PARASITOLOGY 001

NOTE: This is an updated version of Maria Katrina Bernabe’s o Where asexual process takes place
Transcribed Notes
DEFINITIVE OR FINAL HOST
o Where mature or adult forms of the parasites are
INTRODUCTION TO PARASITOLOGY found
o Where sexual cycle of some org. take place
In any field of study, it is important that the learner is 
presented with the basic terminology used as well as application RESERVOIR HOSTS
and limitation of the different terms used. This will enable the o Some animals, domestic or wild, may serve as
reader an easier way of understanding matters the concerns a respiratory host to a parasite.
particular subject matter. o Man, in this case, is only “incidentally” involved but not
a “natural host.”
Terminology o Are of epidemiologic importance in the spread of
some infection since they have served as the “ready
PARASITOLOGY and constant” source of the infectious organisms to the
Is a branch of biology that deals with the phenomenon community.
of dependence of one living organism to another.
TRANSPORT/PARATHENIC HOST
CLINICAL (OR MEDICAL) PARASITOLOGY o Some parasites require passage through an
Primarily deals with animal parasites of man and their intermediate host before the infective stage (i.e. the
medical significance and importance in human specific developmental form capable of causing
communities. infection to man) is developed.
o The infective stage may not be transferred directly
PARASITES from intermediate to definitive host.
Are organisms that depend onto another living creature, o Instead, it may be passed to a transport host, whereby
referred to as the host, for survival.
no development or transformation of the parasite takes
Live at the expense of another organism place but infectivity is preserved.
o They are not essential in the life cycle of the parasite
OBLIGATE PARASITES
but may serve as another source of infection to man
Cannot survive without the assistance of the host.
aside from the natural intermediate host of the
Parasite is “totally” dependent and unable to multiply if
organism.
it is not in the body of a host.
Interrelationship of Organisms
FACULTATIVE PARASITES OR OPPORTUNISTS
Parasites that are able to adapt to a free-living or
Different organism exhibit various kinds of association with one
parasitic existence depending upon the condition.
another throughout their entire life
SPURIOUS PARASITES
Parasitic to other creatures but not to humans. SYMBIOSIS Close association of two organisms,
whereby a “give and take” relationship
Man may ingest these organisms and they pass through
exist
the alimentary canal, excreted in the feces, alive or dead, in the
unchanged state. MUTUALISM Relationship is “beneficial” to both
associates
Parasites, like other living creatures, undergo different stages of COMMENSALISM Parasite derives benefits without
development before reaching full maturity. Each set of reciprocating and/or without causing
metamorphosis results to a distinct stage of development. Some injury to the host
parasites may need a particular kind of host for a particular stage
of development.
Some big animals attack, kill, and use smaller ones for food. In this
HOST SPECIFICITY form of existence, the bigger animal is referred to as PREDATOR
The transformation and survival of a certain stage of while the smaller is called PREY.
development may not occur if the organism is in the body of
a “non-appropriate host.” SCAVENGERS
Animals that derive their nourishment from already dead
There are some parasites that do not inhabit only a single host ones either by devouring those that died of natural causes or
throughout their lifetime. Some organisms, while undergoing taking the leftovers of the predators.
development, inhabit a host different from the one where the
adult forms are found. The Process of Infection

INTERMEDIATE HOST ECTOPARASITES
o Harbors the immature or larval forms of the parasite. Some Parasites that live on the surface of the host’s body
parasites undergo both asexual and sexual reproduction. their condition is referred to as INFESTATION

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ENDOPARASITES
Those parasites found inside the body of their host
the condition is called INFECTION
Prior to the development of an infection, a person must be in a
situation considered “at risk” of acquiring it.
Risk situation is called EXPOSURE
o Organism is given the chance to enter the body of
the individual.
The process of introducing the organism into the body of
the host (e.g. man) is called INOCULATION.
Parasites that successfully enter the body of a person may
establish a colony through reproduction. These organisms, inside
the person’s body, may be recovered in body fluids like blood,
urine, CSF, or tissues at that times that the organisms are still unable
to produce signs and or/symptoms of the infection.
 BIOLOGIC INCUBATION/PRE-PATENT PERIOD
o Period of time from entry of the organism until they
may be recovered in body fluids, tissues, or excreta,
without any manifestation yet
Disease producing organisms will be able to produce signs and/or
symptoms of the infection later after inoculation.
 stage of development may re-enter the person’s body in the
 CLINICAL INCUBATION PERIOD
o Period of time from the entry of the organism into the
body of the host until the earliest sign and/or symptom
of the infection appear
Disease-producing organism (also called PATHOGEN or
pathogenic organism), in certain conditions may not be able to
cause damage to the host and therefore unable to produce signs
and/or symptoms of the infection. This condition is referred to as
INAPPARENT INFECTION, and the person who harbors such
pathogenic organism but without manifestation of the infection
(i.e. the person is asymptomatic) is called a CARRIER. Other
susceptible individuals, who later manifest the infection, may
acquire the infection from carriers.
Parasites have “specific” developmental forms with the ability to
enter the human body to initiate an infection process. The
developmental form of the parasite capable to doing so is called
INFECTIVE STAGE.
PATHOGENIC STAGE is the developmental form may or may not
be able to cause pathologic damage but is the only stage that
can enter the body of the host.
There are some parasites whose infective form, as well as their
mature stages, can cause pathologic damage or disease to man.
In certain species, the infective stage may also be the pathogenic
form and vice versa.
Some animals serve to transfer the infective stage of an organism
from one source to another. The transfer may be from one person
to another, from an animal to a human being, or from inanimate
objects into a person. Commonly, the animals that transfer the
organism or parasite are various kinds of insects.
VECTOR/TRANSMITTERS
These animals that transfer the infective form
PARASITOLOGY 001
BIOLOGIC VECTORS
Essential or needed in the life cycle of the parasite
The life cycle of some parasites will not be completed
without the participation or involvement of a particular
biologic vector
PHORETIC/MECHANICAL VECTORS
Not necessarily needed in the life cycle
Act as mechanical transmitters of the organism
HORIZONTAL TRANSMISSION
An organism coming from the body of a person and
transferred to another individual
Man acquires many parasites, pathogenic and
commensal ones, through horizontal transmission.
VERTICAL TRANSMISSION
An unborn baby may be infected with a parasite that
came from the mother via placental transfer
This process is responsible for congenital infection.
Most parasites that cause infection to man originated from
animals thus, commonly referred to as ZOONOTIC INFECTIONS.
A person may excrete the infective form of an organism and this
process of AUTOINFECTION.
Autoinfection may occur via:
o retrograde migration of the infective form
(retroinfection)
o outside part of body (external autoinfection).
This process may lead to a severe type of infection in an
individual without necessarily acquiring infective forms from
another person or other sources.
HETEROINFECTION Infective stages coming from another
source of the same species
SUPERINFECTION An already infected individual and has
been re-infected with the same species of
the parasite
MIXED INFECTION A person may be harboring more than one
species of organism at the same time.
DELUSIONAL PARASITOSIS
There are some individuals who may think they are
infected with some “bizarre” parasite but in reality, no such
parasite exists in their bodies.
Sources of Parasitic Infection
 Contaminated soil
 Ascaris lumbricoides – Embryonated Egg
 Necator americanus– Filariform Larva
 Ancylostoma duodenale– Filariform Larva
 Strongyloides stercoralis – Filariform Larva
 Cause soil transmitted infections
 Contaminated water
 Pathogenic amoeba
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 Cercariae of Schistosoma (larval stage) which  Capillaria philippinensis

penetrates the skin of the individual  Trichuris trichiuria
 Echinostoma ilocanum
CONTAMINATED FOOD  Trichinella spiralis
 Fish  Diphylobotrium latum
 Capillaria philippinensis  Fasciolopsis buski
 Diphylobotrium latum  Fasciola hepatica
 Crab  Paragonimus westermani
 Paragonimus westermani  Necator americanus (pwede daw sabi ni doc)
 Opisthorchis viverrini
 Pork
 Taenia solium HINT: Foods go through the mouth
 Trichinella spiralis
 Skin – by arthropod vector like insects (mosquitoes, bugs)
 Beef or penetration.
 Taenia saginata Hookworm
 Necator americanus
 Vegetables  Ancylostoma duodenale
 Fasciola hepatica Threadworm
 Fasciolopsis buski  Strongyloides stercoralis
Bloodfluke
 Snail  Schistosoma japonicum
 Echinostoma ilocanum
 Nose
 BLOOD SUCKING INSECTS  Enterobius vernicularis (Embryonated egg) – aside
 Mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles serve as from entering the mouth as portal of entry, may also
vectors for malaria – Plasmodium enter through the nose via inhalation
 Wuchereria bancrofti – causes lymphatic filariasis
 Leishmana donovani – cases Leishmaniasis  Placenta – Trans-placental transfer
 Trypanosoma – Trypanosomiasis  Toxoplasma gondii

 DOMESTIC ANIMALS  Milk – Trans-mammary transfer

 Cat – toxocara cati  some species of Strongyloides
 Dog – toxocara canis  Trematodes
 Pig – (Ano sa tagalog ang pig? Baboy) balintidium  Ancylostoma
coli The infective larvae of Strongyloides and species of
 Wild animals like tiger, lion – gnathostoma Ancylostoma may cause infection among babies
spinigerium of infected mothers through the milk

 ANOTHER PERSON  Sexual Organ

 Entamoeba histolytica  Trichomonas vaginalis – enters the body of an
 Enterobius vermicularis individual through genital organs during
 Giardia lamblia “unprotected” sexual intercourse
 Trichomonas vaginalis
Pathogenesis of Parasitic Infections
 AUTOINFECTION IN MAN
 Capillaria philippinensis Each pathogenic parasite utilizes different mechanisms
 Strongyloides stercoralis (pathogenesis) of causing damage among humans or other
 Enterobius vermicularis animals. These mechanisms maybe one or a combination of the
 Taenia solium following:

Portals of Entry 1. Trauma or physical damage

Specific site in the human body where parasites enter 2. Lytic (liquefaction) necrosis
Some species of organisms may not be able to effectively 3. Stimulation of the host’s tissue reaction (cellular or
cause infection if they enter the wrong portals thus in most immunologic)
instances each species has its own entry point in the host’s body. 4. Toxic and/or allergic phenomenon

 Mouth (Most common portal of entry) TRAUMA

 Ascaris lumbricoides  Filariform Larva – they penetrate the skin and produce
 Entamoeba histolytica puncture wounds.
 Taenia solium  Necator americanus
 Taenia saginata  Ancylostoma duodenale
 Giardia lamblia  Strongyloides stercoralis

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 Some parasites can enter a tissue cell, grow and
develop inside the cell, then rupture the infected cell
producing trauma or physical damage.
 Plasmodium – enter RBC (Note: Plasmodium is
smaller than the RBC)
 Parasites with blood-lung phase in their life cycle – they
pass from the blood to the lungs before they can
become an adult. (Note: it is the larva which is
migrating)
 Ascaris lumbricoides
 Necator americanus
 Ancylostoma duodenale
 Strongyloides stercoralis
When we inhale, the alveolus expands. When we
exhale, it contracts. Nakadikit yung pulmonary
capillaries dito. Ano dumadaan sa capillaries? Blood
para merong exchange of gases. Now yung larva ng
apat na ito pass from blood through the lungs via
capillaries. They then break the pulmonary capillaries,
goes to the air sac, bronchioles, bronchi, trachea,
hanggang epiglottis tapos swallow. Pupunta sa GI tract
mo and that larva becomes adult. GG .
When they break the pulmonary capillaries, they
produce trauma
Ano yung nagmimigrate? Larvae
Ascaris lumbricoides - They can destroy an organ by
obstruction, perforation and occlusion. (OPO)
Obstruction: They can entangle each other forming a
bolus obstructing the intestines. – Intestinal obstruction
Perforation: Even a single Ascaris adult can perforate the
intestine. This then goes out and travels to the liver,
causing trauma.
Occlusion: A single worm can occlude the alveoli or can
go down and occlude the appendix. An occlusion can
cause trauma
LYTIC NECROSIS
 Amoeba histolytica – they invade the tissue causing
necrosis.
 Balantidium coli – they have hyaluronidase which lyse
the tissue causing necrosis.
STIMULATION OF HOST’S TISSUE REACTION
An indirect way of producing disease. This process stimulates
the host tissue to react. The response is to destroy this parasite
or prevent further migration. There will be cellular
proliferation, cellular infiltration, granuloma formation, and
lastly, fibrosis. The function of the affected organ will be
impaired.
Example: Eggs of Schistosoma
 In the liver, the eggs stimulate the liver tissue to react in
order to prevent migration or destruction of the parasite.
Then the tissue reacts causing cellular proliferation,
PARASITOLOGY 001
infiltration, granuloma formation, and fibrosis. There will
be diffuse fibrosis in the liver. Continuous flow of blood in
a fibrotic liver will result to an increase in pressure of the
portal system (portal hypertension). Because of this,
there will be fluid escaping the portal system and goes
to the abdomen resulting to ascites.
 Aside of the increase in pressure of the portal system,
there will be an increase in pressure of the anus,
ballooning the vessels causing hemorrhoids.
 Esophagus is also affected resulting to esophageal
varices. Rupture of the varices will result to death.
 There will also be dilation of the veins of the abdomen
(caput medusa)
TOXIC AND ALLERGIC PHENOMENON
The parasite and its metabolic waste product can serve as
an antigen or allergen which is stimulates the production of
specific antibodies. Succeeding exposure to the same
antigen will produce an antigen-antibody reaction resulting
to an immune response. This can either be beneficial
(immunizations) or harmful (hypersensitivity reactions).
Allergy (Type 1 hypersensitivity) activates IgE that may result
to anaphylactic shock (fatal outcome).
COATING
Example: Giardia lamblia
The trophozoite will carpet the intestinal mucosa, serving as
barrier for absorption. This will result to malabsorption.
RECRUITEMENT OF MICROORGANISMS
Example: Filariform larva
Puncture wounds will make the area affected susceptible to
microorganisms. This may result to bacteremia or septicemia.
Diagnosis of Parasitic Infections
The medical technologist plays a very important role in the
diagnosis of infections with parasites. Diagnosis of parasitic
infection is, oftentimes, based on identification of organism in
specimen submitted to the laboratory. The technologist,
therefore, should be very accurate in the identification of the
organisms.
Different diagnostic tests in Parasitology may be classified as
either “direct” or “indirect”.
DIRECT APPROACH
Is to demonstrate the organisms where they can be
recovered.
Feces:
o Eggs of:
Ascaris lumbricoides
Trichuris trichiura
Capillaria philippinensis
Taenia saginata
Taenia solium
Schistosoma japonicum
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o Larval forms of:
Threadworm
Some species of hookworm.
o Tapeworms may evacuate segments of the worms in
their feces. The segments may be examined and
identified with or without stain.

Muscle Tissues:
o Patients infected with Trichinella spiralis are diagnosed
through recovery of the larval stage in biopsy material of
muscle tissues

Blood Films
o Malaria, filariasis
o Trypanosomiasis
Urine
o Trichomonas vaginalis infection is easily diagnosed by
finding the trophozoites of the parasite in the patient’s
urine.
 o Ascaris lumbricoides
CSF
o Examination of CSF will also be of great help in the
diagnosis of Naegleria fowleri and Acanthamoeba
culbertsoni infections.
INDIRECT APPROACH
In quite a number of instances, recovery of parasites in
body fluids may not be that easy or impractical. Also, there
are some conditions whereby the location of the organism is
quite inaccessible or trying to get them, such as in biopsy,
may entail more damages that benefits. In such situations,
the indirect approach may be resorted to instead.
These diagnostic procedures, however, are not readily
available, more likely to be less accurate, and are of limited
application.
Circumoval Precipitin Test (COPT)
If the organism is able to stimulate the immune system of
the host, antibodies may be detected in the blood such as in
the case of schistosomiasis, where the patient’s blood will
contain antibodies against the eggs of the parasite.
May be used in the diagnosis of schistosomiasis.
Serologic tests
are also available, although expensive, for the diagnosis
of human infections with:
o Echinococcus granulosus
o Trichinella spiralis
o Leishmania donovani, etc.
Xenodiagnosis
May be used to diagnose infection with some parasites
such as Trypanosoma cruzi.
In this method, a laboratory-bred insect, the one that
serves as vector to the organisms, is allowed to feed on the
blood of individuals suspected to be infected with the
parasite.
The feces of the insect is then examined for the presence
of the organism after sometime.
PARASITOLOGY 001
Coproculture
Some parasites may also be grown in artificial culture
media such as rice-starch agar for Entamoeba histolytica, as
well as other protozoa parasites.
Coproculture (i.e. stool or soil culture) will enable the
recovery of the larval forms of hookworms and threadworms.
Animals such as rabbits, hamsters, and monkeys may also be used
to grow parasites in the laboratory to produce more parasites and
therefore, make the diagnosis easier, more accurate, and to have
high yield of positive result.
Treatment of Parasitic Infections
Infections with parasites may be treated with:
Chemotherapy (use of commercially available drugs)
Infections with organisms that are effectively treated
through the administration of specific drug for the particular
organism:
o Entamoeba histolytica
o Trichuris trichiura
o Giardia lamblia
o Trichomonas vaginalis
Surgical intervention
o Hydatid disease due to the larvae of Echinococcus
granulosus is treated by surgical removal of the cyst.
o Cysticorcus larvae of Taenia solium located in the eye
of a patient are also removed through surgical
procedure.
Combination of the both
Vaccination against parasite infection is not yet perfect at the
present time. Researchers are still ongoing for the development of
vaccine that may effectively protect humans from acquiring
infection with some parasites. At the present time, vaccines are
being developed and tested for organisms such as:
Plasmodium species (causing malaria)
Schistosoma japonicum
Entamoeba histolytica, etc.
BREAK!
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PROTOZOOLOGY
All living organisms may be classified according to either:
PROTOZOA
o Unicellular
o Although looking very simple, is capable of the various
processes of life
o Subkingdom of Animalia
METAZOA
o Have numerous cells, tissues, and organs.
o Have organ systems that perform the complex
processes of life
Stages of Development of Parasites
Parasites under Protozoa, generally, undergo different stages of
development throughout their life. In most instances, these
developmental forms will include:
1. Trophozoite
2. Cyst
TROPHOZOITE
Also called trophic form
Is the VEGETATIVE STAGE
referred to as the pathogenic stage
o Among the pathogenic species, it is also the stage
capable of producing pathology
Also referred to as the MOTILE STAGE because of the
organelles of locomotion
Organelles of locomotion, generally, are present in the
trophic forms. In general, different group of protozoa has their
own type of locomotion organelles:
o Pseudopodia (fingerlike) Entamoeba histolytica
o Flagella (hair like) Giardia lamblia
o Cilia (thread like) Balantidium coli
Surrounded by plasma membrane. They acquire
nutrients through a semi-permeable membrane. FEEDING
STAGE
Easily destroyed by adverse condition in the environment
such as strong chemicals, urine, changes in temperature,
presence of other organisms, and other physical, chemical,
and biologic factors.
Easily destroyed and quite fragile as compared to cyst
Stool samples suspected to contain trophozoites must be
examined within 30 minutes after collection of such sample,
lest the organism will disintegrate and making identification
rather difficult if not impossible.
If the examination of specimen suspected to contain
trophozoites is to be delayed or cannot be done at once,
preservatives may be used but the parasite becomes
immotile.
Has 1 nucleus except:
o Balantidium coli
o Giardia lamblia
o Dientamoeba fragilis
Which has 2 nuclei in the trophozoite stage. A
macronucleus and a micronucleus
CYST
Dormant or the non-motile form of the parasite. Has no
organ of locomotion.
Referred to as the “INFECTIVE STAGE”.
PARASITOLOGY 001
Also called NON FEEDING STAGE because it is
surrounded by a tough cyst wall (because of this they can’t
get nourishment
They use stored food in the form of chromatoidal bodies
and glycogen vacuoules or mass.
Most are more resistant than the trophozoite forms
Likely to be found in:
o formed stool samples
o water fecal specimen
Being more resistant than the trophozoite, the cyst may
easily be preserved using chemical agents such as 5 – 10%
formalin solutions.
The cyst may also be maintained, for a definite period of
time, in the laboratory or longer in refrigerator temperature.
There are times that the motility of the organism in the living state
is quite helpful in the identification of the parasite because there
are parasites whose motility is quite characteristic
The most widely used preservative for trophozoites is
POLYVINYL ALCOHOL (PVA).
A long time ago, MERTHIOLATE-FORMALDEHYDE solution
was being used to preserve trophozoite forms but because
of the harmful effects of some of its ingredients its use was
halted.
Stool sample preserved with PVA, whether it contains cyst or
trophozoite, may be kept for quite a long time. They may also be
smeared later and stained permanent stains and be kept as
permanent record or for teaching purposes, or even in research.
However, about 5 years or a little more, the quality of stain color
tends to be lesser and lesser through passage of time.
Structures and Organelles (Protozoa)
1. NUCLEUS
Has the chromosomes which is essential for:
o Life
o Reproduction
o Transmission of the composition of the organism
Inside the nucleus, an aggregate mass of granules is
present and referred to as the karyosome (also called
endosome or nucleolus). SI KEN yung boypren ni Barbie.
The nucleus may either be:
o Vesicular
o Compact
Vesicular Nucleus
Has the karyosome suspended in a large amount of
nucleoplasm
May be provided with chromatin particles arranged on
an achromatic network or the chromatin granules may line
the inner part of the nuclear membrane.
o Entamoeba histolytica
o Entamoeba coli
o Endolimax nana
Compact Nucleus
Has a very large granular chromatin filled karyosome
and a very scanty nucleoplasm. Vesicular nucleus
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Not have space anymore between the nuclear It is more likely that these inclusion bodies are observed in
membrane and the karyosome. the cyst form of the parasite.
o Balantidium coli

2. CYTOPLASM 7. CYTOSTOME AND CYTOPYGE

Is the interior of the cell where the different organelles are Some species of protozoa have a specialized:
found. o cell mouth called CYTOSTOME
The cytoplasm has, more or less, two distinct portions, o cell anus termed CYTOPYGE
namely: Pag ilalabas mo sa mouth sasabihin nung partner mo
o Endoplasm give it to me – CYTOSTOME
o Ectoplasm Pag ipapasok mo sa anus sasabihin ng baby mo wag!
Pipigilan ka nya – CYTOPYGE
Endoplasm BTW: Sabi ni doc mas madami daw hair structures sa
Dense granular part/Less homogenous bibig 
Surrounding the nucleus Ciliates commonly have these structures and are mostly
Synthesis of food occurs and is stored as chromatoidal found in the trophozoite form.
bodies found in cyst form
Located here are the: 8. LOCOMOTION ORGANELLES
o Stored food May be classified as:
o Mitochondria o Pseudopodia
o Golgi apparatus o Flagella
o Microsomes o Cilia
o Endoplasmic reticulum
Pseudopodia
In some species, like the amoeba, the plasma
Ectoplasm
membrane has no constant shape. Its form changes by
Less granular and more homogenous part
means of extension and retraction of temporary, finger-like
Envelopes the endoplasm
structures called pseudopodia.
Functions
Its active protrusion & retraction enables the amoeba
o Locomotion
trophozoite to move from one place to another.
o Procurement of food May aid the organism to obtain particles of food from
o Respiration the environment.
o Excretion
o Protection of the organism Flagella
Member species of Zoomastigophora, mostly in the
3. PLASMA MEMBRANE trophic forms, possess hair-like projections of the cytoplasm
Is the semi-permeable, limiting boundary of the called flagella.
trophozoite stage. Arise from kinetoplast (consisting of parabasal bodies
Functions: and blepharoplast) within the cytoplasm
o Controls: Constant whipping movement enables the parasite
Intake and output of nutrients move.
secretion and excretion A small portion of the flagellum, within the cell wall, that
o Maintains the normal concentration of the plasma is connected to the kinetoplast is called “axoneme”.
substance.
Cilia
4. CYST WALL In Ciliophora, there are numerous short, threadlike
Relatively tough membrane secreted by the ectoplasm structures called cilia.
Envelopes and protects the cyst form. Arise from the “basal granules” within the ectoplasm
Are distributed throughout the entire body surface of the
5. CONTRACTILE VACUOLES parasite.
Are pulsating vacuoles of various sizes
Seen in the endoplasm of some organisms like Encystation and Excystation
Balantidium coli.
Act as “osmoregulators” Protozoa parasites transform from trophozoite to cyst, and vice
versa, during their existence.
6. FOOD INCLUSION BODIES
Are structures present in the endoplasm of some ENCYSTATION
protozoa, which serve as foods to the parasite. Is the formation of cyst from trophozoite form.
Synthesis of foods takes place in the endoplasm and may This process occurs when the organism is subjected to
be stored in the form of: conditions, which are unsuitable for continued existence in
o Chromatoidal bodies consist of proteins the trophic forms. Conditions believed to favor encystations
o Glycogen mass composed of CHO include:

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1. Deficiency or overabundance of foods in the

environment,
2. Accumulation of excessive waste products of
metabolism produced by the parasite or other
associated organisms such as bacteria around
3. Significant changes in the pH of the surrounding
medium,
4. Loss of water or desiccation of the medium,
5. Diminished or too much supply of the oxygen, and
6. Overpopulation

In most situations, encystations will involve two or more of

these factors.
In the process, the ectoplasm secretes a thick cyst wall,
which will enable the organism to be more resistant to the
adverse changes in the environment that the trophozoite
may be unable to adapt to.
two types of encystations, namely
o protective
o reproductive

Protective Encystation
Parasite undergoes encystation without significant
changes in the morphology
Aimed to protect the organism
happens, for example, when the parasite is about to be
excreted and transferred into a new host
Example: Balantidium coli

Reproductive Encystations
Is characterized with multiplication of the nucleus in the
cyst form thus resulting to numerous daughter organisms
when the parasite later transforms into the trophozoite form.
Organisms include:
o Entamoeba histolytica
o Entamoeba coli
o Giardia lamblia, etc.

EXCYSTATION
Cyst stage of parasite undergoes excystation to produce
trophozoites. The process is, probably, favored by the
following factors:

1. Osmotic changes in the surrounding medium

2. Enzymatic action of the enclosed organism on the inner surface
of the cyst wall
3. Favorable pH of the environment
4. Enzymatic action of the tissues to the parasite

The last two items are affecting most of the protozoa,

which are parasitic to man (e.g. the amoeba).

It is noteworthy that the two processes do not necessarily happen

outside of the outside of the body of the host that supports the
existence of the parasite.

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