Professional Documents
Culture Documents
net/publication/297735190
Consumer Psychology
CITATIONS READS
0 1,281
1 author:
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
All content following this page was uploaded by Michael Robert Solomon on 11 March 2016.
symbolic self-completion theory Theory that argues that peo- of consumption experiences, ranging from canned peas,
ple who have an incomplete self-definition tend to bolster a massage, or democracy to hip-hop music or a celebrity
this identity by acquiring and displaying symbols asso- such as Madonna. Needs and desires to be satisfied range
ciated with it. from physiological conditions such as hunger and thirst
values Culturally determined general ideas about good and
to love, status, or even spiritual fulfillment.
bad goals.
Consumers take many forms, ranging from an 8-year-
old girl begging her mother for Pokémon cards to an
executive in a large corporation deciding on a multi-
Consumer psychology is the study of the processes
million-dollar computer system. This article focuses
involved when individuals or groups select, purchase,
on individual consumers, but with the caveat that
use, or dispose of products, services, ideas, or
many important issues relate to the psychology of
experiences to satisfy needs and desires. The decision to
group decision making involving dyads, families, and
consume typically is the culmination of a series of stages
organizations. One must also recognize that the study
that include need recognition, information search,
of consumer behavior is extremely interdisciplinary.
evaluation of alternatives, purchase, and postpurchase
Although psychology is one of the core disciplines that
evaluation. However, in some cases (especially when
have shaped the field, many other important perspec-
involvement with the product or service to be chosen is
tives from economics, sociology, and other social
low), this rational sequence is short-circuited as
sciences also play a dominant role.
consumers make decisions based on ‘‘shortcuts’’ called
During its early stages of development, the field was
heuristics (e.g., ‘‘Choose a well-known brand name’’). In
often referred to as buyer behavior, reflecting an empha-
other cases (especially when involvement with the
sis on the exchange, a transaction in which two or more
product or service to be chosen is especially high, as is
organizations or people give and receive something of
the case with extremely risky decisions or when the object
value. Most marketers now recognize that consumer be-
carries extreme emotional significance to the individual),
havior is in fact an ongoing process and not merely what
subjective criteria also may cause the person’s choice to
happens at the moment a consumer hands over money or
diverge from the outcome predicted by a strictly rational
a credit card and, in turn, receives some good or service.
perspective on behavior. Indeed, many consumer
This expanded view emphasizes the entire consumption
behaviors, including addictions to gambling, shoplifting,
process, which includes the issues that influence the
and even shopping itself, are quite irrational and
consumer before, during, and after a purchase.
may literally harm the decision maker. The study of
One of the fundamental premises of the modern field
consumer psychology underscores the importance of
of consumer psychology is that people often buy prod-
individual and group variables that help to shape
ucts not for what they do but for what they mean. This
preferences for products and services. In addition to
principle does not imply that a product’s basic function
demographic differences such as age, stage in the life
is unimportant; rather, it implies that the roles that
cycle, gender, and social class, psychographic factors
products play in our lives extend well beyond the
such as personality traits often play a major role.
tasks that they perform. The deeper meanings of a
A person’s identification with others who constitute
product may help it to stand out from other similar
significant reference groups or who share the bonds of
goods and services. All things being equal, a person will
subcultural memberships also exerts a powerful impact on
choose the brand that has an image (or even a person-
his or her consumption decisions. These macro influences
ality) consistent with the purchaser’s underlying needs.
on behavior make it more or less likely that an individual
People’s allegiances to certain sneakers, musicians,
will choose to adopt new products, ideas, or services as
or even soft drinks help them to define their place in
these innovations diffuse through a market or culture.
modern society, and these choices also enable people
to form bonds with others who share similar prefer-
ences. Following are some of the types of relationships
s0005
1. I BUY, THEREFORE I AM a person might have with a product:
Consumer psychology is the study of the processes in- Self-concept attachment. The product helps to
volved when individuals or groups select, purchase, use, establish the user’s identity.
or dispose of products, services, ideas, or experiences to Nostalgic attachment. The product serves as a link
satisfy needs and desires. The field embraces many kinds with a past self.
Consumer Psychology 485
Interdependence. The product is a part of the user’s 2. CONSUMERS AS DECISION s0010
of affairs and some desired state. A person who unex- activated. Marketers have embraced this perspective
pectedly runs out of gas on the highway recognizes a because it (indirectly) specifies certain types of prod-
need, as does the person who becomes dissatisfied with uct benefits that people might be looking for, depend-
the image of his or her car even though there is nothing ing on the various stages in their development and/or
mechanically wrong with it. their environmental conditions.
Once a need has been activated, there is a state of
tension that drives the consumer to attempt to reduce s0025
2.1.2. Information Search
or eliminate the need. This need may be utilitarian
(i.e., a desire to achieve some functional or practical Need recognition prompts information search, that is,
benefit, e.g., when a person loads up on green vegeta- a scan of the environment to identify the options avail-
bles for nutritional reasons), or it may be hedonic (i.e., able to satisfy the need. As a rule, purchase decisions
an experiential need involving emotional responses or that involve extensive search also entail perceived risk,
fantasies, e.g., when a consumer thinks longingly about that is, the belief that a poor choice will produce
a juicy steak). Marketers strive to create products and potentially negative consequences. As shown in
services that will provide the desired benefits and per- Table I, perceived risk may be a factor if the product
mit the consumer to reduce this tension. This reduc- is expensive, complex, and hard to understand or if the
tion is reinforcing, making it more likely that the consumer believes that the product will not work as
consumer will seek the same path the next time the promised and/or could pose a safety risk. Alternatively,
need is recognized. perceived risk can be present when a product choice is
Maslow’s hierarchy of biogenic and psychogenic visible to others and the consumer runs the risk of
needs specifies certain levels of motives. This hierarchi- social embarrassment if the wrong choice is made.
cal approach, shown in Fig. 2, implies that one level
must be attained before the next higher one is s0030
2.1.3. Evaluation of Alternatives
Information search yields a set of alternative solutions to
satisfy the need. Those identified constitute the con-
Self-actualization
sumer’s evoked set. How does a consumer decide which
criteria are important, and how does he or she narrow
down product alternatives to an acceptable number and
eventually choose one instead of others? The answer
varies depending on the decision-making process used.
Ego
A consumer engaged in extended problem solving may
carefully evaluate several brands, whereas someone
making a habitual decision might not consider any
t0005
TABLE I
Belongingness Types of Perceived Risk
alternatives to his or her normal brand. Variety seeking, temperature, can influence consumption significantly.
or the desire to choose new alternatives over more One study even found that pumping in certain odors in
familiar ones, can also play a role; consumers at times a Las Vegas casino actually increased the amount of
are willing to trade enjoyment for variety because the money that patrons fed into slot machines. Time is
unpredictability itself is rewarding. another important situational variable. Common sense
Evaluative criteria are the dimensions used to judge dictates that more careful information search and delib-
the merits of competing options. If all brands being eration occurs when consumers have the luxury of
considered rate equally well on one attribute (e.g., if all taking their time.
televisions come with remote control), consumers will
have to find other reasons to choose one over the others.
Determinant attributes are the characteristics actually s0040
2.1.5. Postpurchase Evaluation
used to differentiate among choices. For example, con-
and Satisfaction
sumer research by Church & Dwight Company indi-
cated that many consumers view the use of natural Consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction (CS/D) refers to
ingredients as a determinant attribute when selecting the attitude that a person has about a product after it
personal care products. This prompted the firm to de- has been purchased. This attitude, in turn, is an im-
velop toothpaste made from baking soda, an ingredient portant determinant of whether the item will be bought
that the company already manufactured for its Arm & again in the future. Despite evidence that customer
Hammer brand. satisfaction is steadily declining in many industries,
marketers are constantly on the lookout for sources
s0035 of dissatisfaction. For example, United Airlines’ adver-
2.1.4. Purchase
tising agency set out to identify specific aspects of air
Once a need has been recognized, a set of feasible travel that contributed to discontent during the travel
options (often competing brands) that will satisfy the experience. The agency gave frequent fliers crayons
need have been identified, and each of these options and a map showing different stages in a long-distance
has been evaluated, the ‘‘moment of truth’’ arrives: The trip and asked passengers to fill in colors using hot
consumer must make a choice and actually procure the hues to symbolize areas causing stress and anger and
product or service. However, other factors at the time using cool colors for parts of the trip associated with
of purchase may influence this decision. A consump- satisfaction and calm feelings. Although jet cabins
tion situation is defined by factors beyond character- tended to be filled in with a serene aqua color, ticket
istics of the product that influence a purchase decision. counters were colored orange and terminal waiting
These factors can be behavioral (e.g., entertaining areas were colored fire red. This research led the airline
friends) or perceptual (e.g., being depressed, feeling to focus more on overall operations instead of just on
pressed for time). in-flight experiences, and the ‘‘United Rising’’ advertis-
A consumer’s mood can have a big impact on pur- ing campaign was born.
chase decisions. For example, stress can impair infor- Satisfaction is not determined solely by the actual
mation-processing and problem-solving abilities. The performance quality of a product or service. It is also
two dimensions of pleasure and arousal determine influenced by prior expectations regarding the level of
whether a shopper will react positively or negatively quality. According to the expectancy disconfirmation
to a consumption situation. In addition, the act of model, consumers form beliefs about product perfor-
shopping itself often produces psychological outcomes mance based on prior experience with the product
ranging from frustration to gratification or even and/or communications about the product that imply
exhilaration. a certain level of quality. When something performs
Despite all of their efforts to ‘‘pre-sell’’ consumers the way in which consumers thought it would, they
through advertising, marketers increasingly recognize might not think much about it. If, on the other hand,
that many purchases are strongly influenced by the the product fails to live up to expectations (even if
purchasing environment. Indeed, researchers estimate those expectations are unrealistic), negative affect
that shoppers decide on approximately two of every may result. If performance happens to exceed their
three products while wheeling their carts through super- expectations, consumers are satisfied and pleased.
market aisles. Dimensions of the physical environment, This explains why companies sometimes try to ‘‘under-
such as decor, ambient sounds or music, and even promise’’ what they can actually deliver.
488 Consumer Psychology
s0045
2.2. Biases in the Decision-Making Consumption at the low end of involvement typically
Process is characterized by inertia, where decisions are made out
of habit because the consumer lacks the motivation to
Although the rational model of decision making is consider alternatives. Many people tend to buy the same
compelling, many researchers now recognize that deci- brand nearly every time they go to the store. A compe-
sion makers actually possess a repertoire of strategies— titor who is trying to change a buying pattern based on
and not all of these strategies are necessarily rational. inertia often can do so rather easily because little resis-
The constructive processing perspective argues that a tance to brand switching will be encountered if the right
consumer evaluates the effort required to make a par- incentive is offered.
ticular choice and then chooses a strategy best suited At the high end of involvement, one can expect to
to the level of effort required. find the type of passionate intensity that is reserved for
As shown in Table II, some purchases are made under people and objects that carry great meaning for the
conditions of low involvement, where the consumer is individual. When consumers are truly involved with a
not willing to invest a lot of cognitive effort. Instead, the product, an ad, or a Web site, they enter a flow state.
consumer’s decision is a learned response to environ- Flow is an optimal experience characterized by a sense
mental cues, for example, when he or she impulsively of playfulness, a feeling of being in control, highly
decides to buy something that is promoted as a ‘‘surprise focused attention, and a distorted sense of time.
special’’ in a store. In other cases, the consumer is highly Especially when limited problem solving occurs
involved in a decision, and again the stages of rational prior to making a choice, consumers often fall back
information processing might not capture the process. on heuristics, that is, mental rules-of-thumb that lead
For example, the traditional approach is hard-pressed to to a speedy decision. These rules range from the very
explain a person’s choice of art, music, or even a spouse. general (e.g., ‘‘Higher priced products are higher qual-
In these cases, no single quality may be the determining ity products,’’ ‘‘Buy the same brand I bought last time’’)
factor. Instead, an experiential perspective stresses the to the very specific (e.g., ‘‘Buy Domino, the brand of
Gestalt, or totality, of the product or service. sugar my mother always bought’’).
One frequently used shortcut is the tendency to infer
hidden dimensions of products from observable attri-
butes. These are known as product signals. Country of
t0010
TABLE II origin is an example of a commonly used product
Limited Versus Extended Problem Solving signal. In some cases, people may assume that a prod-
uct made overseas is of better quality (e.g., cameras,
Motivation Low risk High risk cars), whereas in other cases, the knowledge that a
Information search Low search High search product has been imported tends to lower perceptions
Evaluation of Weak beliefs Strong beliefs of product quality (e.g., apparel). Price is also a heur-
alternatives Few differences Significant
istic; all things equal, people often assume that ‘‘Brand
perceived differences
among perceived
A’’ is of higher quality simply because it costs more
alternatives among than ‘‘Brand B.’’
alternatives A well-known brand also frequently functions as a
Most prominent Many criteria heuristic. People form preferences for a favorite brand
criteria or used and then literally might never change their minds in
heuristics used the course of a lifetime. In contrast to inertia, brand
Purchase Limited time spent Extensive time loyalty is a form of repeat purchasing behavior reflect-
spent ing a conscious decision to continue buying the same
Few stores Many stores brand. Purchase decisions based on brand loyalty also
shopped shopped become habitual over time, although in these cases the
Store displays Advertising and underlying commitment to the product is much more
influential store firm. Because of the emotional bonds that can come
personnel about between brand-loyal consumers and products,
influential ‘‘true blue’’ users react more vehemently when these
Source. Solomon, M. R. (2004). Consumer behavior: Buying, hav- products are altered, redesigned, or eliminated. For
ing, and being (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. example, when Coca-Cola replaced its tried-and-true
Consumer Psychology 489
formula with New Coke during the 1980s, the com- now voicing strong concerns about ‘‘Internet addiction,’’
pany encountered a firestorm of national call-in cam- a condition whereby Web surfers become obsessed by
paigns, boycotts, and other protests. online chat rooms to the point where their ‘‘virtual’’ lives
Finally, many of people’s reactions to products are take priority over their real ones. Compulsive consump-
based on aesthetic responses to colors, shapes, and tion refers to repetitive excessive shopping that serves as
objects. Many of these preferences are deep-seated or an antidote to tension, anxiety, depression, or boredom.
culturally determined. Package designs often incorpo-
rate extensive research regarding consumers’ interpreta-
tions of the meanings accorded to symbols on the box or
3. PSYCHOLOGICAL INFLUENCES s0055
Geography. Place of residence influences prefer- to understand the deeper meanings of products and
ences within many product categories, from entertain- advertisements. For example, for many years, Esso
ment to favorite cars, decorating styles, or leisure (now Exxon) reminded consumers to ‘‘Put a Tiger in
activities. For example, BMW found that drivers in Your Tank’’ after researchers found that people
France prized its cars for their road-handling abilities responded well to this powerful animal symbolism
and the self-confidence this gave them, whereas drivers containing vaguely sexual undertones.
in Austria were more interested in the status aspect of
the BMW brand. s0075
3.2.2. Jungian Theory
Freud’s disciple, Jung, introduced the concept of the
s0060
3.1. Psychographics and Lifestyles collective unconscious, that is, a storehouse of mem-
ories inherited from a person’s ancestral past. These
Although these segmentation variables are very important,
shared memories create archetypes, that is, universally
consumers can share the same demographic characteris-
shared ideas and behavior patterns involving themes
tics and still be very different people. Psychographics are
such as birth, death, and the devil, that frequently
data about people’s attitudes, interests, and opinions
appear in myths, stories, and dreams. For example,
(AIOs) that allow marketers to cluster consumers into
some of the archetypes identified by Jung and his
similar groups based on lifestyles and shared personality
followers include the ‘‘old wise man’’ and the ‘‘earth
traits.
mother,’’ and these images appear frequently in mar-
Lifestyle refers to a pattern of consumption reflecting
keting messages that use characters such as wizards,
a person’s choices of how he or she spends time and
revered teachers, and even Mother Nature.
money. In an economic sense, a person’s lifestyle repre-
sents the way in which he or she has elected to allocate
income in terms of relative allocations to various prod- 3.2.3. Trait Theory s0080
s0070
3.2.1. Freudian Theory 4. CULTURAL s0085
to attain value-related goals. For example, an emphasis to try new things. However, even within the same cul-
on personal hygiene in Japan has created a demand for ture, not all people adopt an innovation at the same rate.
products such as automated teller machines (ATMs) that Some do so quite rapidly, whereas others never do at all.
literally ‘‘launder’’ money by sanitizing yen before Consumers can be placed into approximate categories
dispensing them to bank customers. based on their likelihood of adopting an innovation.
Roughly one-sixth of the people are very quick to
adopt new products (i.e., innovators and early adopters),
s0090
4.1. Subcultures and Reference and one-sixth of the people are very slow (i.e., laggards).
Groups The other two-thirds are somewhere in the middle (i.e.,
Members of a subculture share beliefs and common late adopters). These latter consumers are the main-
experiences that set them apart from others in the stream public; they are interested in new things, but
larger culture. Whether ‘‘Dead Heads’’ or ‘‘Skinheads,’’ they do not want them to be too new.
each group exhibits its own unique set of norms, Even though innovators represent only approximately
vocabulary, and product insignias (e.g., the skull and 2.5% of the population, marketers are always interested
roses that signifies the Grateful Dead subculture). in identifying them. Innovators are the brave souls who
A reference group is an actual or imaginary individual are always on the lookout for novel developments and
or group that influences an individual’s evaluations, who will be the first to try new offerings. They tend to
aspirations, or behavior. As a rule, reference group have more favorable attitudes toward taking risks, have
effects are more robust for purchases that are (a) luxuries higher educational and income levels, and be socially
(e.g., sailboats) rather than necessities and (b) socially active. In addition, many innovators also are opinion
conspicuous or visible to others (e.g., living room furni- leaders, so their acceptance of an innovation may be
ture, clothing). a crucial factor in persuading others to try it as well.
As a rule, consumers are less likely to adapt innova-
tions that demand radical behavior changes—unless they
s0095
4.2. Opinion Leaders are convinced that the effort will be worthwhile. As
a result, evolutionary changes (e.g., a cinnamon version
An opinion leader is a person who is frequently able of Quaker oatmeal) are more likely to be rapidly adapted
to influence others’ attitudes or behaviors. Opinion than are revolutionary changes (e.g., ready-to-eat micro-
leaders are extremely valuable information sources waveable Quaker oatmeal). The following factors make it
because (a) they are technically competent and, thus, more likely that consumers will accept an innovation:
more credible; (b) they have prescreened, evaluated,
and synthesized product information in an unbiased Compatibility with current lifestyle
way; and (c) they tend to be socially active and highly Ability to try the product before buying
interconnected in their communities. Simplicity of use
Ease of observing others using the innovation
Relative advantage over benefits offered by other
s0100
4.3. Diffusion of Innovations alternatives
Diffusion of innovations refers to the process whereby
a new product, service, or idea spreads through a popu-
lation. If an innovation is successful (most are not), it See Also the Following Articles
typically is initially bought or used by only a few Advertising and Culture n Advertising Psychology
people. Then, more and more consumers decide to n Economic Behavior n Values and Culture
adopt it until it might seem (sometimes) that nearly
everyone has bought or tried the innovation.
A consumer’s adoption of an innovation resembles Further Reading
the standard decision-making sequence whereby he or
Alba, J. W., & Hutchinson, J. W. (1988). Dimensions of con-
she moves through the stages of awareness, information sumer expertise. Journal of Consumer Research, 13, 411–454.
search, evaluation, trial, and adoption. The relative Baumgartner, H. (2002). Toward a personology of the con-
importance of each stage may differ depending on how sumer. Journal of Consumer Research, 29, 286–292.
much is already known about the innovation as well as Belk, R. W. (1988). Possessions and the extended self. Journal
on cultural factors that may affect people’s willingness of Consumer Research, 15, 139–168.
492 Consumer Psychology
Belk, R. W., Wallendorf, M., & Sherry, J. F., Jr. (1989). The Oliver, R. L. (1996). Satisfaction. New York: McGraw–Hill.
sacred and the profane in consumer behavior: Theodicy on Petty, R. E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Schumann, D. (1983). Central
the odyssey. Journal of Consumer Research, 16, 1–38. and peripheral routes to advertising effectiveness: The
Bettman, J. R., Luce, M. F., & Payne, J. W. (1988). Constructive moderating role of involvement. Journal of Consumer
consumer choice processes. Journal of Consumer Research, Research, 10, 135–146.
25, 187–217. Ratner, R. K., Kahn, B. E., & Kahneman, D. (1999).
Bettman, J. R., & Park, C. W. (1980). Effects of prior knowl- Choosing less-preferred experiences for the sake of vari-
edge and experience and phase of the choice process on ety. Journal of Consumer Research, 26, 1–15.
consumer decision processes: A protocol analysis. Journal Robertson, T. S., & Kassarjian, H. H. (Eds.). (1991). Handbook
of Consumer Research, 7, 234–248. of consumer behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Cialdini, R. B. (1993). Influence: The psychology of persuasion. Rogers, E. M. (1983). Diffusion of innovations (3rd ed.). New
New York: William Morrow. York: Free Press.
Dichter, E. (1964). The handbook of consumer motivations. Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York:
New York: McGraw–Hill. Free Press.
Fournier, S. (1998). Consumers and their brands: Developing Sirgy, M. J. (1982). Self-concept in consumer behavior: A
relationship theory in consumer research. Journal of Consumer critical review. Journal of Consumer Research, 9, 287–300.
Research, 24, 343–373. Solomon, M. R. (1983). The role of products as social stim-
Hoffman, D. L., & Novak, T. P. (1996). Marketing in hyperme- uli: A symbolic interactionism perspective. Journal of
dia computer-mediated environments: Conceptual founda- Consumer Research, 10, 319–329.
tions. Journal of Marketing, 60, 50–68. Solomon, M. R. (2004). Consumer behavior: Buying, having,
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences. Beverly Hills, and being (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
CA: Sage. Snyder, M. (1979). Self-monitoring processes. In L. Berkowitz
Holbrook, M. B., & Hirschman, E. C. (1982). The experien- (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 85–128).
tial aspects of consumption: Consumer fantasies, feelings, New York: Academic Press.
and fun. Journal of Consumer Research, 9, 132–140. Thaler, R. (1985). Mental accounting and consumer choice.
Jacoby, J., & Chestnut, R. (1978). Brand loyalty: Measurement Marketing Science, 4, 199–214.
and management. New York: John Wiley. Wells, W. D., & Tigert, D. J. (1971). Activities, interests, and
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An opinions. Journal of Advertising Research, 11, 27.
analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263–291. Wicklund, R. A., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1982). Symbolic self-
Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). completion. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
New York: Harper & Row. Wright, P. (2002). Marketplace metacognition and social
Midgley, D. F. (1983). Patterns of interpersonal information intelligence. Journal of Consumer Research, 28, 677–682.
seeking for the purchase of a symbolic product. Journal of Zablocki, B. D., & Kanter, R. M. (1976). The differentiation
Marketing Research, 20, 74–83. of life-styles. Annual Review of Sociology, 2, 269–297.