Abstract

With the advent of digital devices and smartphones, in particular, technology has become more
absorbed in the daily lives of individuals. While the advantages of digital devices are
unparalleled, constant use of cell phones leads to loss of productivity and affects cognitive ability
as it takes over the basic functions of the mind. This phenomena is called “The Extended Mind”
theory and it states that the cognitive processes conducted by the human brain extends beyond
the physical constraints of the human skill and are influenced by the individual’s physical and
socio cultural environment (Clark and Chalmers). 

This research paper hypothesizes on how increased usage of smartphones impacts the social
interactions of B-School students and whether the extended mind theory has merit when it comes
to B-school students. 

For the purpose of the research, responses from 121 students studying in various MBA colleges
across the country have been evaluated. Moreover, the validity and reliability of the Extended
Mind Questionnaire (XMQ) which purports to measure the degree to which digital technology is
used to offload cognitive and social functions has been tested in the course of the research. The
questionnaire was built on the work by Clark and Chalmers and purports to measure the degree
of reliability, accessibility and trust on digital devices which are factors considered to measure
the extended mind.

In sum, the research findings conclusively support some hypothesis and this paper aims to
establish the nature of those relationships.

Introduction

For better or worse, electronic gadgets like smartphones and tablets have become deeply
entrenched in our lives today. Benefits associated with smartphones are undeniable – there is
proven evidence of them increasing work productivity for students (Kalkbrenner & McCampbell,
2011) [1]. As users depend heavily on smartphones and its various applications in daily lives, it
becomes a companion that gives users a perception of greater control in life (Kang & Jung,
2014) [2]. At the core of this discussion, lies the hard truth- digital devices are so thoroughly
ingrained in our lives, that they have started taking over basic human functions.

Due to the fact that digital devices, and in extension, the internet provides us with infinite access
to information and simplify daily tasks, it is hypothesized that they have become a form of our
external memory, and thereby replacing the brain in this task. For example, if people have access
to information for future use, they would have reduced rates of recall of the exact information,
but higher rates of recall as to where the information can be accessed.
Thus, a person can either recall his/her memory for information or can depend on other external
sources such as smartphones, computers, and the internet. Therefore, the time spent on digital
devices affects how individuals store, retain, and process information and in turn, their cognitive
and social functions in society. Hence, digital devices aren’t only seen as technological devices,
but as a part of ‘me’.
One of the raging debates today has been how smartphones have become almost indispensable
and they have started over taking basic human functions. There is a theory called Embodied
Cognition Theory, the idea that the mind is not only connected to the body and cognition is not
just confined to cortices (Garbarini & Adenzato, 2004) [3]. Our cognition is determined (and
perhaps influenced) by our experiences in the physical world and the way we interact with our
surroundings [4]. An extension of Embodied Cognition Theory – The Extended Mind Theory
(Thompson & Stapleton, 2009) further elaborates the environment’s role as an extension of our
mind. In its essence, the Extended Mind Theory states that the cognitive processes conducted by
the human brain extends beyond the physical constraints of the human skill and are influenced
by the individual’s physical and socio-cultural environment. External cognition is formed when
technology and other external resources get so ingrained in our daily lives that we couldn’t
process our cognitive and social functions without them. Clark and Chalmers, further. in their
research paper proposed that the human mind can be seen as an extended cognitive system in
which the objects present in the person’s immediate environment can play a vital role in driving
their cognitive actions and behaviour.

With the functionality that smartphones have been providing they can similarly be viewed as an
extension of the human brain. The assumption is that because of a smartphone’s functionality
they are not only taking over from reliance on one’s brain but also family, friends, peers and
colleagues as well.

Many students, particularly those who are at the cusp of employment and are preparing for the
future of work, in this technology driven global economy, are the ones who will face the impact
of digital devices and the internet in both their professional and personal lives. People growing
up in such an environment can be thought of as “digital natives”. “Digital Natives” represent that
generation which is fluent with multitasking, uses visuals and graphics for communication, and
seeks instant gratification. Age is not a sufficient condition to be classified as a digital native, an
additional factor to be considered is the exposure to technology in daily activities.

The combination of these factors is particularly prevalent in college students. Therefore, for the
purpose of this research study, we chose individuals currently studying in B-Schools across the
country as they interact with technology on a day-to-day basis. Our study focuses on if
smartphones in any way are becoming a part of the extended identity of the student, in this case,
a B-School student by becoming the most dependent and reliable partner of the and establishing
trust with them over time. Moreover, through the course of this research we also study the impact
that time spent on digital devices has on the social interaction with peers among the B-School
students.

Research Problem

Through this study we aim to find out if smartphones in the context of B School students have
reduced dependency not only on one’s own cognition and brain, but so much so that it has
limited interaction with peers and dependency on them at a B School.

Literature/Theoretical Review
Embodied cognition theory takes its hold from the fact that cognitive processes are deeply rooted
in the body’s interaction with the world (Wilson, 2002). The features of this cognition primarily
depict performance of various tasks and the mental constructs and how physical environment
plays an important role in it. We are often able to perform cognitive tasks, such as remembering,
more effectively by using our bodies and even parts of our surrounding environments to off-load
storage and simplify the nature of the cognitive processing (Donald, 1991)

The embodied cognition theory was first explored in the context of ‘Extended Mind’ by Andy
Clark and David Chalmers in their paper ‘The extended mind’, (1998) where they tried to
explore where exactly the mind ended and the environment began. The idea of socially extended
mind postulates that technologies and media around us have profound effect on our thinking and
cognition and therefore it becomes imperative to ask what such means and mechanisms do to us
agents and subject of cognition (Gallagher, 2012)

Digital devices have now become a part of environment and have started to take over basic
functions of the human mind. (Nijssen SRR, Schaap G, Verheijen GP, 2018). In this context,
smartphone appears to be a device that can fundamentally change psychology and our reliance
on smartphones can be considered as a new kind of thinking as our collective psychology may
change alongside the technological advances (Barr, Pennycock, Stolz & Fuglesang, 2015). To
narrow it even further, internet which is an integral component of smartphone also acts an
extension of the mind (Sparrow, Liu & Wegner, 2011). Most of the students in a Business school
own a smartphone or an equally capable electronic device because of the informational value and
communicational features of smartphone (Rahim, Safin, Kheng, Abas & Ali, 2016). More
research has narrowed down ‘real time communication’, ‘internet search’ and ‘telephone’ as the
most frequent usage of smartphone (Nam, 2013). While the benefits associated with owning
smartphone are well established and indisputable there is also risk of smartphone addiction
which typically occurs when an individual on an average when people spend a highly skewed
usage pattern with respect to a few frequently used applications (Lee, Ko, Kim, Ying, Yatani,
Gweon, Chung & Song, 2014). In the work place context, smartphone and internet addiction has
already been associated with self-reported negative effects on productivity, both in work place
and in individual’s daily lives (Duke & Montag, 2017). With smartphone emerging as a forefront
communication and social tool, the way we interact with people in real life socially has also
undergone a change and the overall effect of smartphone on nature of relationships ambiguous
(Deyi, 2012).

H1: Accessibility positively affects time spent on smartphone.

While the time spent on dependent on smartphones is dependent on many factors, one of our
hypothesis is that ease of access to our smartphones is positively related to time spent on
smartphone that is greater the ease of accessibility, the greater is the time spent on smartphone.
While the benefits of smartphone as a portable and handy device that can be carried easily cannot
be overstated that, researchers and people at large like us alike have been wondering if this
accessibility and the fact that almost all of us carry smartphone with us almost always as an
extension of ourselves is what has been contributing to this increased time spent on smartphone
and maybe later take the form of addiction (Smart phone accessibility and mHealth use in a
limited resource setting, Garner & Sudia, 2017). In the B school context, it can be argued that
electronic gadgets are indispensable given that serves as an excellent tool for rapid
communication and flow of information (Sleeping with your smartphone: How to Break the 24/7
habit and change the way you work, Perlow, 2012). Therefore, we wish to measure here if this
accessibility of smartphone and tablets in the B School hamper the way we interact with peers
there and if yes to what extent.

H2: Dependence on smartphone is positively related to time spent on smartphones

We have discussed about the External Mind Theory earlier in the paper which essentially states
that our objects and tools within the environment functions as a part of the mind and reach of the
mind does not end at the boundaries of skin and skull. Extending this theory to smartphone, it is
widely now believed that we are overly reliant on smartphones for variety of uses like reviews,
directions, opinions etc, all of which were earlier achieved by human to human and peer to peer
interaction (Investigating the adoption and use of smartphones in the UK: a silver surfers
perspective, Jyoti, Sutee, Efpraxia & George, 2014). Studies state that when people consciously
use smartphones, they have different levels of dependency and have a specific or goal they seek
to achieve by using smartphone and researchers believe that this is generally not so problematic,
issue is when people use smartphone unconsciously, so much so that they start spending an
inordinate amount on smartphone unconsciously. It further states that young students who
depend on smartphone usage for social functions and needs display higher propensity to spend
time on smartphone and may have lesser human to human interaction on an average. (Sociable
people beware: Investigating smartphone vs non-smartphone dependency symptoms amongst
young Singaporeans, Lin, Chiang & Jiang, 2014). Inordinate time spent on smartphone and
depending on these gadgets instead of peers at B school is problematic and, in this context, we
wish to examine how this dependence on smartphones at different levels manifests itself as far as
level and degree of peer interaction is concerned.

H3: Trust on information on the internet positively affects time spent on smartphone.

While smartphones in itself have variety of uses, its perceived utility and importance is all the
more compounded with the advent of the internet. Internet serves as a ready reference and
database to almost anything under the sun and people from all walks of life now turn to internet
to get their doubts resolved. But at a time, social reliance on information available online is
increasing, we also need to consider whether the information is considered reliable by everyone.
(Making sense of credibility on the web: Models for evaluating online information and
recommendations for future research, Metzger, 2007). In a B-School context there is always a
chance that if there is reliable information online with a credible source, it might limit peer to
peer interaction directly or indirectly (in common places like library) and people may use their
smartphones to access information there directly. Of course, again it can be dependent on an
individual’s propensity and tendency to trust an information online and interaction cost
associated with any information online. Individuals will always choose that platform for their
information that “optimizes the utility of information gained as a function of interaction cost”
(Rational analyses of information foraging on the web, Pirolli, 2005). Although the information
may have drastically reduced cost and efforts associated with finding information online, there is
still significant cost that has to be incurred in terms of time and analysing its credibility and
utility given the amount of information available online. So, time spent on smartphone could be
very much dependent on trust and comfort level an individual has with information online.

H4: Trust on information online and smartphone is not significantly different across
genders

In this hypothesis we aim to examine if smartphone and internet usage behaviour and
consequently trust on information online is different across genders and if a gender perceives
online information any different from the other gender. While it is was widely believed that in
the nascent stage men were the early adopters of the internet, recent trends and data have
suggested that both men and women have now equally embraced the medium (Internet consumer
behaviour: Major moderating variables, Richard & Laroche, 2010s). While many research papers
have delved into gender differences in online browsing specifically in the context of advertising
patterns and privacy concerns, here we seek to establish if and how the gender influences the
web navigation behaviour and information seeking behaviour online and if their response to
information online in terms of trustworthiness is same as the other gender. As internet is
becoming a very useful source of information due to its ease of use, wide access and wealth of
information, there is significant steps a user must have to take to establish the credibility and
consistency like searching, browsing, finding, selecting, comparing and evaluating information
(A proposed model of online consumer behaviour: Assessing the role of gender, Richard,
Chebat, Yang & Putrevy, 2012). In the B-school context we seek to examine if any disparity in
trust on information online is moderated by gender.

H5: Time spent on smartphones has negative effect on time spent with peers.

As smartphones have become ubiquitous online learning has proliferated. There are content sites
and platform that can be accessed to enhance an individual’s skillsets. Massive Open Online
Courses or more commonly known as MOOC have become the buzzwords in today’s day and
age. And with smartphones it is not just about knowledge and skill set enhancing, with instant
messaging and calling features they are also easily the best medium for communication. Also the
potential entertainment value that a smartphone cannot be overlooked be it in the form of games,
music or online surfing. So suffice to say that smartphone comes with its own set of utilities as
well as distractions and it is expected that a B School student will be more technologically savvy
than the general population (Compulsive use of smartphone and its effect on engaged learning
and nomophobia, Jena, 2015). While using smartphone in itself may not be that much of an
issue, research papers have deliberated if it has any significant impact on perceived learning.
With its ease of access and general propensity to access smartphone, specifically among students
have been well established (The truth about smartphone addiction, Emanuel, Bell, Cotton, Craig,
Drummond, Gibson, Harris, Jones, Walters & Wilson, 2015), we seek to establish here if
smartphones have indeed pervaded to such a level that they have limited or in the worst case
replaced human interaction. This is all the more important in B School context because peer to
peer learning is considered a massive part of learning curve at B School. It is massively
important in B Schools because in a management institute we typically have a very diverse and
wide range of students which is perhaps unique to a B-School. People from different fields like
commerce, medicine, engineering, architecture, history so on and so forth and with diverse
experience starting from entrepreneurship to a nuclear physicist, all are united under a common
program at a b-school. This means that there is a whole lot to learn from unique experiences of
peers around us and this peer to peer learning is what draws some of the top talents to a
management institute. In such a case, we wish to examine that does presence and usage of
smartphone in any way hampers or replaces this interaction or in other words does it become a
substitute to peer to peer interaction at a B-school by effectively reducing the time a student
spends with its peers.

Figurative Research Model

Research design

The extended mind questionnaire (XMQ) (Nijssen SRR, Schaap G, Verheijen GP, 2018) which
was developed following the roadmap for scale construction proposed by Churchill and Gerbing
& Anderson, is being used to measure the following variables. 

Independent Accessibility, Trust, Dependence

Variables
Dependent variable Time spent with peers
Mediating variable Time spent on smartphone
Moderating variable Gender

From the work of Clark and Chalmers (Clark A, Chalmers D, 1998) and Wegner and colleagues
the derived criteria to be considered part of the extended mind. First, the object should be a
constant in a person's life, and he or she would not take action without consulting the device
(‘dependence’). Second, the object needs to be easily accessible in use (`accessibility'). Third,
information from the object should be endorsed automatically (`trust'). (Nijssen SRR, Schaap G,
Verheijen GP, 2018). In depth explanation of these three criteria of the objects which are part of
the extended mind can be found in Clark and Chalmers (p. 17 in Clark A, Chalmers D, 1998).

Administration of Questionnaire

The extended mind Questionnaire (attached in appendix) purports to measure the degree by
which technology can be used to substitute social and cognitive functions. As per the research
conducted by Nijssen, Schaap, Verheijen, the validity of the Extended Mind Questionnaire
(XMQ) was established. Building on the work of Clark and Chalmers, XMQ seeks to measure
the degree of reliance, accessibility and endorsement. In the development of the questionnaire, a
28-item scale was adopted by following the guide to scale construction proposed by Churchill,
Gerbing & Anderson.

The original questionnaire was in Dutch which was converted to English for the ease of
understanding of the sample population. The questionnaire covers 11 items for testing “reliance”
criterion, 9 items for “accessibility” criterion, and 5 items to test for the “endorsement” criterion.

The questionnaire was administered digitally through a google form where participants were
instructed to choose the extent to which the statement described their behaviour towards
technology on a scale of 1 (Does not describe me at all) to 5 (Describes me very well).

The questionnaire was sent to students currently studying in Indian B-Schools across the country
in the form of a google form. The questionnaire was kept intact, and additional information
regarding the Age and Gender of the respondents was gathered.

Responses from 127 participants were collected through the course of the study. Collecting the
responses through an online mode enabled us to reach a multiple number of B-School students
and overcome geographical constraints. Moreover, since the responses were gathered digitally,
errors of omission were reduced. The complete filling up the questionnaire took around 5-7
minutes of the participants time.

Data Analysis
H1: On performing factor analysis, one item of Accessibility got removed and the rest can now
be grouped under as Accessibility to devices (N=4, Chronbach Alpha = 0.762), Accessibility to
internet (N=2, Chronbach Alpha = 0.753) and Non Accessibility, irrelevant to our analysis here.

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling .738

Adequacy.
Bartlett's Test of Approx. Chi-Square 256.
Sphericity 891
df 28
Sig. .000

Item Retention Table

Variable name Items
 Accessibility to devices A8, A9, A6, A5
Accessibility to internet A2, A3
Non-Accessibility A1, A7

There is a low positive correlation between Accessibility to devices and Time spent on
smartphone. (Pearson’s coefficient = 0.249). After performing regression this relation is found to
be significant as well. (Sig = 0.006)
Predictor Beta (ß) T-Value Significance
AD_T Acc to device 0.249 2.803 0.006
Overall F Value = 7.859        R = 0.249 R square =0.062              Adjusted R
Square = 0.054
Constant=0.387

There is a very low positive correlation between Accessibility to internet and Time spent on
smartphone. (Pearson’s coefficient = 0.036). Regression analysis gives a similar result as the
relation is not very significant. (Sig = 0.693)
Predictor Beta (ß) T-Value Significance
AI_T Acc to internet 0.036 0.395 0.693
Overall F Value = 0.156        R = 0.036 R square =0.001              Adjusted R
Square = -0.007
Constant=3.910

H2: On performing factor analysis, no item of Dependence got removed and items can now be
grouped under as Dependence on devices (N=5, Chronbach Alpha = 0.853), Dependence for
relationship (N=2, Chronbach Alpha = 0.813), Dependence for remembering (N=2, Chronbach
Alpha = 0.673) and Non Dependence, irrelevant to our analysis here.

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling .762

Adequacy.
Bartlett's Test of Approx. Chi-Square 521.
Sphericity 622
df 55
Sig. .000

Item Retention Table

Variable name Items
Dependence on devices D1, D2, D6, D11, D10
Dependence for relationship D4, D5
Dependence for remembering D7, D8
Non-Dependence D3, D9

There is a low positive correlation between Dependence on devices and Time spent on
smartphone. (Pearson’s coefficient = 0.228). After performing regression this relation is found to
be significant as well. (Sig = 0.012)
Predictor Beta (ß) T-Value Significance
DD_T Dependence to device 0.228 2.560 0.012
 Overall F Value = 6.553        R = 0.228 R square =0.052              Adjusted R
Square = 0.044
Constant=1.085

There is a low positive correlation between Dependence for relationships and Time spent on
smartphone. (Pearson’s coefficient = 0.228). Post performing regression this relation is found to
be significant as well. (Sig = 0.010)
Predictor Beta (ß) T-Value Significance
DRl_T Dependence for relationship 0.234 2.624 0.010
Overall F Value = 6.887        R = 0.234 R square =0.055              Adjusted R
Square = 0.047
Constant=2.638

There is a fairly low positive correlation between Dependence for relationships and Time spent
on smartphone. (Pearson’s coefficient = 0.201). Performing regression shows this relation to be
significant as well. (Sig = 0.027)
Predictor Beta (ß) T-Value Significance
DR_T Dependence for remembering 0.201 2.240 0.027
Overall F Value = 5.016        R = 0.201 R square =0.040              Adjusted R
Square = 0.032
Constant=2.425

H3: On performing factor analysis, 1 items of Trust got removed and items can now be grouped
under as Total Trust (N=2, Chronbach Alpha = 0.556) and No trust, irrelevant here.
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling .423
Adequacy.
Bartlett's Test of Approx. Chi-Square 29.7
Sphericity 41
df 6
Sig. .000

Variable name Items

Total trust T3, T5
No Trust T2, T4

There is a very low positive correlation between Trust and Time spent on smartphone. (Pearson’s
coefficient = 0.201). Performing regression shows this relation to be not very significant (Sig =
0.070)
Predictor Beta (ß) T-Value Significance
T_T Total Trust 0.165 1.826 0.070
Overall F Value = 3.333        R = 0.165 R square =0.027              Adjusted R
Square = 0.019
Constant=3.176
H4: On performing factor analysis, 1 items of Trust got removed and items can now be grouped
under as Total Trust (N=2, Chronbach Alpha = 0.556). One Way ANOVA is performed using
gender as a control variable (Male = 1, Female = 2). Tukey’s test cannot be performed in this
case as the number of groups is less than 2.
N Mean Std. Deviation

1 72 4.5417 1.86847
2 49 4.6939 1.69809
Total 121 4.6033 1.79573

Sum of df Mean F Sig.

Squares Square
Between .676 1 .676 .208 .649
Groups
Within 386.283 119 3.246
Groups
Total 386.959 120

Between Groups/Total = 0.676/386.959 = 0.17%

Hence, we can say that there is no significant difference in trust levels in different genders.

H5: On conduction a correlation analysis we see that time spent on smartphone and time spent
with peers are actually negatively correlated (Pearson’s Coefficient = -0.002). This is supported
by regression analysis which shows that this relation is not very significant.

Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig.

Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
1 (Constant) 7.159 1.216 5.88 .000
8
SP_T How much -.004 .207 -.002 -.020
.984
time do you spend on
your smartphone in a
day (in hours)?
a. Dependent Variable: PEER_T How much time do you spend with your peers in a day (in
hours)?

Mediation Effect
Time spent
on smart
phone (M)

Time spent
Dependenc
with peers
e (X)
(Y)
Mediation analysis is performed to see if time spent on smart phone acts as a mediator between
dependence and time spent with peers. Relations of trust and accessibility with time spent with
peers were not significant hence are not being tested.
Regressing Y on X: β = -.175 (Sig = 0.05)
Regressing M on X: β = 0.223 (Sig = 0.014)
Regressing Y on M, X: β (X) = -.182 (Sig = 0.052), β (M) = 0.039 (Sig = 0.676)
Since on addition of M does not decrease the beta value of X also we see that M is not
significant, we cannot conclude that Time spent on smartphone is mediating the effect of
dependence on Time spent with peers.

Results and Implications

The data analysis results show positive correlations between accessibility, dependence and trust
to the time spent on smartphones. However, even though there is a negative effect of time spent
on smartphones to time spend with peers, it is not as strong as intended owing to the fact that
most B schools spend extended periods of time with their peers as a part of their curriculum,
which cannot be attributed to their choice.

Limitations and direction for future study

While an attempt has been made to ensure that the research is free from errors and biases, the
empirical results reported herein should be considered in the light of certain limitations. While
the questionnaire was rigorously validated and administered, the results are limited by the sample
size of the study. The questionnaire had a total of 127 respondents, while the number of B-
School students graduating each year exceeds 3,60,000. Hence, a study of 127 students might not
be representative of the entire population.

Additionally, since this research only studies B-School students, it becomes limiting to apply
these research findings to a larger population which is bound to comprise people with varied
profiles.

As the study is rooted in qualitative research, ambiguities and biases can be recognized in the
study. Since, the questionnaire was self-evaluative, there is a tendency of self-serving bias to
have influenced the responses of the individual. As the responses were to be given on a scale, the
respondents may have had a higher tendency to rate themselves well on favorable qualities.
Moreover, the rating scale is highly subjective and each rating might have a different magnitude
for a different person.
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3. The Extended Mind

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4. The Extended Mind Thesis

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2015, Emmaneul

6. Mobile Ubiquity: Understanding the relationship between cognitive absorption,

smartphone addiction, and social network services
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