TEACHING STRATEGIES

Institutions of higher learning across the nation are responding to political, economic, social and technological pressures to be
more responsive to students' needs and more concerned about how well students are prepared to assume future societal roles.
Faculty are already feeling the pressure to lecture less, to make learning environments more interactive, to integrate technology
into the learning experience, and to use collaborative learning strategies when appropriate.

Some of the more prominent strategies are outlined below. For more information about the use of these and other pedagogical
approaches, contact the Program in Support of Teaching and Learning.

Lecture. For many years, the lecture method was the most widely used instructional strategy in college classrooms. Nearly 80%
of all U.S. college classrooms in the late 1970s reported using some form of the lecture method to teach students (Cashin, 1990).
Although the usefulness of other teaching strategies is being widely examined today, the lecture still remains an important way to
communicate information.

Used in conjunction with active learning teaching strategies, the traditional lecture can be an effective way to achieve
instructional goals. The advantages of the lecture approach are that it provides a way to communicate a large amount of
information to many listeners, maximizes instructor control and is non-threatening to students. The disadvantages are that
lecturing minimizes feedback from students, assumes an unrealistic level of student understanding and comprehension, and often
disengages students from the learning process causing information to be quickly forgotten.

The following recommendations can help make the lecture approach more effective (Cashin, 1990):

1. Fit the lecture to the audience

2. Focus your topic - remember you cannot cover everything in one lecture
3. Prepare an outline that includes 5-9 major points you want to cover in one lecture
4. Organize your points for clarity
5. Select appropriate examples or illustrations
6. Present more than one side of an issue and be sensitive to other perspectives
7. Repeat points when necessary
8. Be aware of your audience - notice their feedback
9. Be enthusiastic - you don’t have to be an entertainer but you should be excited by your topic.
(from Cashin, 1990, pp. 60-61)

Case Method. Providing an opportunity for students to apply what they learn in the classroom to real-life experiences
has proven to be an effective way of both disseminating and integrating knowledge. The case method is an instructional
strategy that engages students in active discussion about issues and problems inherent in practical application. It can
highlight fundamental dilemmas or critical issues and provide a format for role playing ambiguous or controversial
scenarios.

Course content cases can come from a variety of sources. Many faculty have transformed current events or problems
reported through print or broadcast media into critical learning experiences that illuminate the complexity of finding
solutions to critical social problems. The case study approach works well in cooperative learning or role playing
environments to stimulate critical thinking and awareness of multiple perspectives.

Discussion. There are a variety of ways to stimulate discussion. For example, some faculty begin a lesson with a whole
group discussion to refresh students’ memories about the assigned reading(s). Other faculty find it helpful to have
students list critical points or emerging issues, or generate a set of questions stemming from the assigned reading(s).
These strategies can also be used to help focus large and small group discussions.

Obviously, a successful class discussion involves planning on the part of the instructor and preparation on the part of
the students. Instructors should communicate this commitment to the students on the first day of class by clearly
articulating course expectations. Just as the instructor carefully plans the learning experience, the students must
comprehend the assigned reading and show up for class on time, ready to learn.

Active Learning. Meyers and Jones (1993) define active learning as learning environments that allow “students to talk
and listen, read, write, and reflect as they approach course content through problem-solving exercises, informal small
groups, simulations, case studies, role playing, and other activities -- all of which require students to apply what they
are learning” (p. xi). Many studies show that learning is enhanced when students become actively involved in the
learning process. Instructional strategies that engage students in the learning process stimulate critical thinking and a
greater awareness of other perspectives. Although there are times when lecturing is the most appropriate method for
disseminating information, current thinking in college teaching and learning suggests that the use of a variety of
instructional strategies can positively enhance student learning. Obviously, teaching strategies should be carefully
matched to the teaching objectives of a particular lesson. For more information about teaching strategies, see the list of
college teaching references in Appendix N.

Assessing or grading students' contributions in active learning environments is somewhat problematic. It is extremely
important that the course syllabus explicitly outlines the evaluation criteria for each assignment whether individual or
group. Students need and want to know what is expected of them. For more information about grading, see the
Evaluating Student Work section contained in this Guide.

Cooperative Learning. Cooperative Learning is a systematic pedagogical strategy that encourages small groups of
students to work together for the achievement of a common goal. The term 'Collaborative Learning' is often used as a
synonym for cooperative learning when, in fact, it is a separate strategy that encompasses a broader range of group
interactions such as developing learning communities, stimulating student/faculty discussions, and encouraging
electronic exchanges (Bruffee, 1993). Both approaches stress the importance of faculty and student involvement in the
learning process.

When integrating cooperative or collaborative learning strategies into a course, careful planning and preparation are
essential. Understanding how to form groups, ensure positive interdependence, maintain individual accountability,
resolve group conflict, develop appropriate assignments and grading criteria, and manage active learning environments
are critical to the achievement of a successful cooperative learning experience. Before you begin, you may want to
consult several helpful resources which are contained in Appendix N. In addition, the Program in Support of Teaching
and Learning can provide faculty with supplementary information and helpful techniques for using cooperative learning
or collaborative learning in college classrooms.

Integrating Technology. Today, educators realize that computer literacy is an important part of a student's education.
Integrating technology into a course curriculum when appropriate is proving to be valuable for enhancing and
extending the learning experience for faculty and students. Many faculty have found electronic mail to be a useful way
to promote student/student or faculty/student communication between class meetings. Others use listserves or on-line
notes to extend topic discussions and explore critical issues with students and colleagues, or discipline- specific
software to increase student understanding of difficult concepts.

Currently, our students come to us with varying degrees of computer literacy. Faculty who use technology regularly
often find it necessary to provide some basic skill level instruction during the first week of class. In the future, we
expect that need to decline. For help in integrating technology into a course curriculum contact the Program in Support
of Teaching and Learning or the Instructional Development Office (IDO) at 703-993-3141. In addition, watch for
information throughout the year about workshops and faculty conversations on the integration of technology, teaching
and learning.

Distance Learning. Distance learning is not a new concept. We have all experienced learning outside of a structured
classroom setting through television, correspondence courses, etc. Distance learning or distance education as a teaching
pedagogy, however, is an important topic of discussion on college campuses today. Distance learning is defined as 'any
form of teaching and learning in which the teacher and learner are not in the same place at the same time' (Gilbert,
1995).

Obviously, information technology has broadened our concept of the learning environment. It has made it possible for
learning experiences to be extended beyond the confines of the traditional classroom. Distance learning technologies
take many forms such as computer simulations, interactive collaboration/discussion, and the creation of virtual learning
environments connecting regions or nations. Components of distance learning such as email, listserves, and interactive
software have also been useful additions to the educational setting.

For more information about distance learning contact the Instructional Development Office at 703-993-3141 (Fairfax
Campus) and watch for workshops and faculty discussions on the topic throughout the year.
 5 Strategies to Ensure Student Learning

The goal of the program is to give students the opportunity to master essential skills and knowledge before they move on to the
next level. Here’s the approach:

1. Each week has defined curricular objectives.

2. Teachers assess students on those objectives at the end of the week.
3. Based on assessment results, teachers assign students to either reteach or enrich sessions for the following week.
4. Beginning the following Monday, students attend either a 30-minute reteach or enrich session every day.
 Reteach: Teachers reteach objectives using different lessons for students who need additional time for
mastery. The teacher whose students performed best on the previous week’s assessment teaches that week’s reteach
students. Students stay with that teacher for the daily half-hour sessions the whole week to minimize transition.
 Enrich: Teachers expand on objectives for students who have mastered the basics. Students in the enrich class
rotate to a different teacher each day so they can experience varying teaching styles as well as learn with different
peers.
Reteach and Enrich (R&E) is highly replicable; every school in the Vail School District has implemented the program, and it
continues to lead to improved student performance. However, there are some essential elements that are key to making it work.

1. A Common Curriculum Calendar

R&E depends on a shared set of clearly defined curricular objectives that are scheduled out for the entire year. This means that
for any given week within each grade, all the teachers are teaching the same objectives. However, they are not necessarily
teaching the same way; the instructional approach is left up to each individual teacher. The calendar keeps them on track by
setting the pace so that teachers know that by year’s end they will have taught -- and students will have learned -- all the essential
standards. Says Vail superintendent Calvin Baker, “When we hold students accountable for very specific standards, and we
expect all of them to know that standard, then we hold ourselves accountable for getting that job done.”

2. Dedicated Time

Everyday at Mesquite, from 12:30 p.m. to 1 p.m., the whole school is involved in R&E. In addition to this daily half hour, R&E
requires time for teachers to review and assess student data as well as plan instruction to meet each child’s needs, both generally
and within the program. At Mesquite, each grade has dedicated common planning time for teachers while their students are in
“specials” (e.g., P.E., computer lab, library time, and so on).

To fit all that in, time management is also of the essence, right down to classroom transition time. For R&E, all the students
transfer from their regular classroom to their assigned reteach or enrich room in under a minute, thanks in part to the convenient
setup of their classrooms around a common area (see video below).

3. Collaboration

Collaboration is a key part of Mesquite’s culture and is essential to R&E. Students rotate to different teachers during R&E, so
every teacher must know every student in his or her grade level. Teachers share information about their students’ progress so that
all the teachers in a grade level share ownership of every child’s education. They plan together and share resources and lesson
plans that have been successful, and they seek insight from one another on lesson plans that were less effective.
4. Formative Assessments and Data Analysis

Early on, the teachers at Mesquite created their own weekly assessments; now there is a team of teachers at the district level that
writes them. The assessments are short -- usually just five questions on one objective -- but they provide consistent insight into
students’ progress so that teachers can address any needs promptly. Diane Samorano, Mesquite’s student achievement teacher,
tracks the assessment data and the data from schoolwide screenings and quarterly benchmarks. She meets with the teachers every
two weeks to review the latest results, to identify students who are struggling, and to help teachers plan instruction accordingly.

5. Involved and Informed Leadership

In order to address a variety of student needs, teachers must have access to resources, and principals must know what’s going on
in the classroom. Katie Dabney, principal at Mesquite, routinely visits classes, converses with students, and attends every data
meeting for all grades. “As instructional leader, I have to stay on top of the data and be actively involved in searching for students
who are at risk or need an extra challenge.”

Option A: Curriculum Brainstorm

Initial List

Listed below are possible ways I could use critical and creative thinking, motivational techniques and cooperative learning in in
teaching elementary school.

Critical thinking:

 Have students understand their own prior knowledge and examine a topic through questioning (KWL chart)
 Have students summarize information and sequence and order it (ranking)
 Have students reflect on what they learned and analyze information (reflection logs)
 Have students recognize relationships between topics (graphic organizers)
 Have students view a topic from different perspectives (debates)

Creative thinking:

 Have students view a topic from different perspective and move out of their comfort zone (brainstorming and creative
writing/story telling)
 Have students learn in an relevant and meaningful manner (strategies and techniques need to relate to student learning
style)
 Have students student learn in an authentic way (role-playing)
 Have students find alternative ways to discuss a topic (need to find and learn about some techniques and strategies from
class)

Motivational techniques:

 Create a classroom-learning environment that interests students (choice and variety)

 Create lessons and units that are relevant to students interests (meaningfulness)
 Create a good classroom rapport and environment (engagement)
 Create situations wherein students can develop relationships with each other and with the teacher (icebreakers)
 Motivate students extrinsically and intrinsically (extrinsic: rewards & intrinsic: relevant and meaningful learning)
Cooperative learning:

 Work with other teachers to create and implement new and creative lessons and units that support cooperative learning
(turn to your partner and discuss)
 Create a cooperative learning and classroom environment for students and teacher (problem-based learning)
 Have students work together in learning (mixed groups and fishbowl)
 Use cooperative learning instructional methods wherein teachers in a mentor and co-learning with students (reciprocal
teaching/questioning)
Second List

This second list is separated into four sections that state the goals I want to achieve in using critical thinking, creative thinking,
motivational techniques, and cooperative learning in an elementary school setting and the specific strategies and techniques I can
implement to achieve these goals. I have added new strategies and techniques to each section from the initial list I created. Lastly,
each section has a ranking of the strategies and techniques I described.

Critical Thinking

I want to use critical thinking strategies to:
Have students understand their own knowledge and then
examine a topic through questioning. (KWL chart)
Have students summarize information and sequence and
order it. (Ranking: added Nominal Group Process to the
list)
Have students reflect on what they learned and analyze
information. (Reflection Logs: added Minute
Papers/Muddiest Points to the list)
Have students recognize relationships between topics.
(Graphic Organizers)
Have students view a topic from different perspectives.
(Debates: added Mock Trials to the list)
Strategies and techniques I could implement to
achieve this goal:
 K-W-L: A KWL chart allows the teacher to see what
do students know about topic, what they want to
know, and what they learned about a topic. This
chart is a great tool to use to begin a lesson because
it allows the teacher to assess the students’ prior
knowledge and what questions they want to know.
Then after learning about the topic during an activity
in the lesson, the teacher can go back to the KWL
chart as an assessment tool to see what they learned
from the lesson.
 Ranking: Have students rank what they think are the
five more important things they learned from a
reading or a lesson.
 Nominal Group Process: Allows students to
contribute ideas in a group and then categorize and
rank them. This allows them to summarize their
ideas with peers and work together to rank them.
 Reflection Logs: Have students write in a notebook
about a topic they are learning about. The students
can summarize information and give their opinion on
what they are learning. Having the teacher read their
notebook and comment on their reflection will allow
the teacher to understand the students learning more.
 Minute Papers/Muddiest Points: Have students
write for a minute about a topic, especially areas that
they had questions about or were confused about.
This allows the teacher to assess what areas need to
be addressed further.
 Graphic Organizers: Using different organizers
such as flowcharts, concept maps, and Venn
diagrams allow students to make connections about
the material being learned. A Venn diagrams is a
great tool in having students understand the
similarities and differences between two topics.
 Debates: Students assume different roles and are
able to examine both sides of an argument.
 Mock Trials: Students are able to role-play and
create a trial wherein they will have to judge a topic
from different roles.
Ranking of the critical thinking strategies and techniques that I described above with #1 being a strategy or technique that I
would use the most in teaching elementary school:

1. K-W-L
2. Graphic Organizers
3. Reflection Logs
4. Minute Papers/Muddiest Points
5. Ranking
6. Nominal Group Process
7. Debates
8. Mock Trials

Creative Thinking

I want to use creative thinking strategies to:
Have students view a topic from different perspective and
move out of their comfort zone. (Brainstorming, Creative
Writing/Story Telling: added Reverse Brainstorming and
Six Hats to the list)
Have students learn in a relevant and meaningful manner.
(Learning Styles: added Simulations, Analogies, Creative
Dramatics/Improv to the list)
Have students learn in an authentic way. (Role-Playing)
Have students find alternative ways to discuss a topic.
(No initial list of strategies or techniques: added PMI and
FIP to the list)
Strategies and techniques I could implement to
achieve this goal:
 Brainstorming and Reverse Brainstorming: Have
students discuss a topic by reverse brainstorming
first to see what it is not and then move to
brainstorming to see what it is. This can help
students who are hesitant to participate feel more
comfortable by having them say what something is
not first.
 Creative Writing/Story Telling: Have students
write a story from the perspective of someone else. It
allows them to think about how someone else might
view a topic. I think using this technique would
especially useful with younger students as they learn
to write. Also, it allows them to use their imagination
and let their creative juices flow.
 Six Hats: Students assume different roles in
discussing a topic and have to talk from that role. I
think this would be more appropriate for upper
elementary than younger students.
 Simulations: This would a good tool to use with
visual learners as they learn best from visual
displays. The use of technology would engage these
students.
 Analogies: This would be a good tool to use with
auditory learners.
 Creative Dramatics/Improv: This would be a good
tool to use with tactile/kinesthetic learners as they
learn through moving and doing.
 Role-Playing: Have students act out a play about the
topic they are learning.
 PMI: What are the pluses (good things), minuses
(bad things), and interesting points of a topic? This
allows students to discuss the different sides of a
topic.
 FIP: FIP is the first important priorities. This allows
students to focus on the most important things of a
topic. FIP is good for students understanding the
general ideas.

Ranking of the creative thinking strategies and techniques that I described above with #1 being a strategy or technique that I
would use the most in teaching elementary school:
 1. Brainstorming and Reverse Brainstorming
2. Creative Writing/Story Telling
3. Role-Playing
4. FIP
5. Six Hats
6. PMI
7. Analogies
8. Simulations
9. Creative Dramatics/Improv

Motivational Techniques

I want to use motivational strategies to:
Create a classroom-learning environment that interests
students. (Choice and Variety: added Curiosity (Fun) to
the list)
Create lessons and units that are relevant to students’
interests. (Meaningfulness)
Create a good classroom rapport and environment.
(Engagement: added Feedback to the list)
Create situations wherein students can develop
relationships with each other and with the teacher.
(Icebreakers)
 Motivate students extrinsically and intrinsically.
(Rewards & Relevant and Meaningful
Learning)
Strategies and techniques I could implement to
achieve this goal:
 Choice: Giving students choice in activities allows
them to be active participants and feel in control of
some aspect of their learning. This is important for
students in all grades!
 Variety: Switch up the classroom environment.
Have large groups, small groups, partners, and
individual activities. Provide different activities, if
teachers continually do the same thing students will
become disconnected and disinterested.
 Curiosity (Fun): Incorporate game like, fun,
fantasy, curiosity, and suspense into lessons. Starting
a lesson with a riddle, game, puzzle is a good way to
have students be curious about the topic of the
lesson.
 Meaningfulness (Relevant, Authentic): Create
activities based on the interests of the students. If
students are interested in the topic they are learning
about, it becomes meaningful for them and thus
motivates them to learn. Creating problems that from
real life situations is an effective way to make
learning authentic. An example of how to make a
lesson authentic is instead of discussing a situation,
have students act it out and role-play the scenario.
 Engagement: Teachers must gain students attention
before you can teach. One way to engage students by
starting off a lesson in a fun way. Using a story, a
joke, or movie clip are fun ways to hook and engage
the students into a lesson.
 Feedback: Provide positive praise for students to
show that you care about them and their learning.
Introducing students to the good work of their peers
is a good motivator.
 Icebreakers: Icebreakers are great tools for students
and teachers to get to know each other and develop a
relationship with each other. They can build a group
identity and cohesiveness in the classroom. Some
example of icebreakers are talking string, psychic
massage, have you ever questions, expectations,
treasure hunt, and coat of arms. These icebreakers
allow the teacher to get to know fun things about
their students.
 Intrinsic Motivation: Teachers can stimulate this by
providing tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty,
relevant to student interests, and provide
opportunities for students to have choice and control
over their learning.
  Extrinsic Motivation: Teachers can motivate
students through rewards for good or improved
performance such as stickers, candy, recess, free
time, praise, etc.

Ranking of the motivational strategies and techniques that I described above with #1 being the most important in teaching
elementary school: (It is very hard to rank these because they are all so important and connected to each other)

1. Meaningfulness (Relevant, Authentic)

2. Engagement
3. Choice
4. Variety
5. Intrinsic Motivation
6. Curiosity (Fun)
7. Icebreakers
8. Feedback
9. Extrinsic Motivation

Cooperative Learning

I want to use cooperative learning strategies to:
Work with other teachers to create and implement new
and creative lessons and units that support cooperative
learning. (Turn to Your Partner and Discuss)
Create a cooperative learning and classroom environment
for students and teacher. (Problem-Based Learning: added
Group Discussion with Roles to the list)
Have students work together in learning. (Mixed Groups
and Fish Bowl: added Think-Pair-Share, Round-Robin,
Cooperative Learning Scripts to the list)
Strategies and techniques I could implement to
achieve this goal:
 Turn to Your Partner and Discuss: Teachers needs
to turn to the teacher around them discuss different
lesson and teaching strategies that would be the most
effective. Discussing and reviewing teaching
methods with other teachers can help you learn new
and fun ways to relay information to your students
and involve more cooperative learning in the
classroom.
 Problem-Based Learning: Teachers can create a
long unit wherein the class learns and works on a
major problem or topic. This will allow students to
collaborate together as a whole class to discover
something new.
 Group Discussion with Roles: In talking about a
topic assign students and teacher with different roles
at they analyze the subject they are learning about.
The roles can be a checker, recorder, reporter,
facilitator, supporter, questioner, unifier, etc.
 Mixed Groups: Mixed groups promote cooperative
learning in that the teacher divides students into
groups of different backgrounds, academic
achievement levels, and social skills to work
together.
 Fish Bowl: Have students create a circle and then
create another circle around that. Have students
sitting in inner circle turn around discuss issue with
person behind them from outer circle. Then, the
inside circle share their thoughts while the outside
circle listens and then they switch seats/roles. This
activity allows for collaborating as partners, as an
active member in a group, and as an
observer/listener. I think this strategy would work
the best with upper elementary students.
 Think-Pair-Share: This allows students to have
time to reflect and think about a topic and then share
their ideas with a partner and get another perspective
on a topic from their partner.

Use cooperative learning instructional methods wherein
teachers in a mentor and co-learning with students.
(Reciprocal Teaching/Questioning)
 Round Robin: Students contribute ideas orally in
turn. This allows everyone to input their own opinion
and hear those of their classmates.
 Cooperative Learning Scripts: This would be an
interesting co-learning experience for students. In
partners, students read a passage and then put it out
of sight. One student summarizes it and the other
tries to correct any errors. Then they change roles.
 Reciprocal Teaching/Questioning: Have students
and teacher switch roles. Teacher must model
questioning for students and then scaffold students as
they act as a teacher. This allows students to
collaborate and work together to gain ownership
over their learning. This technique is especially
helpful in literature classes.

Ranking of the cooperative learning strategies and techniques that I described above with #1 being a strategy or technique that I
would use the most in teaching elementary school:

1. Mixed Groups
2. Turn to Your Partner and Discuss (its important to always have fresh new ideas and talking to colleagues is a great way
to get that)
3. Problem-Based Learning
4. Think-Pair-Share
5. Reciprocal Teaching/Questioning
6. Group Discussion with Roles
7. Fish Bowl
8. Cooperative Learning Scripts
9. Round-Robin

Reflection

My initial list shows different ideas of how I want to use critical and creative thinking and motivational techniques and
cooperative learning in teaching elementary school. Along with each idea, I listed a technique or strategy that I have effectively
used before in teaching elementary school or have observed being used in an elementary school setting. The second list expands
on the specific strategies or techniques that I had listed for my goals concerning using critical and creative thinking and
motivational techniques and cooperative learning in teaching. Along with expanding on those, I added additional techniques and
strategies that I learned from this course and feel would be successful in an elementary classroom setting. At the end of each list,
I ranked the strategies and techniques based on how I would implement them in an elementary classroom with number one being
used the most. In ranking the strategies, I thought of my experience in teaching kindergarten and how often I would have used
them in my kindergarten class. However, it was hard to rank the strategies and techniques because I think all of the ones I
described would be highly effective in elementary school. I hope to use my list in my future classroom, although, depending on
the types of students I have and the flexibility of the school on teaching practices, I will have to adapt to fit the needs of my
students.

In describing the strategies and techniques for critical and creative thinking and motivational techniques and
cooperative learning in my second list, I added a lot to my thoughts on the ones from my initial list and I added new ones that I
have learned about. Many of the techniques and strategies discussed in class can be easily implemented in elementary classrooms
or can be easily modified to fit the elementary ages students. In total, I discussed a total thirty-five different strategies.
 Overall, I think many of the strategies and techniques I described have to be used together in a classroom. I think in
order to use critical or creative thinking or cooperative learning in a class, a teacher must first motivate students. Then after using
motivational techniques, the teacher can move onto the other areas. I think the most effective way to use these strategies together
is to use critical and creative thinking strategies in a cooperative learning context. An example of how to do this could be that in a
problem-based learning unit (cooperative learning), a teacher could start discussing the topic or problem they are solving by
using a KWL chart (critical thinking). In using a KWL chart, the teacher can have students brainstorm or reverse brainstorm
(creative thinking) about what they know about the problem or topic to fill in the know part of chart. I think bringing together the
strategies and techniques that I described in my list brings about the most authentic and meaningful learning experiences.