versatility

for smart cards and identification tags.

In the early part of the present decade, growing interest
in the use of smart cards, identification tags, intelligent
packaging and similar thin, flat data-carrying devices
highlighted a need for greater information-carrying
capacity, lifetime and autonomy. At the time, the batter-
ies available in a suitable format to power such products
were not rechargeable, and no European company was
able to produce them.
✹ Complete system
Flexible ultra-thin To address these two needs, the consortium of the
rechargeable lithium SERPHO project proposed to build a rechargeable pho-
batteries underneath tovoltaic battery-coupled system with appropriately
the PV module. adapted dimensions and flexibility. The 2D solar battery
concept comprised three integrated modules: a thin
rechargeable battery and an associated solar cell on
a flexible substrate, plus an electronic module for power
management. Each module would be specified to deliver
a complete product matching the demands of the smart
card and hotel security markets in terms of technical and
economic performance.
✹ Project successes
Modules completed. Within the three-year funded peri-
od, a flexible micro-battery fulfilling most of the application
requirements was realised. Remaining critical issues were
its encapsulation and resistance to moisture, the charge
current and the temperature range for operation. A success-
ful example of a thin, flexible solar mini-module was also
designed and produced, able to charge the mini-battery
and fulfilling all other specification requirements.
New knowledge. The partners gathered valuable new
knowledge about the UV-stability of transparent thin
plastic films.
Despite important progress in the development of the
two main modules, further work remains necessary to
demonstrate the industrial potential of a fully integrated
package for the intended applications.

As well as the modules themselves, the aim was to

develop roll-to-roll processes and equipment for their
manufacture, and to demonstrate the integration of the
components into a smart card and smart label.

G1RD-CT-2000-00194 – SERPHO
Self rechargeable photovoltaic microbattery coupled system (SERPHO)
Total cost: €2 389 927 | EC contribution: €1 254 828
Project duration: September 2000 – August 2003 (36 months)
Coordinator: Jean-Paul Terrat – Hydromécanique et Frottement R&D SAS, Andrezieux-Boutheon, France
A DECADE OF EU-FUNDED RESEARCH
Novel sol gel technology for long length superconducting
coated tapes (2001-2005)
Superconducting tape
produced by means of
chemical solution deposition
using a reel-to-reel system.
Transmission electron
microscopy image of an
superconducting layer of
YBa2Cu3O7 obtained by
means of chemical solution
deposition on a single crystal
substrate of LaAlO3 (LAO).
Sol-gel process developments put Europe at the forefront of a key superconductor technology.
Large scale industrial deployment of high temperature
superconductors is critically dependant on the ability to
produce long coated conductors at an affordable price.
Prior to the start-up of the SOLSULET project, the best
available methods for this were costly physical vapour
deposition techniques.
The partners aimed to develop a radically new method
of depositing coatings of the widely used HTS compound
YBa2Cu3O7 (YBCO) onto long thin tapes using sol-gel
technology. The principle is to pass the precursor YBCO
compounds through a transitional liquid and colloidal
phase – when they are present in aerosol form (the ‘sol’
phase) – to arrive by thermal treatment at a solid ‘gel’
state, an intermediate nanostructured state and finally
forming an epitaxial superconducting film on the
support.
✹ Underexplored field
Such chemical solution techniques were well established
industrial practices for the preparation of coatings in the
optical, electro-ceramics and biomaterials sectors, but
had hardly been explored for the fabrication of supercon-
ducting tapes. Research in this area would pave the way
for manufacturing second-generation superconducting
tapes that could be used in the construction of new,
more efficient power devices.
Specific objectives for SOLSULET were to:
• develop sol-gel methodology for fabricating YBCO-
based superconducting tapes that could be exploited
at 77 K in magnetic fields up to 4-5 T;
• produce high performance coated conductors – critical
current density (Jc) = 1-3MA/cm2 at 77 K – at low cost,
and to demonstrate their suitability in the fabrication
of power devices;
G5RD-CT-2001-00550 – SOLSULET
Novel sol gel technology for long length superconducting coated tapes
Total cost: €3 592 404 | EC contribution: €2 000 000
Project duration: October 2001 – March 2005 (42 months)
Coordinator: Xavier Obradors – CSIC-ICMAB, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
 11
• derive novel sol-gel and/or metal-organic precursors to
prepare buffer and YBCO layers, together with a coating
system for continuous deposition.
✹ Project successes
Goals met. The objectives of the project were achieved
in all critical aspects: the technology was studied in
depth, and original solutions made it possible to reach
the benchmark performance goals.
Substrates and coatings. Biaxially textured Cu-based
metallic substrates were prepared, and extensive investi-
gation of electrodeposited coatings was carried out.
A large number of metal-organic trifluoroacetate precur-
sors were tested for the preparation of oxide buffer layers,
and many were used successfully for the preparation of
epitaxial buffer layers.
Five architectures. Sol-gel conductors produced with
five different architectures showed varying levels of
performance.
Interface role determined. The nano-scale characteri-
sation of interfaces in the multilayers proved especially
important, as they were found to have a very significant
relevance in determining the quality of MOD (metal
organic deposition) layers grown on them.
Industrial scale-up. Use of the gained knowledge to
establish a scale-up strategy for tape fabrication placed
industrial partner Nexans in a strong position to face the
most advanced global competitors in this field.

12 N OV E L M AT E R I A L S F O R E N E R G Y A P P L I C AT I O N S

Tough transparent alumina ceramics

lighten energy drain (2000-2003)

Efficient metal halide lamps incorporating highly transparent alumina ceramic envelopes
could cut European CO2 emissions by up to 4.5 million tonnes/year.

In most industrialised countries, artificial lighting accounts
for a large, and until recently steadily increasing, share of
the overall electricity consumption. Growing environmental
concerns have brought the realisation that replacing tra-
ditional incandescent and fluorescent light bulbs by more
efficient lighting systems could bring huge energy savings
– up to 7 billion kWh/year in Europe, corresponding to
a 4.5 million tonne reduction in CO2 emission.
The role of the STARELIGHT project in tackling this issue
was to develop alumina ceramics with high mechanical
strength and transparency, for use as durable, corrosion-
resistant lamp envelopes and windows. As well as solving
problems in pre-existing metal halide lamps, thus ena-
bling them to replace energy-wasting halogen lamps
on a greater scale, the improved material would also lead
to new uses – e.g. as scratch-resistant replacements for
sapphire windows in bar-code scanners.
✹ Focus on high purity
To produce the desired characteristics, research was
required to focus on the development of high-purity alu-
mina ceramics with greatly reduced grain size narrowly
distributed around the 100 nm level. Targeted property
enhancements were an increase in mechanical strength
from around 300 MPa to 700 MPa, high transparency
compared with former translucent or opaque grades,
and higher resistance to corrosion by metal halides.
As the optical, mechanical and chemical properties of
a ceramic envelope are strongly influenced by the shape
as well as the microstructure of the ceramics used, a suit-
able shaping method and sintering technique to produce
complex hollow forms was also needed.
✹ Project successes
Ultra-fine grained alumina. Better understanding of the
γ to δ to α alumina phase transformations, and of the
annealing parameters to minimise α-alumina coalescence,
made it possible to obtain high purity α-alumina powder
with ultra-fine sub-micrometre grain size.
Processes developed. Slip- and gel-casting processes
were developed, to prepare alumina having an average
grain size between 0.4 and 0.6 μm and a residual poros-
ity below 0.05 %. The transparency, as quantified by real
in-line transmission, was around 60-65 %.
Lamps tested. Semi-transparent (due to residual poros-
ity) and transparent (no residual porosity) 20W, 70W and
400W envelopes (undoped and doped with magnesia)
were produced by slip- and gel-casting. Burners made
from these showed efficacies up to 96 lumen/Watt, with
a colour rendering index (CRI) up to 93. Although trans-
parency degraded over time, partly due to grain growth,
it was expected that the use of dopes developed in the
project would bring significant improvements.

Scanning electron
microscope picture
of polycrystalline
alumina ceramic
microstructure.

Example of translucent polycrystalline alumina tube for ceramic gas discharge

metal halide lamps.

G5RD-CT-1999-00088 – STARELIGHT
Superstrong transparent alumina ceramics for energy-efficient lighting
Total cost: €3 799 869 | EC contribution: €1 899 935
Project duration: January 2000 – April 2003 (40 months)
Coordinator: Michel Van Bruggen – Philips Electronics Netherland B.V., Eindhoven, the Netherlands
 ✹ Materials for Energy in FP6

Types Number of EC funding

contracts
SSA 1 €0.5 million
STREP 15 €27.1 million
Grand Total 16 €27.6 million

SSA = Specific Support Actions

STREP = Specific Targeted Research Projects
16
New polymer electrolytes and non-Pt catalysts
extend PEM fuel cell performance (2006-2009)
Cost-cutting fuel cell materials pave the way for increased stationary and mobile application.
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell technology
has recently received increased attention as an efficient
and environment-friendly means of power generation,
with great potential for market penetration in both sta-
tionary and mobile applications. Major challenges facing
the development of efficient high temperature PEM fuel
cells are the design, construction and testing of new
components to cut cost by simplifying system manufac-
turing and operation. This demands the integration and
combination of theoretical calculations and several
physicochemical methods, as well as engineering and
technical substantiation.
✹ Wide-ranging development
APOLLON-B, a follow-up to the FP5 project APOLLON,
is aiming specifically to:
• develop new materials for high-temperature PEMFCs
functioning at temperatures 130-200 °C;
• optimise and synthesise novel high temperature poly-
mer electrolyte membranes;
• develop electrodes and non-noble electrocatalysts for
acid- and base-doped PEMs (the concept of base-doped
High temperature polymer PEMs allows for the proposal of a variety of alternative
electrolyte membrane. electrocatalytic materials as cathodic electrodes).
✹ Project successes
Novel polymers. During the first eighteen months,
novel polymers for H3PO4-imbibed systems, comprising
aromatic polyethers with pyridine units in their main
structures, were synthesised and evaluated. New aromatic
polyethers having one or two imidazole groups in the
main chain have been characterised, showing increased
thermal and oxidative stability. Polymers with side phos-
phate groups have been synthesised in combination with
aromatic difluorides and a pyridine-bearing aromatic diol
for the preparation of acid-based composite materials.
NMP3-CT-2006-33228 – APOLLON-B
Polymer electrolytes and non noble metal electrocatalysts for high temperature PEM fuel cells
Total cost: €2 899 701 | EC contribution: €1 800 000
Project duration: October 2006 – September 2009 (36 months)
Coordinator: Stylianos Neophytides – Foundation of Research and Technology Hellas
Institute of Chemical Engineering and High Temperature Processes, Heraklion, Greece
N OV E L M AT E R I A L S F O R E N E R G Y A P P L I C AT I O N S
Membranes prepared. Four samples of nanocomposite
sol-gel membranes containing differing compositions of
heteropolyacids were prepared with thickness between
30 and 150 μm, and shown to exhibit high conductivity
at temperatures up to 140 °C.
New catalysts synthesised. A number of non-Pt elec-
trocatalysts have been modelled and synthesised. Several
Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations have been
carried out on the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in
LaMO3 oxide perovskites.
New compositions based on La-perovskites were synthe-
sised by combustion. A series of Fe-containing carbon
aerogels and xerogels have been prepared by applying
the pyrolysis method to produce FeNx-C structures. Car-
bon nanotubes have also been found to be active and
promising materials for ORR.
Catalyst supports produced. Titanium and iron nitrides
prepared from nanocrystalline TiO2 and Fe2O3, respectively
by precipitation and combustion methods, have been
optimised for use as conductive catalyst supports.
High temperature performance. Measurements on
Fe-C electrocatalysts prepared by pyrolysis of organic resins
have demonstrated good ORR activity in the temperature
range of 140-160 °C in commercial membrane electrode
assemblies (MEAs). An improvement of the membrane
properties led to an increase in the operating temperature
to as much as 200 °C, with good performance under H2/air.
Batch production. A mini-pilot plant has made it pos-
sible to synthesise the monomers/polymers in large
batches, and to avoid time-consuming and low-yield
synthetic steps.
First fuel cell tests. Tests were conducted on conven-
tional MEAs and catalyst systems. A new polymer from
partner Advent revealed exceptional continuous operating
stability, with no decay in performance for over 2,000 hours
at 180 °C under H2/air feed.
A DECADE OF EU-FUNDED RESEARCH
 17

Non-noble catalysts cut fuel cell costs (2007-2010)

The cost of noble-metal catalyst systems for proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) is
driving research to find less expensive non-noble alternatives.

Reducing the cost of catalyst systems is one of the ways
in which fuel cells can be brought closer to full commer-
cialisation. Currently, pure platinum (for pure H2 fuel) or
50:50 platinum/ruthenium alloy (for reformate gas, used
where pure H2 is not available) supported nanoparticle
catalysts are used for the hydrogen oxidation reaction at
the anode of PEM fuel-cells. Their replacement by cheap-
er non-noble alternatives would bring valuable savings.
Currently, for fuel cell-powered vehicles, the platinum
catalyst alone has a comparable cost to an entire petrol
combustion engine.
The FCANODE project has set up a novel route involving
a multi-disciplinary approach, covering the full range
from theoretical design through to the final operating
membrane electrode assembly, to find non-noble metal
based systems. Its goal is to achieve a significant reduction
in noble metal content – or, ideally, its total elimination.
Modelling exercises and combinatorial screening of
new materials have been conducted in an initial search
for potential candidates suitable for use with both pure
hydrogen and reformate gas.
✹ Realistic competitor
to platinum
The resultant systems must show sufficiently high density
of hydrogen oxidation to make them a realistic com-
petitors to current platinum-based catalysts, while
remaining stable in the humidified fuel cell environment
at potentials of up to +400 mV, and exhibiting the neces-
sary tolerance to CO and CO2. Large-scale production of
the newly developed carbon-supported nanoparticles
must be possible by practical industrial methods – and in
addition they should be suitable for use at higher tem-
peratures than the current PEMFC operating range, since
the focus is now on higher temperature membranes for
increased performance.
✹ Project successes
Preliminary ‘library’ of potential novel materials.
Density Functional Theory calculations have identified
potential catalysts to be applied to the hydrogen oxida-
tion reaction (HOR). Combinatorial fast screening has
been performed on these potential systems regarding
hydrogen oxidation and CO tolerance.
Advanced platinum-based catalyst standards. State-
of-the-art platinum-based catalyst standards have been
developed; while benchmarking for the adsorption,
electrochemical and single-cell testing programmes has
been performed.
Novel systems with lower noble metal content. So
far, several systems with lower noble metal content and
consequently lower cost have been developed. Further-
more, a number of entirely non-noble systems are
currently being investigated, some of which have already
shown interesting properties.

Image of a catalyst nanoparticle

by high-resolution transmission
electron microscopy.

Image of catalyst nanoparticles

on a new support material
by transmission electron microscopy.

NMP-STREP-32175 – FCANODE
Non-noble catalysts for proton exchange membrane fuel cell anodes
Total cost: €1 951 857 | EC contribution: €1 492 866
Project duration: February 2007 – January 2010 (36 months)
Coordinator: Ib Chorkendorff – Technical University of Denmark, Department of Physics, Lyngby, Denmark

18
Thin-film solid electrolytes find optical
and energy storage applications (2005-2008)
Example of calculated Mises
stresses in a microbattery
when heated up due to
thermal cycling load up to
240 °C. Each layer thickness
of the battery is comprised
between 100nm and 3μm.
Total thickness is 5μm.
Atomic configuration of
the optimal LISON cluster
as deduced from ab initio
electronic structure
calculation. Oxygen atoms
are marked in red (large
spheres), sulfur atoms in
yellow (mid-size spheres),
nitrogen atoms in blue
(mid-size spheres), and
Li atoms in cream (small
spheres).
Theoretical and experimental studies bring solid-state electrolytes closer to
commercial exploitation.
In recent years, thin-film science has grown into a major
global research field, following recognition that the prop-
erties of thin surface layers differ greatly from those of the
same materials in bulk. Promising areas for exploiting
these phenomena are in microbatteries, micro-superca-
pacitors and electrochromic devices such as smart windows
or displays. Here, the challenge lies in the development of
solid electrolytes in the form of glasses and crystallised
materials – which, in thin-film form, provide new physical
properties such as very high ionic conductivity together
with very low electronic conductivity, as well as increased
chemical and mechanical stability.
In the HI-CONDELEC project, the central area of interest
is to develop electrolytes with a high conductivity towards
lithium ions, for use in the above-mentioned application
areas.
✹ Demanding combination
Because thin-film solid electrolytes require rather specific
properties that are sometimes difficult to combine, the
first objective is to assemble the fundamental knowledge
needed to optimise the design of solid lithium-conducting
glasses with the appropriate physical and chemical char-
acteristics. A multidisciplinary RTD approach combining
simulation, theory, experiment, validation and testing has
been chosen, in order to maximise the understanding of
conductivity and thermo-electro-mechanical interactions
in such materials.
✹ Project successes
Modelling tools. Powerful computational tools for mod-
elling materials behaviour, processing and use have been
developed, based on and supported by extensive meas-
urement of electrical, mechanical, thermal, environmental
and optical properties of the films.
NMP3-CT-2005-516975 – HI-CONDELEC
Design of highly conductive solid thin film electrolyte for stack integration
within optical and energy storage applications
Total cost: €2 830 253 | EC contribution: €2 100 000
Project duration: April 2005 – March 2008 (36 months)
Coordinator: Michel Martin – HEF R&D, Andrezieux-Boutheon, France
N OV E L M AT E R I A L S F O R E N E R G Y A P P L I C AT I O N S
New synthesis directions. Following the determination
of key factors regarding basic structural-property rela-
tionships and the influence of process parameters and
conditions, new directions for the synthesis of thin-film
electrolytes have been proposed.
Theoretical advances. A novel theory of non-linear
conductivity in disordered structures has been derived,
as well as an algorithm for the optimisation of mechani-
cal parameters such as the stresses and strains of Li-ion
thin-film assemblies under an elastic regime.
Properties measured. Several critical aspects (modulus,
Poisson´s ratio, thermal conductivity, thermal behaviour,
yield, density, deflection, etc.) of glasses for microbattery,
micro-ultracapacitor and electrochromic applications
have been identified and measured experimentally on
deposited films.
Promising performance. Newly developed families
of material – including nitrided lithium borate – offer
performance at least similar to that of existing materials.
A new key parameter for nitrogen incorporation during
the sputtering process was found to be the nitrogen flow
rate, adjustment of which enabled the stability of the
electrolyte to be increased.
Process innovation. An innovative process to fabricate
large-sized targets for thin film electrolyte deposition as
well as a target bonding procedure were developed.
The latter is subject to a French patent application.
Industry-ready product. The project produced an
exploitable LiSiPON-type electrolyte with some improve-
ment in conductivity, excellent chemical stability and
better thermomechanical stability for microbatteries.
Another electrolyte composition should promise for
smart windows, but will require considerable effort to
reduce film defects.
A DECADE OF EU-FUNDED RESEARCH
High capacity nickel-metal hydride batteries could boost
European industry (2006-2009)
The MH electrode process.
New limited volume electrode
(LVE) for study of metal
hybride materials.
Polymer-coated hydride storage alloys increase battery capacity while solving
production problems.
The market for electrical storage batteries is a global
battlefield, in which European manufacturers are falling
behind Far Eastern suppliers. Development of the tech-
nology for higher capacity nickel-metal hydride (NiMH)
batteries could help to redress this balance by providing
more ecologically benign replacements for NiCd types in
such high-current-density applications as power tools,
hybrid vehicles and small portable devices.
✹ High gains possible
Large gains in the current storage capacity of NiMH bat-
teries can be achieved by reducing the size of the active
particles from a few hundreds of microns down to the
nanometre range – and thus increasing the surface/
volume ratio. However, the high surface energy of such
extremely small particles makes them extremely flam-
mable in contact with air, which is very difficult to manage
in production processes.
The consortium of the HYDRONANOPOL project is
exploring the application of polymeric nanocoatings as
a solution to this problem. This entails studying the
behaviour of suitable polymers in terms of their ability to
prevent combustion without impairing the ion conduc-
tivity of the dispersed nanoparticles. In addition, it requires
the development of novel multifunctional hydride storage
alloys for the negative electrodes of the batteries. These
must also be assessed for electrochemical connection
efficiency and stability in the alkaline medium.
NMP3-CT-2006-32517 – HYDRONANOPOL
Advancement in storage capability and hydrogen kinetics of hydride storage alloys
through nanocoating with multifunctional hybrid polymer
Total cost: €2 228 586 | EC contribution: €1 866 792
Project duration: October 2006 – September 2009 (36 months)
Coordinator: Martin Krebs – Varta Microbattery GmBH,
R&D Nickel Metal Hydride Button Cells, Hanover, Germany
 19
✹ Project successes
Functional system. An early-stage advance was the
synthesis of Ormocer® inorganic-organic hybrid polymers
in which the organic part provides the necessary passiva-
tion and ion conduction properties. Samples were
characterised for particle size distribution, structure, shape,
composition and density.
Various nickel alloys (H(La, M) Ni5) were nano-encapsu-
lated using milling and coating processes, after which
the coatings were optically analysed and tested for solu-
bility in KOH solution.
Mechanism confirmed. The mechanism of hydrogen
absorption/desorption and the influence of the state of
charge (SOC) on the hydrogen diffusion were determined.
Test protocol. A standard electrochemical testing pro-
tocol allows reliable characterisation of hydride-forming
powders prepared in the course of the project.
Optimisation continues. It has been shown that
Ormocer® does not affect charge transfer kinetics; nor
does it influence double layer capacitance. However, in
order to eliminate small losses in the hydrogen storage
capacity of milled and coated materials (probably because
of electrical insulation of some particles by the polymer),
optimisation of the Ormocer® coating is being pursued.
Low energy milling is found to facilitate activation of the
materials, but accelerated self-discharging requires further
investigation and remedying. Refinement of the small-
particle preparation procedure is also being undertaken to
compensate for a less-than-expected improvement in
the hydrogen diffusion rate for milled samples, compared
with unmilled particles.

20
Nanostructured superconductors pave the way to high
temperature, high magnetic field applications (2005-2008)
Coated conductors may be the answer to mass fabrication of high temperature
superconductors.
High temperature superconductivity is a key enabling
technology for the development of efficient electrical
energy management incorporating renewable energy
sources, for use in new medical technologies based on
magnetic resonance imaging or, in the longer term, in
fusion generators. This vision relies on achieving cost-
effective conductors with high performance at high
temperatures in high magnetic fields.
The goal of mass fabrication of superconducting tapes
TEM image of a YBCO/BZO at low cost can be achieved with innovative chemical
nanocomposite where solution deposition methodologies, where a multilayered
a BZO particle embedded in structure is generated on a metallic substrate, leading to
the YBCO matrix is observed new types of tape known as ‘coated conductors’.
together with a high density
of planer defects and a sever The architecture of these conductors needs to be as simple
buckling of the CuO2 planes. as possible to minimise manufacturing costs, but supercon-
ducting layers based on the compound YBa2Cu3O7
must be nanostructured in order to achieve high perform-
ance. Currents 100 times higher than with Cu wires can be
achieved.
In order to achieve these goals, the HIPERCHEM project
focused on four main areas:
• advancing the knowledge of the growth of epitaxial
superconducting layers based on two chemical solution
Pinning Force, Fp(H), curves of
a nanocomposite film at 65 K
and 77 K, compared with a
standard YBCO-TFA film at
65 K and NbTi wires at 4.2 K.
NMP4-CT2005-516858 – HIPERCHEM
High performance nanostructured coated conductors by chemical processing
Total cost: €2 314 350 | EC contribution: €1 700 000
Project duration: April 2005 – December 2008 (44 months)
Coordinator: Xavier Obradors – ICMAB – Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Barcelona, Spain
N OV E L M AT E R I A L S F O R E N E R G Y A P P L I C AT I O N S
deposition methodologies – metal-organic decomposi-
tion and hybrid liquid phase epitaxy;
• preparing nanostructured interfacial oxide templates,
based on strain-induced self-assembling or track-etched
polymer coatings, which can generate a network of
artificial defects in the superconducting layer, acting as
vortex pinning centres;
• developing innovative chemical solution processing
methodologies for the preparation of epitaxial super-
conducting film nanocomposites ensuring vortex
pinning at high film thickness;
• generating simple coated conductor architectures
integrating the most promising nanostructuration
approaches for scaled-up production with excellent
specifications.
✹ Project successes
World-beating nanocomposites. YBa2Cu3O7-BaZrO3
nanocomposite superconducting films produced by chem-
ical processing achieved world record performance
in terms of vortex pinning efficiency.
Structures compatible with epitaxial growth. Oxide
nanostructures were prepared by self-assembling and by
track-etched polymer template growth based on chemical
solution methods. Both interfacial structures are compatible
with the growth of epitaxial superconducting layers.
Rapid growth rates. Superconducting films (above 1 μm),
were produced at high growth rates (above 1 nm/s) with
high quality epitaxial structure and high critical currents by
chemical solution processing methods.
Large-scale manufacture possible. Simplified conductor
architectures have been obtained for different types of
flexible metallic substrates that enhance the large-scale
manufacturability of the coated conductors.
 A DECADE OF EU-FUNDED RESEARCH
MgB2 composite superconductors break new ground
(2004-2007)
Some of the MgB2 composite prototype
wires developed within the HIPERMAG
project.
World-first MgB2-based MRI system,
realised by the European companies
Paramed Medical Systems, ASG
Superconductors and Columbus
Superconductors.
Early application successes put Europe ahead in low-cost superconductor technology.
Prototype MgB2 conductors have already demonstrated
the potential of this material for existing and future
applications, but there is still considerable scope for per-
formance improvements that could be pioneered by
innovative European researchers.
A key advantage of MgB2 is its relatively high operating
temperature (39 K), reachable with cryogenic cooling
methods that are cheaper and more user-friendly than liq-
uid He. This lowers cooling cost, simplifies system design
and increases safety. Within a decade, MgB2 is expected
to be the material of choice in many applications involv-
ing medium-range magnetic fields. One of these is medical
magnetic resonance imaging, a substantial market in
which EU companies have a dominant position.
✹ Breakthrough in energy?
Potentially about ten times less expensive than high tem-
perature superconductors, MgB2 could also play a pivotal
role in the breakthrough of superconducting technology
into the energy domain, where it would offer substantial
monetary and ecological advantage.
To keep Europe at the forefront of these developments,
the HIPERMAG project is developing a scalable, cost-effec-
tive and reproducible processing route for MgB2-based
conductors with controlled nano-structure, leading to sig-
nificantly enhanced magnetic flux line (vortex) pinning
properties and optimised composite micro-structure, while
assuring full thermal stability.
✹ Project successes
Studies of precursor powders and bulk samples provided
the know-how needed for optimised powder processing.
The excellent properties of carbon-doped nanosized
NMP3-CT-2004-505724 – HIPERMAG
Nano- and micro-scale engineering of higher-performance MgB2 composite
superconductors for macro-scale applications
Total cost: €3 318 076 | EC contribution: €2 499 996
Project duration: September 2004 – August 2007 (36 months)
Coordinator: Andries den Ouden – University of Twente, Faculty of Science
and Technology, Enschede, the Netherlands
 21
precursor powders were demonstrated in monofilamen-
tary wires with world-record performance in magnetic field.
Process conditions established. The conditions for
obtaining higher critical current densities in MgB2 wires
were well defined – although further improvements could
be achieved through a better powder quality, new addi-
tive combinations, a higher density after deformation and
increased control over the high temperature reaction.
Powder production options. Scalable, cost-effective
and reproducible routes to MgB2 precursor powders have
been established. These appear to be highly suitable for
producing large powder batches of high quality MgB2 for
the fabrication of superconducting wires and tapes.
Design parameters specified. Investigations have
shown that, for low ac losses and optimal thermal and
mechanical stability, a multifilament conductor should be
designed with high electrical and thermal conductivity,
barriers to prevent interdiffusion of elements, a strong
sheath component to ensure good compaction, and
a high thermal expansion coefficient.
Property correlation modelled. Specialised structural
and physical analyses of the superconducting wires and
tapes have been carried out, leading to a coherent under-
standing of the correlation between JC (critical current
density) and microstructure.
World first. Applications for MgB2 conductors in several
different forms have been realised. Current leads for
valves and an ADR (adiabatic demagnetisation refrigera-
tion) magnet on the x-ray astronomy satellite Suzaku
were made as thin monofilament wires with an Fe/SS
composite sheath. Ultra-thin monofilament wires with
stainless-steel sheath serve as liquid-hydrogen level sen-
sors, and Cu-stabilised multifilament tapes with Ni sheath
were used to build the world’s first MgB2-MRI magnet.

22
‘New’ carbon for in-car hydrogen storage? (2006-2009)
Degenerate E1 HOMO orbitals
of the conic anion.
Coulomb potential
of the anion.
A recently discovered carbon microstructure shows great promise as the H2 storage medium
for future mobile applications.
The operating requirements for efficient onboard H2 stor-
age in hydrogen-powered vehicles include appropriate
thermodynamics, fast kinetics for H2 uptake/release, high
storage capacity, effective heat transfer, high gravimetric
and volumetric densities, long cycle lifetime, high mechan-
ical strength and durability, safety during use and acceptable
risk under abnormal conditions.
Current technology, using tanks in which H2 is stored as
compressed gas or cryogenic liquid, fall far short of the
targets for mobile applications. Solid storage (in metal
and complex hydrides, chemical storage materials or
nanostructured materials) holds considerable promise for
meeting the goals, but fully satisfactory materials have
yet to be identified.
The HYCONES project is investigating a radical new form
of material: carbon cones (CC), which are fundamentally
different from all previously known carbon structures.
CCs can be produced economically in industrial quanti-
ties via the so-called Kværner carbon black and H2
process, which yields a mix of soot and carbon micro-
structures, namely disks and cones.
✹ Room-temperature
H2 release
CCs are curved graphite sheets, in which five different
conical angles have been observed, in accordance with
the occurance of 1-5 pentagons at the tip of the cones
(a graphene sheet has zero pentagons while the C60
fullerene curvature is produced by six pentagons). Previ-
ous experiments clearly demonstrate H2 release at near
ambient temperatures, implying a new form of interaction
between carbon and H2 that differs from conventional
physi- and chemi-sorption.
NMP3-CT-2006-032970 – HYCONES
Hydrogen storage in carbon cones
Total cost: €2 564 000 | EC contribution: €1 550 000
Project duration: November 2006 – October 2009 (36 months)
Coordinator: Theodore Steriotis – Institute of Physical Chemistry, National Centre
for Scientific Research ‘Demokritos’, 15310 Aghia Paraskevi-Attikis, Greece
N OV E L M AT E R I A L S F O R E N E R G Y A P P L I C AT I O N S
This behaviour is explained by computational calcula-
tions, which indicate that the special topology of CCs
confers unique electronic properties not shared with any
other form of activated or nanostructured carbon.
The consortium is pursuing the development, characteri-
sation and modelling of this new ‘unexplored’ carbon
form in order to provide enhanced understanding of
the interaction mechanism between CCs and H2. During
the project lifetime, it intends to construct and test
a prototype CC-based lab-scale storage system.
✹ Project successes
Bench-scale production. During the first year, an oper-
ational bench-scale CC production unit has been built.
Intense testing is still going on to optimise and control
the set-up and the conditions of production.
Purification strategies. A large number of purification
strategies have been evaluated and purification work will
continue, particularly with regard to the selective chemi-
cal modification of cones.
Properties characterised. Intense experimental charac-
terisation complemented by advanced predictive
multiscale (atomistic to mesoscopic) computer simula-
tions have verified the unique CC properties (including
H2 release at room temperature), and revealed non-
dissociative hydrogen sorption.
High capacity derivatives. Moreover, a novel metal
doping approach has been considered for CCs. The met-
al decorative cone derivatives have shown remarkable
hydrogen storage capacity reaching to 3 wt % at room
temperature and moderate pressure (20 bar), denoting
a performance well above the current state-of-the-
art in hydrogen solid storage based on nanostructured
materials.
A DECADE OF EU-FUNDED RESEARCH
Al-C composite cables lower electricity transport costs
(2004-2006)
Solving composite conductor production problems offers the prospect of a simpler,
cheaper power infrastructure.
Metal matrix composites (MMCs) form an interesting
new class of materials, in which metal bulk is reinforced
with other materials to improve mechanical, electrical or
thermal properties. MMC aluminium wires known as
EFRA (endless fibre-reinforced aluminium) would have
major advantages in many specialised electricity trans-
port applications that demand high strength, low weight
and low thermal expansion.
For such purposes, carbon fibre offers far better proper-
ties than the ceramics often used to reinforce EFRA wires.
Carbon/aluminium composite wire exhibits all of the
desirable properties, as well as high conductivity. How-
ever, extreme processing difficulties have hindered its
commercial introduction.
Stranding of EFRA wire –
Lumpi-Berndorf. The purpose of the MACE project was to resolve these
problems with a new conductor design that could help
Europe to meet growing electricity demand with reduced
environmental impact.
✹ New techniques required
A basic requirement was to overcome the interfacial
problems between carbon and molten aluminium, which
had hitherto prevented continuous production of the
wire. Also essential was the development of advanced
conductor stranding techniques, to deliver a product of
high reliability and capacity, with high mechanical
strength, low losses, and low sag over long spans. This
EFRA wire section – would facilitate expansion of the overhead electricity net-
ARC/Armines. work, with fewer new lines and lower towers.
A second thread of the research was to promote
exploitation of the composite in a wide range of other
applications, such as robotics and aerospace.
NMP3-CT-2003-505463 – MACE
Multifunctional advanced carbon aluminium composite for electricity transport
Total cost: €2 908 065 | EC contribution: €1 049 896
Project duration: January 2004 – December 2006 (36 months)
Coordinator: Neil Philip Wright – C-Tech Innovation Limited, Chester, United Kingdom
 23
✹ Project successes
Process optimised. A plasma-flux-assisted infiltration
method that satisfactorily achieves the required wetting
of carbon fibre by molten aluminium has been devised
and refined, yielding considerable understanding of the
process. Wires with the required combination of low
porosity, high fibre fraction, high tensile strength and
modulus were satisfactory produced.
Plasma pre-treatment. Initial trials to establish suitable
conditions for the production of coatings with accepta-
ble physical properties were carried out on carbon discs,
in order to allow convenient x-ray photoelectron spectro-
scopic analysis of the deposited material. The mechanical
performance of composites incorporating plasma-treated
fibres was found to be the best criterion for accurate
assessment of the benefits of the process. Several long
lengths of treated fibre were processed into composite
wire for mechanical testing.
Control of molten aluminium. Different methods have
been used to control molten aluminium, in particular
the use of various combinations of permanent magnets
or electromagnets, with application of either ac or dc
current. One additional passive system, using a multi-layer
coil and a ferrite core, proved to generate the highest
magnetic field per unit area.
Wire rounding and process integration. An experi-
mental version of an integrated rig permitted the
production of small-diameter wires with a circular-cross
section. Continuous lengths of up 350 m were achieved.
Quality assessment. New techniques for quality assess-
ment of the specialised materials have been established,
including practical on-line void monitoring. Mechanical
measurements showed that the EFRA wire achieved the
required properties.
Computer modelling confirmed the potential of EFRA wire
as an advanced conductor core material. A crucial area for
improvement was to find a means of ensuring consistent
roundness without generating breakages.
 24
Novel materials for silicate-based fuel cells (2006-2009)
New solid-state electrolytes could form the basis of more economical intermediate-temperature
fuel cells.
Intermediate-temperature solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC)
operating at around 600-700 °C would compete with
existing systems running at much higher temperatures
(typically 900-1 000 °C). To achieve this temperature tar-
get there is a need to develop new solid-state electrolytes
with appropriate ionic conductivity.
A but powders containing Al proved to require longer dwell
The MATSILC project is exploring the use of electrolytes
based on apatite-type silicates, some of which are uniquely
suited to the transport of interstitial oxygen ions. By
changing the acid-basic nature of the electrolyte phase, it
is possible to enhance the electrocatalytic performance of
B
related ceramic/metallic composite (cermet) anodes, and
to minimise critical limitations of sulphur contamination
and carbon deposition in contact with hydrocarbon fuels.
In addition, silicates have the potential to overcome some
degradation problems associated with SOFCs based on
C alternative electrolytes, such as yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ)
or gadolinia-doped ceria (CGO) with silica.
✹ Total fuel cell concept
D The aim is to develop a complete SOFC concept, includ-
ing materials and processing technologies for the core
SEM micrographs of the components, as well as compatible electrodes. The latter
microstructure of the aspect entails devising synthetic procedures for the
La2Ni0.5Cu0.5O4+d cathode: fabrication of nano-architectured micro-/meso-porous
A) powder electrodes of catalyst-doped oxide matrix by a templat-
B) as deposited electrode ing approach, plus investigation of the influence of
C) and D) electrode doping and surface nanoengineering on their working
after electrochemical parameters.
measuremenrs.
A novel fuel cell design incorporating catalytic interlayers
and diffusion-blocking nanolayers along grain boundaries
will be constructed and tested against the LSM/YSZ/
Ni-Cermet system at temperatures in the region of 700 °C.
NMP3-CT-2006-33410 – MATSILC
Novel materials for silicate-based fuel cells
Total cost: €2 092 000 | EC contribution: €1 849 869
Project duration: December 2006 – November 2009 (36 months)
Coordinator: Christos Argirusis – Technische Universität Clausthal, Institut für Metallurgie,
Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany
N OV E L M AT E R I A L S F O R E N E R G Y A P P L I C AT I O N S
✹ Project successes
Materials prepared. During the first year, apatite-type
electrolyte materials with various dopants and dopant
levels were developed and prepared by several methods.
Fe-containing apatites sintered to density values of 97 %,
times to approach full density values.
Superior conductivity demonstrated. The conductiv-
ity of new electrolytes was tested and compared with
that of similar apatites reported in the literature. One of
the formulations showed higher conductivity than state-
of-the-art YSZ, particularly at 600-750 °C.
Fast, efficient processing. Powders prepared by a sol-
gel technique reduced the time required for sintering
compared with those prepared by solid-state synthesis.
Besides the well known Pecchini method, mechanochemi-
cal activation has been used to prepare active powders for
sintering. The sintering temperature of the synthesised
apatites was reduced by applying different preparation
routes, especially with mechanochemical activation.
Preparation of dense electrolytes (95 % of the theoreti-
cal density) at temperatures as low as 1 450-1 500 °C has
been achieved. Increasing the sintering temperature to
1 600 °C leads to dense pellets with more than 99 % of
the theoretical density.
Cell studies in progress. Investigations of the reactivity
of cell materials are in progress, while preparation of
cathode layers on electrolyte substrates has been per-
formed by means of electrophoretic deposition.
Electrophoretic characterisation of electrolyte powder
suspensions has been done, and powder preparation
procedures are being scaled up.
A DECADE OF EU-FUNDED RESEARCH
EU-Turkey-China cooperation advances intermediate
temperature fuel cell technology (2006-2009)
SEM for SDC-carbonate
nanocomposites showing
uniformly distributed
composite particle size.
SEM image of the as-
prepared Samarium doped
ceria (SDC) nanowires with
a high aspect ratio, which are
100~200 nm in diameter and
up to 10 μm in length.
TEM micrograpghs of the
as-prepared poly-crystalline
SDC nanowires, the inset is
the SAED pattern of an
individual nanowire.
International networking is bringing early dividends in the search for reliable low-cost fuel cells.
High temperature solid oxide fuel cells (HTSOFC) are
made costly by the need to use expensive ceramic mate-
rials; whereas low temperature fuel cells (LTFC) based on
polymer electrolytes suffer the drawback of strong
dependence on easily-poisoned catalysts. So-called inter-
mediate temperature fuel cells (ITFC) are expected to
offer a reasonable compromise, but cell components with
the required performance are far from well-defined.
Electrolyte conductivity of 0.1 S/cm is a basic essential,
which current single-phase SOFC materials cannot deliver
at temperatures below 600 °C. Lowering the operating
temperature of SOFCs will only be possible if new,
improved materials are developed. Suitable nanocom-
posites are believed to offer the potential to reduce the
working temperature of conventional SOFCs from
1 000 °C to 300 °C, giving rise to what will be low-cost,
readily marketable systems.
✹ East-West collaboration
The main impetus of the NANOCOFC programme is to
develop nanocomposites by constructing interfaces that
may act as ion conducting ‘highways’ in two-phase
materials, and to investigate super-ionic conduction and
dual H+/O2 conductors. To assemble a critical mass of
human and material resources behind the necessary
research, it is extending the Sino-Swedish IT/LTSOFC
(Intermediate and Low Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cell)
network to embrace cooperation between prominent
research institutions in the EU, Turkey and China.
Access to the combined facilities of the partners, plus
a wide range of disseminational and educational activities,
is already enhancing research capabilities in nanotechno-
logy, multifunctional materials, applications and next
generation fuel cell technology.
NMP3-SSA-2003-32308 – NANOCOFC
Enhancement of research capabilities on multi-functional nanocomposites
for advanced fuel cell technology through EU-Turkish-China cooperation
Total cost: €891 300 | EC contribution: €500 000
Project duration: November 2006 – October 2009 (36 months)
Coordinator: Bin Zhu – Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan,
Department of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
 25
✹ Project successes
Cooperation underway. A number of joint industrial
efforts were launched in network’s first year. The con-
sortium was also extended to include more associate
partners.
Spreading information. An Internet office and website
(http://nanocofc.hrbeu.edu.cn/) have been created. Pub-
lication of periodic newsletters has begun, and the first
seminars and workshops have been organised. Joint PhD,
postdoc and scientist training programmes are in place.
Research achievements. Successes to date from the
research cooperation include:
• Swedish patent on ‘Development on extremely low
cost electrolyte material: industrial grade rare-earth
mixed carbonates used successfully in LTSOFCs’;
• two-phase nanocomposites providing the oxygen and
proton conductivity of 0.1 Scm-1 at 300 °C (comparable
to YSZ conductivity at 1 000 °C);
• material conductivity, fuel cell power outputs and sys-
tem efficiency enhanced by combining or integrating
multi-ion functions, typically, H+ and O2- conduction.
Performance breakthrough. The NANOCOFC method-
ology has delivered sensational performance of 1.1 W/cm2
at 500ºC, together with new anode and cathode mate-
rials, co-developments of which extend high performance
down to temperatures as low as 300 ºC, without the
need to use noble metal catalysts.

26
Si nanofilm process potential for photovoltaics
and optoelectronics (2005-2008)
Composite TEM image
showing the columnar
growth of nc silicon
(on the extreme left the
substrate/nc-Si film interface).
Schematic drawing of
the LEPECVD system
with the main system
components.
Thorough investigation confirms the promise of a new kind of process for chemical vapour
deposition of Si nanofilms structured for solar cells and light-emitters.
Nanocrystalline silicon (nc-Si) is a promising candidate for
second generation solar cells and light-emitting devices,
although full demonstration of its potential as a compet-
itor to crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells is still under
debate. Main open questions are whether an adequate
deposition rate for industrial applications is possible and
which of the available plasma-enhanced chemical vapour
deposition (PECVD) techniques is most appropriate.
The NANOPHOTO project has developed and modelled
a low-energy variant of plasma deposition (LEPECVD) as
a new nc-Si growth process on suitable substrates for
both photovoltaic and optoelectronic applications. Calcu-
lations also extend to the simulation of nc-Si grain growth
in an amorphous silicon (a-Si) matrix, to determine the
best a-Si/nc-Si ratio and the elastic/plastic effects of
embedding the nanocrystals.
Theoretical studies based on systematic measurement of the
optoelectronic properties of nc-Si are providing insight into
the role of process parameters on the local nanostructural
aspects and associated physical properties.
Practical application knowledge has been acquired with
the construction of a prototype device, which is essen-
tially a solar cell, but can also work as a light-emitting
device under external electrical excitation.
NMP3-CT-2003-013944 – NANOPHOTO
Nanocrystalline silicon films for photovoltaic and optoelectronic applications
Total cost: €1 968 655 | EC contribution: €1 699 954
Project duration: June 2005 – November 2008 (42 months)
Coordinator: Sergio Pizzini – University of Milano-Bicocca, Department of Materials Science, Milan, Italy
N OV E L M AT E R I A L S F O R E N E R G Y A P P L I C AT I O N S
✹ Project successes
High growth rate. An LEPECVD furnace set up to opti-
mise the nc-Si deposition process has demonstrated high
rates of growth for high quality and homogeneous nc-Si
films on substrates including glass and conductive glasses.
Process described. 2D and 3D models of the processes
occurring in the reactor chamber were obtained, backed
by measurements of the plasma composition and ion
distribution. Full modelling of the reactions occurring at
the gas/solid phase during nc-Si film deposition was also
accomplished.
Properties characterised. Preliminary and conclusive
electrical, optical and structural characterisation were
carried out on doped and undoped nc-Si films deposited
under a range of conditions.
Inlet gas affects structure. The effects of changes in
the composition/flow rate of the furnace inlet gas
mixture on film microstructure have successfully been
determined. The mixture consists of silane, hydrogen and
argon for undoped film deposition, while diborane and
phosphine are added for doped films. It has been shown
that crystallinity decreases with the dilution ratio of the
dopants, and that this behaviour is common to films
deposited over the temperature range 220-350 °C.
Divergent requirements. It was found that film homo-
geneity, which is essential for solar cells, could actually
be a limitation to good light-emitting devices. The nature
of optical emissions and the possible presence of quantum
confinement effects in materials consisting of nanocrys-
talline and amorphous areas have been studied.
A DECADE OF EU-FUNDED RESEARCH
 27

Nanocomponents integrated in rechargeable microbatteries

(2006-2009)

Nanomaterial combinations could provide the performance required for miniaturised batteries
to store solar energy and power smart cards.

Nano-particulate electrode materials, electrode materials ✹ Project successes

modified by surface layers in the nm range (core-shell
materials) and nano-structured composite electrodes and
electrolytes all offer opportunities to overcome the limi-
tations of current lithium polymer microbatteries. They
reduce transport limitations within the materials, and
decrease the over-potential required for intercalation/
deintercalation reactions of the Li ions.
The NANOPOLIBAT project is engaged in the design and
fine tuning of active materials, binders and separators for
a very long life, high-rating rechargeable polymer micro-
battery for low voltage applications. Intelligent composite
electrodes require a well-designed spatial distribution of
the various components, which cannot be achieved by
simple mixing. The alternative being explored is the self-
assembly of nano-particles on preconditioned surfaces.
✹ Demonstrator for
tomorrow’s technologies
An advanced nano-ceramic/organic hybrid polymer
(Ormocer®) combined with a promising new conductive
salt is being used to produce a separator with high lithium-
ion conductivity and adequate electrochemical stability.
The hybrid is also applied as a binder for electrode mate-
rials. The goal is to build up a battery with the newly
developed nano-materials, in order to deliver a final dem-
onstrator proving the concept for future technologies such
solar energy storage and the powering of smart cards.
High-capacity blends. Nano-silicon/graphite blends
that show higher capacities than standard graphite have
been developed. In the opening year, a first sample con-
taining 10 % nano-Si was synthesised, showing a specific
capacity of 600 mAh/g.
Higher capacity, safer electrodes. A study of the prop-
erties of Li-titanate (Li4Ti5O12) as a cathode material is
being carried out. This shows excellent capacity retention
at various charge/discharge rates and temperatures, and
is safer than other common electrode materials. In the
form of nano-tubes and nano-fibres, it is characterised
by extremely fast Li-ion intercalation/deintercalation.
Components tested. The conductivity of a polymer-salt
complex electrolyte was measured at 10-6 Scm-1 at 25 °C
and 6 x10-3 Scm-1 at 80 °C. Tests were undertaken to
measure the effect of plasticisation by a non-volatile ionic
liquid on conductivity and battery performance. Samples
of the ionic liquid were also made available to partners for
testing with the Li-titanate cathode material, nano-Si/C
anode and Ormocer®-based binder.
A first generation solvent-free polymer electrolyte gave
conductivity of around 10-5 Ohm-1 cm-1.

SEM image of copper

nano wires – magnification
10 000 X and 50 000 X.

NMP3-CT-2003-33195 – NANOPOLIBAT
Nanotechnology for advanced rechargeable polymer lithium batteries
Total cost: €2 228 586 | EC contribution: €1 793 696
Project duration: October 2006 – September 2009 (36 months)
Coordinator: Martin Krebs – Varta Microbattery GmbH, R&D Poliflex, Hannover, Germany

28 N OV E L M AT E R I A L S F O R E N E R G Y A P P L I C AT I O N S

Nanostructured fuel cells as industrial chemicals producers

(2004-2007)

A clean technology using fuel cell reactors for simultaneous production of usable chemicals
and energy could bring radical change in important sectors of industrial processing.

A new approach to industrial production could emerge
from the development of a polymer-electrolyte fuel cell
reactor technology that synthesises industrial chemicals by
oxidation/reduction processes, while simultaneously pro-
ducing usable energy. One interesting prospect is that
a significant increase in value would be added to chemical
streams from the petrochemical industry by harnessing the
available energy (Gibbs free energy) of electrosynthetic reac-
tions to insert oxygen into alkenes (ethylene, propylene,
etc.) of low molecular weight. Moreover, another benefit is
that the technology is inherently clean.
cycles. The work provided greater understanding of the
relationship between crystal orientation of nanocrystalline
materials and their electrochemical reactivity.
Novel anionic exchange materials were also synthesised,
based both on polymers and on mesoscopic particulate
ion exchangers for use in fuel cells. These were then
characterised and modelled to predict their behaviour in
the membrane electrode assemblies used to separate cell
electrodes.

For the NENA project, the two applications selected for
study were oxygen reduction to yield hydrogen peroxide,
the mechanism of which is already well understood, and
epoxidation reaction. This required the development
of advanced structured materials and components for
a reactor capable of co-generating chemicals and energy.
✹ Project successes
Catalysts selected. Two materials, respectively poly-
meric and composite, were shown to be suitable as
catalysts for H2O2 production in acidic and basic cathode
environments.

High peroxide yield. A new theoretical approach to the

✹ From theory to synthesis
The research sought to establish links between surface
structure and reactivity, employing theoretical and compu-
tational techniques to predict the course of reactions at
the surface of nanosized clusters. Quantum chemical cal-
culations were also used to provide guidelines for the
selection of potential nanoparticle electrocatalysts. Suitable
candidates were then synthesised, followed by reactivity
measurements and assessment of the use of redox-catalytic
analysis of electron and proton transfer mechanisms was
also developed. Fuel cells operating with electrocatalysts
developed during the project are giving high yields of
peroxide.
A prototype that could allow future deployment of decen-
tralised production modules for the co-generation of H2O2
and energy in a PEMFC was demonstrated, confirming the
feasibility of such dual-purpose reactors.

Hydrogen peroxide rig.

Hydrogen peroxide test cell.

NMP3-CT-2004-505906 – NENA
Nanostructures for energy and chemicals production
Total cost: €2 011 563 | EC contribution: €1 777 496
Project duration: July 2004 – June 2007 (36 months)
Coordinator: Kyösti Kontturi – Helsinki University of Technology, Department of Chemical Technology/
Laboratory of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry; Espoo Suomi, Finland
European Commission

Novel materials for energy applications – A decade of EU-funded research

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

2008 – 28 pp. – 21 x 29.7 cm

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Acknowledgements

The authors express their thanks for the contributions

of the coordinators and the programe officers of the projects.
Furthermore, the collaboration of Mike Parry, Michael Horgan,
Charlotte Andersdotter and Bingen Urquijo Garay is acknowledged.