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For Fun and Profit: Image Interactivity, Hedonic Value, and

Responses Towards an Online Store

Article  in  Psychology and Marketing · August 2005

DOI: 10.1002/mar.20079

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For Fun and Profit: Hedonic
Value from Image Interactivity
and Responses Toward an
Online Store
Ann Marie Fiore
Iowa State University

Hyun-Jeong Jin
Seoul National University

Jihyun Kim
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

ABSTRACT

With the use of an on-line retailer’s Web site and an experimental

method with 103 university students, statistical support through path
analysis was found for positive influences of optimum stimulation
level (preferred level of environmental stimulation) and recreational
shopping on hedonic value (trying an image-interactivity feature of an
apparel Web site as a stimulating experience). The Web site’s mix-and-
match image interactivity feature allowed creation of visual images of
product combinations. The path-analysis model revealed significant
paths between hedonic value and resulting emotional pleasure and
arousal variables. A pattern of significant paths was also found
between these three variables and global attitude, willingness to pur-
chase, and willingness to patronize the on-line store. Theoretical and
managerial conclusions are provided. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Holbrook (1986) proposed a Consciousness–Emotion–Value (C–E–V)

model of the consumption experience. As will be explained in the fol-

Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 22(8): 669–694 (August 2005)

Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com)
© 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. DOI: 10.1002/mar.20079
669
lowing section, Holbrook’s model illustrated the role of emotion, hedo-
nic value, and consumer characteristics in consumption experience. With
the use of Holbrook’s model as a conceptual framework, the present Web-
site design study tests linkages between emotion, hedonic value, con-
sumer characteristics, and responses toward an on-line store.
Holbrook and Hirschman (1982) outlined that the consumption experi-
ence can be intrinsically satisfying, or satisfying for its own sake, when
the experience provides pleasure to the senses, fun, feelings, and fantasies.
Holbrook and Hirschman saw these forms of pleasure as the experiential
(hedonic) value of the consumption experience. Hedonic value differs from
instrumental (utilitarian) value, which entails shopping efficiency and
making the right product choice based on logical assessment of product
information. Products (e.g., Bell, Holbrook, & Solomon, 1991) and shop-
ping environments (e.g., Babin, Darden, & Griffin, 1994) offer both hedo-
nic and utilitarian value, concurrently (Sheth, Newman, & Gross, 1991).
Research supports that hedonic value and utilitarian value are derived
from electronic shopping environments, and both affect consumer
responses toward electronic shopping (Childers, Carr, Peck, & Carson,
2001; Hammond, McWilliam, & Diaz, 1998; Hoffman & Novak, 1996;
Jaarvenpaa & Todd, 1996/1997) or toward a product or store (Fiore &
Jin, 2003; Koufaris, Kambil, & LaBarbera, 2001/2002). These consumer
responses affect profitability of the on-line retailer. However, value and
resulting consumer responses may be moderated by characteristics of
the consumer (Holbrook, 1986). A Web-site design feature with the
intended purpose of enhancing instrumental value through facilitating
assessment of product information may also offer hedonic value to the con-
sumer who desires it. The present study focuses on consumer charac-
teristics that may influence the importance of hedonic value from a Web-
site design feature. The present study also examines the effect this
hedonic value has on emotion and consumer responses towards the store.
The hedonic experience may not be an end in itself, but may influence atti-
tude and behavioral responses toward the on-line store.

CONSCIOUSNESS–EMOTION–VALUE MODEL

Building on the Holbrook and Hirschman (1982) experiential approach

to consumption, Holbrook (1986) proposed a Consciousness–Emo-
tion–Value (C–E–V) model of the consumption experience. Holbrook com-
pared the C–E–V model to the emotion-deficient but widely held Cogni-
tion–Affect–Behavior (C–A–B) model. The C–E–V model is dynamic, with
feedback loops between components. In Holbrook’s model, consciousness
includes cognitions or beliefs about consumer products as well as men-
tal events such as fantasies or imagery during the consumption experi-
ence. Emotion expands beyond affect (i.e., favorable disposition or lik-
ing) to include subjective feeling states, such as joy and excitement. Value
taps what the consumer perceives he or she gains from the consumption
670 FIORE, JIN, & KIM
experience. This includes hedonic value, such as play or fun, and aes-
thetic pleasure from sensory elements during consumption. The C–E–V-
based consumption experience is influenced by inputs of the person vari-
able (i.e., attributes of the individual, such as personality, intelligence, and
gender, that influence thinking, feeling, and behavior). The experience is
also influenced by the environment variable (i.e., the physical prod-
uct/brand and the symbolic unit used to designate the product, such as
a print advertisement or Web-site promotion). Last, the experience is
influenced by person–environment interaction variable or the situation
(e.g., shopping with female friends).
Research supports Holbrook’s proposition that emotion is a key link in
the consumption experience. Literature (Eroglu, Machleit, & Davis, 2003;
Menon & Kahn, 2002) illustrates the mediating effect of emotion created
by the environment variable of Web-site design on approach responses.
According to Mehrabian and Russell (1974), individuals engage or
approach environmental stimuli that create pleasurable affective responses
and avoid stimuli that create unpleasant affective responses. Approach
responses include willingness to purchase a product and returning to the
site or store. The mediating effects of emotion in Web-site design studies
parallel those of bricks-and-mortar store-atmospherics literature (e.g.,
Baker, Levy, & Grewal, 1992; Bellizzi, Crowley, & Hasty, 1983; Bellizzi &
Hite, 1992; Bruner, 1990; Crowley, 1993; Donovan, Rossiter, Marcoolyn, &
Nesdale, 1994); emotional pleasure from Web sites had a consistently pos-
itive effect on approach responses, but emotional arousal (e.g., level of
excitement) had mixed effects on approach responses. Menon and Kahn
(2002) found that high arousal deterred the consumer. According to the
researchers, a site’s mentally taxing complexity causes the consumer to
seek less novel products and sites or to limit their Internet search alto-
gether. Eroglu et al. (2003) found that both pleasure and arousal had sig-
nificant positive effects on approach responses toward the site, but emo-
tional pleasure had a stronger mediating effect than emotional arousal.
As proposed in Holbrook’s (1986) model, differences in the results of
these two studies may be due, in part, to moderating person variables.
Additionally, researchers of both Web-site design studies (Eroglu et al.,
2003; Menon & Kahn, 2002) recognized that outcomes would be affected
by the (hedonic or utilitarian) value derived by the shopper. In line with
a C–E–V approach, the present Web-site design study tests linkages
between person variables, hedonic value, emotion, and approach
responses, including attitude towards the on-line store (see Figure 1).

IMAGE INTERACTIVITY TECHNOLOGY FOR MARKETING

Web-Site Interactivity and Approach Responses

Interactivity is repeatedly specified as an important feature in scholarly
and industry literature on designing e-commerce Web sites to attract
FOR FUN AND PROFIT 671
 Figure 1. A conceptual model with hypotheses between variables.

and keep on-line customers (e.g., Choate, 2000; Gehrke & Turban, 1999;
S. E. Kim, Shaw, & Schneider, 2003; Lohse & Spiller, 1998; Lui, Arnett,
& Litecky, 2000; Zhang, Small, Von Dran, & Barcellos, 1999). In this lit-
erature, interactivity of a Web site offers facilitated communications,
customization of presented information, image manipulation, and enter-
tainment for the customer. Respective examples of such interactivity are
24/7 customer service representatives via e-mail, ASPs (active server
pages) permitting customers to customize what information appears on
the Web page, 3D virtual tours, and entertaining contests and games.
Interactivity of a Web site, in general, is seen as offering utilitarian ben-
efits of saving time/effort, reducing risk, and increasing likelihood of
finding a superior alternative (Klein, 1998). Interactivity of a Web site is
also credited with providing hedonic benefit of enjoyment (Koufaris et al.,
2001/2002).
Factors dependent upon Web-site interactivity, such as community
building and 3D virtual experiences, have been embraced by on-line mar-
keters to entice the consumer to visit the site, purchase on-line, and be
satisfied enough to become a repeat visitor/customer (Li, Daugherty, &
Biocca, 2001; Mathwick, 2002). Moreover, the interactive nature of Web
sites has been credited with enhancing attitude toward the on-line store,
desire to browse or return to the Web site, and on-line purchasing (Gehrke
& Turban, 1999; Hartnett, 2000; Li et al., 2001).
Empirical evidence supports the importance of incorporating interac-
tivity to affect consumer attitude and behavior. Wu (1999), for instance,
found that perceived interactivity was positively related to attitude
toward two greeting card companies that allowed customers to person-
alize e-cards with added messages. Lohse and Spiller (1999) looked at
actual sales of on-line retailers and found that interface design, partic-
ularly navigation features that reduced the time needed to purchase
products on-line, accounted for the most variance in monthly sales. Kou-

672 FIORE, JIN, & KIM

faris et al. (2001/2002) concluded that perceived control and enjoyment
from product search functions influenced new Web customers to return
to the site. In another study, Griffith, Krampf, and Palmer (2001) reported
that interface design influenced consumer involvement, defined as per-
ceived relevance of the product to the consumer. The interface design,
creating a vivid experience (i.e., similar to sensory and behavioral expe-
rience with the actual product), positively affected approach responses
toward the product. In summary, approach responses toward a product
or Web site result from utilitarian value (time savings, control, better
product information) and hedonic value (enjoyment) elicited by interac-
tivity. Both types of value, in unison, affect approach responses (Kou-
faris et al., 2001/2002).

Image Interactivity and Approach Responses

The present study focuses on one aspect of interactivity, image interac-
tivity, which provides the ability to create and manipulate images of a
product or environment on a Web site. For instance, image interactivity
allows the viewer to alter a product’s design features, background, con-
text, viewing angle or distance, and to simulate the product’s operation.
Image interactivity also permits the viewer to simulate his/her naviga-
tion through an environment, such as a shopping mall.
A simple form of image interactivity technology (enlargement of front
views of individual products) is used by more than 84% of major retail
sites (Gill, 2002). In an effort to attract customers and increase sales,
major apparel retailers such as Delia’s, Guess, Home Shopping Network,
Lands’ End, and Lane Bryant have incorporated advanced image inter-
activity technology in their Web sites to enhance (visual) sensory infor-
mation about the interactions of products and products with the body. This
technology allows customers to select images of products and body attrib-
utes meeting the customer’s individual specifications, then see what the
products would look like if worn together or worn together on the spec-
ified body form. For instance, Guess.com offered a Mix & Match image
interactivity feature that enabled the Internet customer to coordinate
an apparel ensemble on the screen. Lands’ End.com has led the indus-
try with the My Virtual Model feature that allows the customer to cre-
ate a human virtual model by selecting body features, facial features,
and hair features similar to those of the customer. The model’s three-
dimensional image can be texture mapped in Lands’ End products and
rotated to view front, back, and side images of the product on the body.
Fiore and Jin (2003) proposed that image interactivity features of
apparel retailers, such as the Mix & Match feature and My Virtual Model
feature, provide consumers with more of the information available
through direct contact with the product. The additional information
evokes a sense of control, enjoyment, and involvement that generate
approach responses. Fiore and Jin explained that image interactivity

FOR FUN AND PROFIT 673

features of apparel retailers require an active (cognitive) process when
the consumer selects products, develops the body form, and evaluates
the products’ level of coordination or appearance on the body form. These
actions provide a sense of control because more product/body interac-
tion information, needed in the decision-making process, is available
(Katz & Aspden, 1997; “White Paper,” 1999). In addition, image interac-
tivity features provide more of the visual sensory information (e.g., how
products look together) and behaviors (e.g., checking the side and back
views of the product on the body) found when shopping for the actual
product. Enjoyment may arise from the entertaining and creative process
involved in developing images of ensembles alone or on the body. Involve-
ment (i.e., perceived relevance to the consumer) may be enhanced because
the product can be evaluated in relationship to products already owns or
on a body form similar to the consumer’s. The results of the Li et al.
(2001) qualitative study support these propositions. Li et al. examined the
effect of four image interactivity features on consumer evaluations of
the experience. One feature allowed subjects to visualize level of coordi-
nation through rendered product images of chosen comforter and sheet
patterns. From analysis of consumer comments, Li et al. posited that the
image interactivity features resulted in consumption experiences char-
acterized as offering rich product information and producing active cog-
nitive processes (control), enjoyment, and involvement.
Whereas control, enjoyment, and involvement may affect approach
responses, the present study focuses on the hedonic consumption expe-
rience of enjoyment (stimulation), as it is likely the most important
value to the intrinsically motivated shopper segment. The present
research proposes that for intrinsically motivated subjects, those with
a high optimum stimulation level (Zuckerman, 1971) and recreational
shopping orientation (Gehrt & Carter, 1992), image interactivity may
offer a stimulating experience leading to emotional states that medi-
ate approach responses.

EFEECTS OF PERSON VARIABLES AND DESIRED VALUE

Fiore and Jin (2003) found that an image interactivity feature had a pos-
itive influence on approach responses toward the on-line store. The pres-
ent study furthers this line of research. It tests how person variables
affect the value that motivates the consumer to try image interactivity
features and examines the resulting effect these variables have on emo-
tion and approach responses toward the on-line store.
OSL characterizes an individual’s general response to environmental
stimuli. Every organism has a preferred level of stimulation, termed the
optimum stimulation level (Zuckerman, 1971). An individual seeks this
level of stimulation from environment stimuli. According to Kish and
Donnenwerth (1969), high OSL individuals find stimulation in situa-

674 FIORE, JIN, & KIM

tions, activities, and ideas that are novel, changing, complex, surprising,
and intense. Raju (1980) illustrated that high-OSL individuals are char-
acterized as having a higher degree of exploratory tendencies (i.e., explor-
ing the environment) driven by variety seeking, curiosity, and risk tak-
ing. The Steenkamp and Baumgartner (1992) comprehensive review of
OSL literature and empirical study confirmed the relationship between
OSL and consumer behaviors driven by variety seeking, intrinsic curios-
ity, and risk taking. OSL was positively correlated with exploratory ten-
dency factors of innovativeness (i.e., brand switching for change or nov-
elty, eagerness to know about or try new products or services, and selecting
products that involve perceived risk). Steenkamp and Baumgartner con-
cluded that high-OSL individuals were driven by an intrinsic need to
seek information for its own sake, rather than utilitarian “purposive”
search behavior.
Individuals who seek high levels of stimulation are more likely to
engage in exploratory behaviors during shopping to maintain an optimum
level of arousal (Raju, 1980; Steenkamp & Baumgartner, 1992). In sup-
port, Wahlers, Dunn, and Etzel (1986) found that OSL was positively
correlated with the exploratory tendency factor, exploration through
shopping. Similarly, Hanna and Wagle (1989) concluded that level of con-
sumer effort and stimulation during shopping was positively associated
with level of OSL. Mittelstaedt, Grossbart, Curtis, and Devere (1976)
found a positive relationship between OSL and adoption of new retail
facilities. Individuals with higher OSLs tried and adopted new facilities
more than individuals with lower OSLs. High-OSL individuals have a
multitude of ways to satisfy their exploratory tendencies. Shopping for
rapidly changing fashion products may be an outlet for these exploratory
behaviors, particularly for college-aged consumers (Stanforth, 1995).
Fashion leadership and importance of clothing were associated with
OSL’s arousal from change, unusual stimuli, and risk taking (Kwon &
Workman, 1996). Ample support for exploratory tendencies being fed
through consumer products and shopping suggests that OSL will predict
recreational shopping.
Recreational shopping (Gehrt & Carter, 1992) entails browsing or non-
purposive exploration of products and the enjoyment of the shopping
experience for its own sake. Recreational shoppers are prone to browse
stores for information, but many times lack purchase intentions. Bel-
lenger and Korgaonkar (1980) indicated recreational shoppers are those
who enjoy spending their time shopping and consider shopping as leisure,
and economic shoppers are those who try to minimize time and effort
and seek convenience while shopping. Economic shoppers would be con-
cerned with the image interactivity feature’s ability to reduce effort and
risk involved in purchasing products from images presented on-line.
Because of the nonpurposive, exploratory information search nature of
recreational shopping and the high level of stimulation offered by fash-
ion products and shopping environments, the following is proposed.

FOR FUN AND PROFIT 675

 H1: OSL will predict recreational shopping.

Fiore, Lee, and Kunz (2004) found that OSL was associated with value
desired from new mass-customization technology of apparel that per-
mits consumers to have input during the design of their apparel product.
High-OSL subjects reported trying mass customization of apparel not
only for the uniqueness of the resulting aesthetic product, but also because
the process offered an exciting experience. Turning attention to on-line
stores selling mass-produced products, image interactivity features pro-
vide a new means for consumers to explore products purposively or non-
purposively and to explore new product combinations. High-OSL indi-
viduals are driven by variety seeking, intrinsic curiosity, and risk taking
and have more positive responses toward new stimuli and situations
than low OSL individuals (Raju, 1980). Therefore, high-OSL individu-
als would value the stimulating experience offered by new Web-site fea-
tures that allow nonpurposive exploration of new product combinations.
Similarly, recreational shoppers enjoy the stimulation offered by prod-
uct newness and the process of exploring new and interesting shops
(Gehrt & Carter, 1992). They tend to pursue hedonic experience by cre-
ating fantasies and positive emotional arousal while purchasing and
consuming products (Babin et al., 1994). The store environment con-
tributes to sensory, emotional, and cognitive stimulation (e.g., Donovan
et al., 1994; Fiore, Yan, & Yoh, 2000), which enhance the hedonic expe-
rience. Likewise, the image interactivity feature of the on-line store may
increase the recreational shopper’s level of stimulation due to novelty
and creative exploration of product combination. Therefore, the follow-
ing hypotheses are given.

H2: OSL will predict trying the image interactivity feature as a stim-
ulating experience.

H3: Recreational shopping will predict trying the image interactivity

feature as a stimulating experience.

Image interactivity features on Web sites may serve not only the
needs-driven, rational consumer, but also the consumer who seeks (hedo-
nic) experiential aspects of consumption. These aspects consist of sen-
sory pleasure, satisfying emotional experiences, mental play, and fan-
tasies, according to Holbrook and Hirschman (1982). Mental play and
fantasies may generate an emotional experience (Fiore & Yu, 2001); in
the present case, emotional experience may be generated during men-
tal play when coordinating product images with the use of the image
interactivity feature.
Trying the image interactivity feature as a stimulating experience
taps the subject’s desired value—attaining a positive emotional expe-
rience. The stimulating (emotional) experience involved in the con-

676 FIORE, JIN, & KIM

sumption process can be effectively represented by two dimensions, that
of emotional arousal and emotional pleasure (Donovan & Rossiter, 1982;
Holbrook, 1986). Emotional arousal refers to the degree to which one feels
stimulated, excited, or alert in the situation, whereas emotional pleas-
ure is the evaluation dimension of affect referring to the degree to which
one feels good, happy, or satisfied (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974). The
process of mixing and matching product images may provide both emo-
tional experience dimensions. Creating attractive, novel, or complex
ensembles to one’s liking may generate emotional arousal and pleas-
ure. Based on the seminal work of Berlyne (1971), the aesthetic ele-
ments of created ensembles may offer order, novelty, and complexity
that lead to stimulation and positive affective responses. The novelty of
the new technology (Fiore et al., 2004) and its ability to facilitate a
curiosity-driven search for information (Vogt, Fesenmaier, & MacKay,
1993) may also result in emotional arousal and pleasure. Therefore, the
following are proposed:

H4: Trying the image interactivity feature as a stimulating experience

will predict emotional arousal.

H5: Trying the image interactivity feature as a stimulating experience

will predict emotional pleasure.

As stated, Fiore and Jin (2003) showed that adding an image inter-
activity feature to an apparel Web site enhanced approach responses
toward an on-line store. Image interactivity increased global attitude,
willingness to purchase, and patronage-related variable such as will-
ingness to return to the site and spend more time than planned at the
on-line store. Fiore and Jin suggested that the image interactivity fea-
ture’s value lies in providing more of the risk-reducing sensory infor-
mation available during direct contact with the product. In line with
an information-processing perspective, this more complete information
is necessary to evaluate the product accurately and to overcome hesi-
tancy to purchase on-line (Lee, 2002; Li et al., 2001), resulting in a pos-
itive effect on approach responses. The additional information from
image interactivity helps the problem-solving consumer arrive at a care-
fully considered evaluation or cognitive response, the outcome of infor-
mation processing.
Approach responses toward the on-line store may result for a differ-
ent reason according to the researchers of the present study. In line with
the Holbrook and Hirschman conceptualization, researchers (Batra &
Ahtola, 1991; Crowley, Sprangenberg, & Hughes, 1992) have shown that
consumer attitude is inherently bidimensional, based on both utilitarian
and hedonic value. The present researchers propose that for those high
in OSL and recreational shopping, value lies in providing a stimulating
experience that produces emotional pleasure and arousal. This hedonic

FOR FUN AND PROFIT 677

value from the image interactivity feature may result from augmented
sensory pleasure from aesthetic aspects of coordinated ensembles and
from cognitive stimulation during the noninstrumental search for infor-
mation, feeding variety-seeking, novelty-seeking, and mental play expe-
riences. The result of the sensory and cognitive stimulation for high-OSL
individuals and recreational shoppers will be positive attitudes toward
the on-line store.
In line with research (Mattila & Wirtz, 2001) that showed that pleas-
urable stimulation from store atmospherics increased impulse buying
behavior, the stimulating experience will enhance willingness to pur-
chase from the on-line store in the present study. Shih (1998) hypothe-
sized that vividness and control from interactivity provides hedonic pleas-
ure that will increase the time spent on-line and increase the probability
of repeat visits. This is likely for high-OSL individuals and recreational
shoppers, because intrinsic pleasure is an important element of the shop-
ping experience for them. The stimulating (pleasurable and arousing)
experience from creating a myriad of new ensembles with the image
interactivity feature will give the consumer impetus to return to the site,
and the sustained stimulation needed to extend the visit on the site. In
addition, increased time spent in a retail environment is associated with
increased impulse purchases (Bloch, Sherrell, & Ridgway 1986). Thus, the
following are proposed.

H6: (a) Trying the image interactivity feature as a stimulating exper-

ience will predict attitude toward the on-line store.
(b) Trying the image interactivity feature as a stimulating exper-
ience will predict willingness to purchase from the on-line store.
(c) Trying the image interactivity feature as a stimulating
experience will predict willingness to patronize the on-line
store (i.e., patronize the on-line store, visit the on-line store
again, stay longer than planned on the on-line store).

As illustrated in the discussion of the C–E–V model (Holbrook, 1986),

emotion created by a promotional environment (ads) mediated approach
responses toward products. As an extension, emotion from the interac-
tivity of a retailer’s Web site may mediate responses toward that store.
The pleasure dimension of emotion, or positive affect, is defined as the
primary component of many intrinsically motivated consumption expe-
riences and a key aspect of hedonic value (Holbrook, 1986). Therefore, the
pleasure dimension will likely be a mediating variable between the intrin-
sic motivation of trying the image interactivity feature as a stimulating
experience and approach responses.
For the stimulation-driven high-OSL consumer or recreational shop-
per, arousal should also be an important mediating variable between the
desired value from the image interactivity feature and approach

678 FIORE, JIN, & KIM

responses. The present study is set in a context of a hedonic consumption
experience. Therefore, arousal should not have a negative effect, as it
did during a high information-processing context, where impaired cog-
nitive processing led to a decrease in confidence in decision-making
(Pham, 1996). Research that examined the role of emotion created by
store atmosphere on approach responses toward the store supports the
importance of pleasure to increase approach responses (Baker et al.,
1992; Bellizzi et al., 1983; Bellizzi & Hite, 1992; Bruner, 1990; Crowley,
1993; Donovan et al., 1994). These studies, however, did not provide
unequivocal support for the influence of arousal on approach responses.
The results may be affected by the nonlinear nature of arousal and pos-
itive affect (Berlyne, 1971; Cox & Cox, 1994), where a medium level of
arousal produces a more positive state than high arousal. As found in the
Eroglu et al. (2003) study, the results may also be due to differences in
person variables of the sample. OSL and recreational shopping may affect
the level of arousal perceived to be positive, and that leads to enhanced
approach response. It is proposed that emotional arousal will predict
approach responses of high-OSL individuals and recreational shoppers,
who desire stimulation.

H7: (a) Emotional arousal will predict attitude toward the on-line
store.
(b) Emotional arousal will predict willingness to purchase from
the on-line store.
(c) Emotional arousal will predict willingness to patronize the
on-line store.

H8: (a) Emotional pleasure will predict attitude toward the on-line
store.
(b) Emotional pleasure will predict willingness to purchase from
the on-line store.
(c) Emotional pleasure will predict willingness to patronize the
on-line store.

METHOD

Subjects
The 103 usable subjects for the present study were enrolled in five courses
at a large midwestern university in the United States. In order to encour-
age cooperation, students who volunteered for this experiment received
either extra credit or $4.00 as an incentive. The subjects came from a
variety of colleges on campus, mainly the Colleges of Family and Con-
sumer Sciences (38.8%), Business (20.4%), Liberal Arts and Sciences
(13.6%), and Engineering (12.6%). Seventy percent were female and 30%

FOR FUN AND PROFIT 679

were male. Because a sample size of 31 males is too small for testing the
present set of hypotheses through path analysis, the statistical results
from the combined sample was used for testing the hypotheses. Ninety-
seven percent were between the ages of 18 and 25 years. Subjects of this
age and education were likely to have higher than average OSL scores
(Raju, 1980), thus ensuring a significant range in OSL scores to test the
theoretical propositions. All subjects had previous experience with the
Internet and a majority (88.3%) reported with the use of the Internet
for gaining product information before purchasing a product. Moreover,
32% reported using the Internet to purchase apparel. The subjects had
no prior experience with the image interactivity feature on the Web site
used as the stimulus, but 16.5% had visited the Web site in the past,
which may influence general attitude toward the stimulus Web site (Bal-
abanis & Reynolds, 2001). Because the effect of the image interactivity
feature on approach responses was the focus of the study, subjects were
retained as long as they did not have experience with the site’s image
interactivity feature.

Stimulus
The Mix & Match feature from Guess.com was determined to be the best
stimulus for the study. Guess.com offered a wide variety of products and
offered the Mix & Match feature for both men’s and women’s products.
The target market for Guess.com products is mainly teen-age and college-
age customers, making the site appropriate for use with the present sam-
ple. Image interactivity features from two apparel retailers (Lands’ End,
Lane Bryant) were eliminated because the target market did not match
the sample. Delia.com’s Mix & Match feature was eliminated because it
worked with only a limited number of products. Information from six
pre-test respondents confirmed that they and other college students liked
the Guess brand.

Instrument
The general instructions for the subjects included a statement that the
“study is looking at consumers’ evaluation of an apparel retailers’ Web
site.” Nine-point scales (–4 to
4) were used for all variables involved in
hypothesis testing. A variety of scales have been used frequently to meas-
ure OSL, and alternative scales continue to be introduced (Grande, 2000).
The 32-item Arousal Seeking Tendency II Scale (AST II Scale) was imple-
mented in the present study because research (Steenkamp & Baum-
gartner, 1992; Wahlers et al., 1986) confirms that the AST II Scale was
the best measure of consumer exploratory behavior tendencies of OSL.
The AST II Scale measures preference for arousal from change, unusual
stimuli, risk, sensuality, and new environments. The scale’s developers
(Mehrabian & Russell, 1974) and other researchers (see Steenkamp &

680 FIORE, JIN, & KIM

Baumgartner, 1992) found the AST II Scale to be reliable and valid. The
13-item Recreational Shopping Scale used in studies by Dawson, Bloch,
and Ridgway (1990) and Gehrt and Carter (1992) was used in the pres-
ent study. Reported reliability was 0.81 (Dawson et al., 1990).
Five items developed by the present researchers to tap desired value
from trying the image interactivity feature were based on hedonic shop-
ping literature (Babin et al., 1994). These items assessed trying the image
interactivity feature as an exciting experience, to satisfy curiosity, for
its novelty, for exploring new worlds, and as a novel experience.
Emotional response toward the on-line store was measured with the
use of 12 bipolar adjective pairs from the Mehrabian and Russell (1974)
semantic-differential scale, which has been used extensively to gauge
emotional response toward brick-and-mortar retail environments (e.g.,
Baker et al., 1992; Bateson & Hui, 1992; Bellizzi & Hite, 1992; Crowley,
1993; Dawson et al., 1990; Donovan et al., 1994; Fiore, Yan, & Yoh, 2001).
Holbrook (1986) proposed that the Mehrabian and Russell (1974) emo-
tion indices may be more useful than Plutchik’s (1980) indices in inves-
tigating emotional response of consumption experience. Six adjective
pairs measuring the pleasure dimension included happy–unhappy,
annoyed–pleased, and unsatisfied–satisfied. Six adjective pairs meas-
uring arousal included aroused–unaroused, calm–excited, and dull–jit-
tery. The original scale included three emotional dimensions: pleasure,
arousal, and dominance. However, items that measure dominance were
not included in the present questionnaire because atmospherics stud-
ies (e.g., Donovan et al., 1994) revealed nonsignificant effects of domi-
nance on approach responses. Additionally, dominance was not used in
studies on the effect of emotional response from Web-site design on con-
sumer behavior (Eroglu et al., 2003; Menon & Kahn, 2002). The Mehra-
bian and Russell scale was found to be valid and reliable (Donovan et
al., 1994; Eroglu et al., 2003; Mehrabian & Russell, 1974; Menon &
Kahn, 2002).
Fourteen items assessed approach responses toward the on-line store.
These items were derived by modifying items developed by Engel, Black-
well, and Miniard (1995) to tap approach responses toward the on-line
store instead of product preference. The four-item global attitude meas-
ure tapped how much the respondent liked the on-line store, the overall
evaluation of the on-line store, how good the on-line store was, and over-
all level of liking of the on-line store. Five items to assess willingness to
purchase included, “After seeing the Web site, how likely is it that you
would buy clothes from this on-line store?” and “I would be willing to
purchase clothes through this on-line store.” Three items to measure
willingness to patronize the on-line store were created by the present
researchers. These items asked subjects if they would patronize the on-
line store, visit the on-line store again, and probably spend more time than
planned on the on-line store. Three demographic (age range, gender,
major) and six Internet usage information items (e.g., use of the Inter-

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net to gather product information or purchase apparel) were also cre-
ated for the present study.

Experimental Procedure
Six students pilot tested the instrument and procedure to ensure clar-
ity of item wording and instructions, to determine time needed to suffi-
ciently explore the on-line products and image interactivity feature, and
to test for potential computer/network problems. Their responses were
not included in data for hypotheses testing. In a laboratory experiment,
subjects completed the OSL, recreational shopping, and Internet usage
scales. Five subjects at a time, each on his/her own computer, navigated
the Guess.com product offerings for 5 minutes. Subjects then completed
the emotional pleasure and arousal questions and approach response
questions (not used in the present study). Subjects navigated the image
interactivity feature for another 5 minutes to examine how products
(tops and bottoms) of their choosing would look together. Subjects then
completed the remainder of the questionnaire related to emotional pleas-
ure and arousal, reasons for trying the image interactivity feature, and
approach responses. Exposure to a stimulus was controlled because level
of exposure can affect evaluation, with an increase in exposure leading
to more positive responses toward the stimulus (Zajonc, 2001). All sub-
jects used the same model PCs with the latest version of Internet Explorer
to ensure the speed and look of the site would be similar.

RESULTS

The conceptual model consists of OSL, recreational shopping, trying

image interactivity as a stimulating experience, arousal, pleasure, global
attitude toward on-line store, willingness to purchase via the on-line
store, and willingness to patronize the on-line store. For path analysis,
multiple items for each construct were summed to create a variable.
Each construct achieved an alpha coefficient over 0.70, suggested by
Nunnally and Bernstein (1994) to be a measure of reliability. Cronbach-
alpha coefficients for the OSL scale, recreational shopping, and trying
image interactivity as a stimulating experience were 0.80, 0.94, and 0.85,
respectively. Alpha coefficients for the arousal and pleasure responses
were 0.90 and 0.93, respectively. The coefficients for global attitude toward
on-line store, willingness to purchase via on-line store, and willingness
to patronize the on-line store were 0.94, 0.93, and 0.89, respectively.
Therefore, measures used to test the proposed hypotheses were reliable.
The hypotheses, presented in the conceptual model (Figure 1), were
tested with the use of AMOS (Analysis of Moment Structures). Correla-
tions among construct measures for the model are shown in Table 1. Fig-
ure 2 provides a revised model with squared multiple correlations (R2)

682 FIORE, JIN, & KIM

for the constructs as well as path coefficients and t values for each sta-
tistically significant path.
All hypotheses except three were statistically supported. Those not
supported related to the effects of trying image interactivity as a stim-
ulating experience on willingness to patronize the on-line store [H6(c)],
emotional arousal on global attitude [H7(a)], and emotional pleasure on
willingness to purchase from the on-line store [H8(b)]. Hypotheses 1–3
examined person variables and their effects on hedonic desire for trying
image interactivity of the on-line apparel store. Hypothesis 1, predicting
a positive relationship between OSL and recreational shopping, was sup-
ported (ß1*  0.24, t  2.45, p  .05). The proposed relationship between
OSL and trying image interactive as a stimulating experience (H2) was
also supported (ß2*  0.36, t  4.04, p  .001). Hypothesis 3, predicting
a positive relationship between recreational shopping and trying image
interactivity as a stimulating experience, was supported (ß3*  0.31, t 
3.56, p  .001).

Table 1. Correlation Matrix of Model Constructs.

Model Constructs Correlations

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. OSL —
2. Recreational shopping .25* —
3. Image interactivity .43*** .40*** —
4. Arousal response .23* .26** .51*** —
5. Pleasure response .27** .29** .52*** .85*** —
6. Global attitude .26* .36*** .51*** .61*** .68*** —
7. Willingness to purchase .18 .19 .44*** .49*** .49*** .77*** —
8. Willingness to patronize .21* .25* .34*** .51*** .51*** .75*** .82*** —
* p  .05. ** p  .01. *** p  .001.

Figure 2. A revised model showing R2 and t values for significant hypotheses.

FOR FUN AND PROFIT 683

 Hypotheses 4, 5, and 6(a)–6(c) examined the effect of desired hedonic
value from trying the image interactivity feature on emotion and approach
responses. Hypotheses 4 and 5, predicting positive relationships between
trying the image interactivity feature as a stimulating experience and the
two emotional responses (emotional arousal and pleasure), were statis-
tically supported. Results revealed that trying the image interactivity
feature as a stimulating experience was positively associated with level
of emotional arousal (ß4 *  0.52, t  6.13, p  .001) as well as level of
emotional pleasure (ß5 *  0.52, t  6.12, p  .001). Hypotheses 6(a) and
6(b), testing positive relationships between trying the image interactiv-
ity feature as a stimulating experience and two approach responses
(global attitude and willingness to purchase via the on-line store), received
statistical support. Trying the image interactivity feature as a stimu-
lating experience positively predicted global attitude toward the on-line
store (ß6a *  0.20, t  2.12, p  .05) and willingness to purchase via the
on-line store (ß6b *  0.23, t  2.07, p  .05). However, the relationship
between trying the image interactivity feature as a stimulating experi-
ence and willingness to patronize the on-line store (H8) was not statis-
tically supported (ß6c *  0.07, t  0.60, p  .55).
Hypotheses 7(a)–7(c) tested the relationships between level of emo-
tional arousal from the Web-site image interactivity feature and the
three approach responses. Hypothesis 7(a), examining the relationship
between level of arousal and global attitude toward the on-line apparel
store, did not receive statistical support (ß7a *  0 .05, t  0.55, p  .58).
Level of arousal predicted willingness to purchase apparel products via
the on-line store (ß7b *  0.23, t  2.30, p  .05) and willingness to patron-
ize the on-line store (ß7c *  0.30, t  2.99, p  .01). Therefore, Hypothe-
ses 7(b) and 7(c) received statistical support.
Hypotheses 8(a) and 8(c), testing relationships between emotional
pleasure and two approach responses (global attitude and willingness
to patronize the on-line store), received statistical support. Level of pleas-
ure predicted global attitude toward the on-line store (ß8a *  0.55, t 
6.51, p  .001) and willingness to patronize the on-line store (ß8c * 
0.24, t  2.37, p  .05). However, the relationship between level of pleas-
ure and willingness to purchase via the on-line store (H8b) did not receive
statistical support (ß8b *  0.19, t  1.87, p  .06).
A decomposition of direct, indirect, and total effects of predictor vari-
ables was conducted (Table 2) to further examine the effects of person vari-
ables (OSL and recreational shopping) and the desired hedonic value
(trying the image interactivity feature as a stimulating experience) on
emotional responses (emotional arousal and pleasure) and approach
responses (global attitude, willingness of purchase, and willingness to
patronize the on-line store). The person variables, OSL and recreational
shopping, had significant but indirect effects on the approach response
variables, supporting the important mediating effect of trying the image
interactivity feature as a stimulating experience.

684 FIORE, JIN, & KIM

Table 2. Indirect, Direct, and Total Effects of Predictor Variables.
Predictor
Variables Image Interactivity Arousal Pleasure

Indirect Direct Total Indirect Direct Total Indirect Direct Total

Effect Effect Effect Effect Effect Effect Effect Effect Effect

OSL .07* .36* .43* .23* — .23* .22* — .22*

Recreational
shopping — .31* .31* .16* — .16* .16* — .16*
Image
interactivity — .52* .52* — .52* .52*
Arousal
Pleasure
R2 .28 .27 .27

Predictor
Variables Global Attitude Willingness to Purchase Willingness to Patronize

Indirect Direct Total Indirect Direct Total Indirect Direct Total

Effect Effect Effect Effect Effect Effect Effect Effect Effect

OSL .22* — .22* .19* — .19* .15* — .15*

Recreational
shopping .16* — .16* .14* — .14* .11* — .11*
Image
interactivity .31* .20* .51* .22* .23* .45* .28* .07 .35*
Arousal — .05 .05 — .23* .23* — .30* .30*
Pleasure — .55* .55* — .19 .19 — .24* .24*
R2 .48 .26 .23
Notes: Standardized path estimates are reported. Significant path estimates at p  .05 are indicated with *.

Overall, the proposed conceptual model explained a moderate amount

of variance for global attitude toward the on-line store (R2  0.48), and all
predictor variables except arousal had significant direct or indirect effects.
The level of pleasure from the Web-site image interactivity feature had
the strongest direct effect (0.55) on global attitude toward the on-line store,
but trying the image interactivity feature as a stimulating experience also
had a strong direct effect (0.20) on this approach response variable.
The proposed model also explained a fair amount of variance for will-
ingness to purchase via the on-line store (R2  0.26), and all predictor vari-
ables except pleasure had significant direct and/or indirect effects. Try-
ing the image interactivity feature as a stimulating experience and
arousal had the strongest direct effects (0.23 and 0.23, respectively). Try-
ing the image interactivity feature as a stimulating experience had the
strongest indirect effect (0.22) and total effect (0.45) on willingness to
purchase apparel products via on-line store.
Finally, the model also explained a fair amount of the variance for
willingness to patronize the on-line store (R2  0.23) and all predictor vari-

FOR FUN AND PROFIT 685

ables had significant direct and/or indirect effect. Trying the image inter-
activity feature as a stimulating experience had the strongest indirect
effect (0.28), but arousal (0.30) and pleasure (0.24) had the strongest
direct effects on willingness to patronize the on-line store. The strong
direct effects suggest that emotional arousal and pleasure mediated the
effect of trying the image interactivity feature as a stimulating experi-
ence on willingness to patronize the on-line store.

DISCUSSION

Holbrook’s (1986) C–E–V model of the consumption experience was use-

ful for determining variables that affect approach responses toward an
on-line store in the present study, as the model has been for other Web-
site design studies (Eroglu et al., 2003; Menon & Kahn, 2002). The pres-
ent study illustrates that desired hedonic value of a stimulating experi-
ence and emotional pleasure and arousal, produced by a Web site’s image
interactivity feature (environment variable), predicted approach responses
toward an on-line apparel store with a few exceptions. Optimum stimu-
lation level and recreational shopping (person variables) influenced the
role hedonic value played in approach responses toward the on-line store.
The model explained a moderate amount of variance for global attitude
toward the on-line store, and fair amounts of the variance for willingness
to purchase from and willingness to patronize the on-line store. There-
fore, hedonic value from the consumption experience may not be an end
in itself for consumers, but a contributor to approach responses toward
the on-line store that have a direct impact on viability of the firm. On-
line marketers should consider adding image interactivity features to
the retail site to increase approach responses, such as willingness to pur-
chase from the site and returning to the site.
However, Klein (2003) claimed that advanced product presentations
were not necessary to influence customers. Furthermore, image inter-
activity features can be costly to develop and maintain because of pro-
prietary software, extensive programming, and databases of fashion-
product images that need frequent updating. Determining the
effectiveness of these features, on a cost/revenue basis, will help a firm
make best use of available resources and enhance profitability. On-line
sales of apparel grew by 54% in 2003, eclipsing the growth rates of on-
line stalwarts such as books, music, videos, software, and hardware (Mar-
lin, 2004). With on-line apparel sales burgeoning, understanding the
impact of image interactivity features on the on-line apparel customer
and resulting profitability of the firm increases in saliency.
According to Venkatraman and MacInnis (1985), hedonic consumers
seek to engage in exploratory behaviors (variety-seeking and innova-
tiveness) with products that provide sensory stimulation, emotional stim-
ulation, and/or imagery. Image interactivity, such as a mix-and-match

686 FIORE, JIN, & KIM

feature, may promote emotional stimulation, sensory stimulation, and
imagery during creation of new ensembles. Image interactivity may also
offer utilitarian value (Fiore & Jin, 2003) from better product coordina-
tion information (e.g., how will the new top look with pants I already
own). Entertainment combined with good information was found to be nec-
essary to satisfy customers in Internet shopping (S. E. Kim & Lim, 2001).
This suggests that image interactivity may influence satisfaction level
for both hedonic and utilitarian Internet shoppers.
Future research should examine whether the effects on approach
responses vary for different types and examples of image interactivity fea-
tures. The present research looked at one mix-and-match feature. This
type of feature differs in level of realism. Some mix-and-match features
overlap products to better represent how the products would look when
worn together. Other mix-and-match features (including Guess.com’s
Mix & Match) simply show the top (e.g., shirt) positioned above the bot-
tom (e.g., pants) with a gap between the garment images. Some mix-and-
match features use three-dimensional graphics of the product, whereas
others use photographic images. There appears to be a trend among
larger on-line stores toward combining the mix-and-match feature with
the three-dimensional model feature to allow the customer to see the
coordinated ensemble on a body form similar to the customer’s own body
form. Shih (1998) proposed that vividness of the image had a positive
effect on approach responses toward the Web site. Therefore, level of real-
ism of the image or completeness of sensory information created by an
image interactivity feature may influence the feature’s effect on approach
response variables.
The present model, as hypothesized, showed that OSL and recreational
shopping predicted hedonic value as the motivation for trying image
interactivity; individuals with a high OSL or recreational shopping tried
the image interactivity feature as a stimulating experience. Both OSL and
recreational shopping had significant indirect effects on the three
approach responses, suggesting that these person variables may be use-
ful in psychographic profiles of market segments for products and serv-
ices. This recommendation is in line with the Kwon and Workman (1996)
recommendation that apparel marketers segment their target market
based on OSL because an individual with higher OSL differs from an
individual with lower OSL in terms of preference of products and pro-
motional media.
Present results support the Holbrook (1986) proposition that emotion
should be a key link in the consumption experience approach to con-
sumer behavior. Trying image interactivity as a stimulating experience,
as hypothesized, predicted emotional arousal and emotional pleasure.
Both emotional arousal and pleasure mediated the relationship between
trying image interactivity as a stimulating experience and willingness
to patronize the on-line store. Arousal had a direct effect on the two
approach responses, willingness to purchase from and willingness to

FOR FUN AND PROFIT 687

patronize the on-line store, whereas pleasure had a direct effect on the
two approach responses of global attitude toward and willingness to
patronize the on-line store.
The three nonsignificant paths may be explained from statistical or the-
oretical perspectives. From a statistical perspective, multicollinearity
(high correlation) between arousal and pleasure may affect the three
nonsignificant paths between (a) arousal and global attitude, (b) pleas-
ure and willingness to purchase, and (c) image interactivity and will-
ingness to patronize. These three paths were significant when simple
regression was run between each set of two variables. Deleting one of
these two variables (emotional arousal or pleasure) could solve this mul-
ticollinearity issue (Mendenhall & Sincich, 1996); however, deleting one
of the variables is not supported theoretically, as both variables were
important to the present research question and model. Thus, the pro-
posed theoretical model was retained and the statistical issue was
reported. Level of correlation between the emotion variables was not
reported in the Eroglu et al. (2003) and Menon and Kahn (2002) studies,
but these studies may have had to address the same issue.
In the present study, an image interactivity feature on an existing
Web site was used as the stimulus for the sake of realism. On-line image
interactivity features are likely to produce both emotional arousal and
pleasure. Image interactivity features that do not produce both emo-
tional states may appear contrived or may not be easily developed, lead-
ing to methodological issues. Future research may address the issue of
developing image interactivity features for use as stimuli that appear
bona fide yet do not lead to multicollinearity between emotional pleas-
ure and arousal.
From a theoretical perspective, the nonsignificant paths may have a
number of possible explanations. First, hedonic consumption experience
may terminate with pleasure from affective evaluation during the prod-
uct search stage rather than the purchase decision stage. The hedonic
experience during product search is intrinsically satisfying and becomes
the end result sought instead of an intermediate step in the purchase deci-
sion process. Therefore, subjects may not go through the cognitive process
of determining if they would purchase, leading to a nonsignificant effect
on willingness to purchase. Second, the Menon and Kahn (2002) find-
ings may offer another explanation. They found that pleasure increased
the desire to seek stimulation through browsing of more sites. Perhaps
emotional pleasure in the present study whetted the subject’s appetite
for further Internet browsing before the subject would consider pur-
chasing from the site. For those who were willing to purchase, emotional
arousal more than emotional pleasure may have been the influential
outcome of the stimulating experience. Menon and Kahn (2002) found that
high arousal led to actions to limit further arousal; high arousal led to
a decrease in willingness to browse more sites. Thus, in the present study

688 FIORE, JIN, & KIM

arousal may have led to the curtailment of the exploratory process and
a willingness to purchase from this site.
A third possible explanation of the nonsignificant path between emo-
tional pleasure, and willingness to purchase lies with security concerns
that may have derailed the path from emotional pleasure to willingness
to purchase. Pleasure affected global attitude and willingness to patron-
ize, but was not sufficient to entice consumers to be willing to purchase.
On-line shopping concerns such as having credit-card information stolen,
reputation of the vendor, lack of privacy in on-line transactions, and loss
of time and money if products need to be returned (Miyazaki & Fernan-
dez, 2001; Swinyard & Smith, 2003) may cause even the risk-tolerant
high-OSL individual to avoid on-line purchasing even though the process
of on-line search was pleasurable. Future studies may include perceived
on-line shopping risk to the model proposed in the present study. What-
ever the explanation, the present findings suggest that marketers should
make certain that e-commerce Web-site features create both pleasure to
affect attitude and arousal to entice the consumer to purchase and come
back to the on-line retailer’s site.
Related to the third explanation, perhaps the nonsignificant path
between emotional pleasure and willingness to purchase and the sig-
nificant path between arousal and willingness to purchase reflect on-
line nonshopper (Fun Seekers) and shopper (Adventurous Seekers) seg-
ments (Swinyard & Smith, 2003), respectively. Both segments use the
Internet heavily for entertainment, but Fun Seekers do not use the Inter-
net to shop on-line very frequently, whereas the Adventurous Seekers
rely heavily on the Internet for purchases. Fun Seekers may have found
image interactivity to be entertaining, which led to liking and willingness
to patronize the on-line retailer’s Web site. However, because of security
concerns regarding shopping on-line, Fun Seekers were not willing to
purchase on-line. Adventurous Seekers may have found image interac-
tivity to be entertaining and were willing to purchase because of their lack
of on-line shopping reticence. Future research may add these psycho-
graphic variables to the model tested in the present study. The 32% of
present subjects who had purchased apparel on-line may have belonged
to the Adventurous Seekers segment. Past purchase experience, in itself,
may be a useful variable to include in a future model predicting future
purchase behavior (Keen, 2000).
An actual Web site’s image interactivity feature was used to enhance
external validity. However, approach responses toward this site may have
been influenced by previous exposure (Balabanis & Reynolds, 2001) for
16% of subjects who had previously visited the Guess.com site but lacked
experience with the image interactivity feature. Future research may
examine a stimulus site with products unfamiliar to the sample and
devoid of brand information to measure the effect of an image interac-
tivity feature without the potential confounding effect of previous expo-

FOR FUN AND PROFIT 689

sure. Existing attitude toward the site before exposure may be used as
a covariate in future studies as well.
Demand bias could have affected the scores of emotional pleasure and
arousal and approach responses, because these measures were completed
twice (before and after exposure to the image interactivity feature).
Demand bias was not likely a problem, given that differences in before
and after scores were not used to test the hypotheses. Additionally, sig-
nificant paths were found throughout the model, regardless of when the
variable measurement occurred.
As one last point, the college-aged sample does not permit general-
ization of the results to all Internet users. The sample was appropriate
for the present study because it reflected many of the demographic
characteristics of the Guess.com customer. However, the sample was
very computer literate and felt comfortable with new technology, which
may have affected the level of pleasure and arousal created by image
interactivity features. Internet users with less experience may find
image interactivity features too complex, leading to low pleasure but
very high arousal, which will likely lead to avoidance rather than
approach responses.

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This research was partially funded by Iowa State University’s College of Fam-
ily and Consumer Science.

Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to: Ann Marie Fiore, 1062
LeBaron Hall, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011 (amfiore@iastate.edu).

694 FIORE, JIN, & KIM

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