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Effect of different drying methods on drying characteristics, colour, total

phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of Goldenberry (Physalis peruviana
L.)

Article  in  International Journal of Food Science & Technology · January 2014

DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.12266

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International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2014, 49, 9–17 9

Original article
Effect of different drying methods on drying characteristics,
colour, total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of
Goldenberry (Physalis peruviana L.)

_ 1 G€
Nazmi Izli, €
okcßen Yıldız,2 Halil Unal, 1
* Esßref Isßık1 & Vildan Uylasßer2
1 Department of Biosystems Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Uludag University, Gorukle Campus, 16059, Bursa, Turkey
2 Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Uludag University, Gorukle Campus, 16059, Bursa, Turkey

(Received 8 March 2013; Accepted in revised form 24 June 2013)

Summary In this study, the effects of convective, microwave and microwave–convective drying methods on the dry-
ing characteristics, colour, total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of goldenberry fruits were
investigated. To select the most appropriate thin-layer drying model for drying treatments, nine mathe-
matical drying models were fitted to the experimental data. Based on the statistical tests used for evalua-
tion, the Midilli et al. and Wang and Singh models were considered the best models to describe the
drying behaviours of goldenberry fruits in all drying methods. The colour values (L*, a* and b*) of fresh
fruit were decreased by drying. Compared with the fresh sample, the dried samples exhibited a 64–75%
and 65–75% decrease in total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity, respectively. Among the differ-
ent drying treatments, the values closest to those of fresh samples with respect to colour values, total
phenolic content and antioxidant capacity were achieved with the 160 W microwave drying method.
Keywords Antioxidant capacity, colour, drying kinetic, goldenberry fruit, nutritional properties, total phenolic content.

compound content. Physalis peruviana L. is primarily

Introduction
The goldenberry, also known as the cape gooseberry, is
an exotic fruit that is native to tropical South America.
Although the goldenberry originated in South America,
today it is grown commercially in several tropical and
subtropical countries (Novoa et al., 2006). The golden-
berry has received increased interest worldwide due to
its nutritional composition and the presence of biologi-
cally active compounds that provide health benefits
and reduce the risks of certain diseases such as cancer,
malaria, asthma, hepatitis, dermatitis and rheumatism
(Salazar et al., 2008). The fruit, orange-yellow berry, is
a good source of provitamin A, vitamin C and vitamin
B complex as well as some minerals. It has high dietary
fibre content, and its fruit pectin acts as an intestinal
regulator. Goldenberry fruit contains 15% soluble
solids, mainly sugars, and its high level of fructose
makes it valuable for people with diabetes (Ramadan
& M€ orsel, 2003; Ramadan, 2011). According to the
studies of Ramadan & M€ orsel (2004), goldenberry fruit
contains 0.05–0.3% protein, 0.15–0.2% lipid, 19.6%
carbohydrate, 4.9% fibre and 1% ash. The fruit is
called a ‘functional food’ due to its bioactive
*Correspondent: Fax: +90 224 294 14 02;
e-mail: drhalilunal@gmail.com
valued for its fruit, which is eaten alone as a fresh fruit;
processed for juice, jam, jelly and other products;
sweetened with sugar as a snack; or added to dishes,
salads, desserts and cakes (Ramadan, 2011). While the
shelf life of the fruit with its calyx is one month, the
fruit without a calyx remains edible for only four to
five days (Cedeno & Montenegro, 2004). For transpor-
tation and storage purposes, the goldenberry is often
dried and sold in a dehydrated form, which is similar
to a raisin in texture and shape (National Research
Council (NRC), 1989).
Drying is an important food-processing technique
and is one of the oldest methods of food preservation.
The most popular and efficient way to preserve food by
reducing its moisture content is convective drying
(Mundada et al., 2010). However, the relatively long
drying time, the high temperatures used and the high
velocities of the drying airflow are serious drawbacks of
this method (Zhang et al., 2006). Microwave drying is
an alternative method with several advantages such as
uniform energy delivery, high thermal conductivity to
the interior of the material, better space utilisation, san-
itation, energy savings, precise process control and fast
start-up and shutdown conditions (Maskan, 2000). On
the other hand, it has some disadvantages, such
as uneven heating, possible textural damage, high

doi:10.1111/ijfs.12266
© 2013 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science and Technology © 2013 Institute of Food Science and Technology
10 Effect of different drying methods N. İzli et al.
investment costs and the limited penetration of the
microwave radiation (Zhang et al., 2006). To reduce
these problems, microwave drying has been combined
with existing drying techniques, which include convec-
tive air drying (cabinet, fluidised bed and tunnel), spray,
vacuum, foam mat and freeze–drying (Prabhanjan et al.,
1995). The drying kinetics of foods during microwave–
convective heat treatments has recently been studied by
various investigators. Some subjects of recent studies
on microwave–convective drying include carrots (Prab-
hanjan et al., 1995), cranberries (Sunjka et al., 2004)
and spinach (Karaaslan & Tuncer, 2008).
The objectives of this study were to determine the thin-
layer drying kinetics of goldenberries, to select the most
suitable drying models and to investigate the differences
in colour, total phenolic content and antioxidant
capacity between the fresh and dried products.
Materials and methods
Drying equipment and drying procedure
Fresh goldenberry samples were obtained from the
fields of the Faculty of Agriculture, Uludag University,
and stored at 4
0.5 °C until dried. The initial mois-
ture content of the fresh fruits was determined as
4.32 d.b. by oven (ED115 Binder, Tuttlingen, Germany)
drying at 105 °C for 24 h (Workneh et al., 2011).
The drying treatment was performed in a laboratory
microwave–convective oven (Whirlpool AMW 545,
Comerio, Italy) with technical features of ~230 V,
50 Hz and a frequency of 2450 MHz. The drying
experiments were conducted using three different dry-
ing methods: microwave, convective and microwave–
convective drying. The system was operated in convec-
tive mode at an air velocity of 1 m s1 with air tem-
peratures of 75 and 100 °C; in microwave mode at
output power level of 160 W; and in microwave–con-
vective mode at two different combinations of power
level and temperature (160 W – 75 °C and 160 W –
100 °C). The microwave, convective and combined
microwave–convective drying experiments were per-
formed in an area of 210 9 450 9 420 mm consisting
of a rotating glass plate with a 400 mm diameter at
the base of the oven. In the experiments, samples of
200 g of goldenberries (18.55
0.21 mm in length
and 18.91
0.45 mm in diameter) were placed on a
glass plate in a thin layer and dried. For mass determi-
nation, a digital balance (Baster, Istanbul, Turkey)
with 0.01 g precision was placed under the oven (Giri
& Prasad, 2007). The drying process continued until
the moisture content of goldenberries fell down to
0.14 d.b. Moisture losses were recorded at 5-min inter-
vals without stopping the drying process by the digital
balance. Three replicates were performed for each
sample, and mean value was calculated.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2014
International Journal of Food Science and Technology © 2013 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Mathematical modelling of drying data
Nine commonly used thin-layer drying models were
tested to select the best model for describing the dry-
ing curve of the goldenberry in Table 1. The moisture
ratio (MR) of the goldenberry samples during the dry-
ing experiments was calculated using the following
equation:
Mt  Me
MR ¼ ð1Þ
Mo  Me
where Mt is the moisture content at a specific time (g
water g dry solid1), Mo is the initial moisture content
(g water g dry solid1), and Me is the equilibrium
moisture content (g water g dry solid1). The values of
Me are relatively small compared with Mt or Mo.
Therefore, the MR was simplified as (Xiao et al.,
2010):
Mt
MR ¼ ð2Þ
Mo
Colour measurement
The colours of the fresh and dried goldenberries were
measured using HunterLab Colour Analyzer (MSEZ-
4500L; HunterLab, Virginia, USA) and the CIE L*,
a* and b* colour scale. L, a and b define a three-
dimensional colour space, in which L* represents
brightness (on a lightness–darkness scale), positive and
negative a* values determine the redness and green-
ness, and positive and negative b* values determine
yellowness and blueness, respectively. After initial cali-
bration against standard white and black surface
plates, three replicate measurements on the external
surface of the samples were performed (Karaaslan &
Tuncer, 2008). A black plastic cell containing the sam-
ple, with a diameter close to the nose cone of the
colorimeter, was placed above the light source, and the
L*, a* and b* colour values were recorded at different
positions (Xiao et al., 2012). Using the following equa-
tions (Karaaslan & Tuncer, 2008), a* and b* values
were used to calculate chroma (C) (eqn 3) and hue
angle (a) (eqn 4) values to aid in describing the colour
changes during drying.
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
C¼ ða Þ2 þ ðb Þ2 Þ ð3Þ
a ¼ tan1 ðb =a Þ ð4Þ
The saturation index, or C value, indicates colour
saturation and is proportional to its intensity. The a
© 2013 The Authors

Table 1 Selected thin-layer drying models used to mathematically model the goldenberry drying kinetics
No Model name Model
1 Henderson and Pabis MR
2 Newton MR
3 Page MR
4 Logarithmic MR
5 Two term MR
6 Two-term exponential MR
7 Wang and Singh MR
8 Diffusion approach MR
9 Midilli et al. MR
value is another parameter used frequently to cha-
racterise the colour of food products. An angle of 0°
or 360° represents a red hue, while angles of 90°, 180°
and 270° represent yellow, green and blue hues, respec-
tively (Karaaslan & Tuncer, 2008).
Preparation of sample extracts
The fresh and dried goldenberry extracts were prepared
based on the method described by Turkmen et al.
(2005). Briefly, 1 g of homogenised goldenberry sample
was extracted with 80% aqueous methanol (4.5 mL)
on a mechanical shaker (Biosan OS-20, Riga, Latvia)
at 140 rpm for 2 h at room temperature. The mixture
was centrifuged at 10 000 g for 15 min (Sigma 3K30,
Osterode am Harz, Germany), and the supernatant
was placed in Falcon tubes. The residue was re-
extracted under identical conditions. Supernatants were
combined and filtered through Whatman No. 1 filter
paper (Whatman International Ltd., Maidstone, Eng-
land). The obtained clear extracts were used to deter-
mine total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity.
Determination of total phenolic content
The total phenolic content of the extracts was deter-
mined according to the method of Ozy€ € urek et al.
(2012), with minor modifications. The solutions used
in the method were prepared as follows: Lowry A: 2%
aqueous Na2CO3 in 0.1 M NaOH; Lowry B: 0.5%
CuSO4 aqueous solution in 1% NaKC4H4O6 solution;
and Lowry C: prepared fresh by mixing 50 mL Lowry
A with 1 mL Lowry B. Folin–Ciocalteu reagent was
diluted 1:3 with H2O by volume prior to use. For the
assay, 0.1 mL of goldenberry extract was first diluted
to 2 mL with H2O, an aliquot of 2.5 mL of Lowry C
solution was added, and the mixture was allowed to
stand for 10 min. At the end of this period, 0.25 mL
of Folin reagent was added. After a 30-min incubation
in the dark at room temperature, the resulting blue
colour was read at an absorbance of 750 nm (Optizen
3220 UV, Mecasys, Korea). The total phenolic content
© 2013 The Authors
International Journal of Food Science and Technology © 2013 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Effect of different drying methods N. İzli et al. 11
References
¼ a expðktÞ Westerman et al. (1973)
¼ expðktÞ Ayensu (1997)
¼ expðkt n Þ Agrawal & Singh (1977)
¼ a expðktÞ þ c Yagcioglu et al. (1999)
¼ a expðk0 tÞ þ b expðk1 tÞ Madamba et al. (1996)
¼ a expðktÞ þ ð1  aÞ expðkatÞ Sharaf-Eldeen et al. (1980)
¼ 1 þ at þ bt 2 Wang & Singh (1978)
¼ a expðktÞ þ ð1  aÞ expðkbtÞ Kassem (1998)
¼ a expðkt n Þ þ bt Midilli et al. (2002)
in fresh and dried samples was calculated using a gallic
acid standard calibration curve (concentration range
5–50 mg L1) and expressed as mg gallic acid equiva-
lent (GAE) 100 g1 d.b. Three replicates of each
sample were analysed.
Determination of antioxidant capacity
The DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) free radical-
scavenging activity of the fruit extracts was determined
spectrophotometrically (Optizen 3220 UV) according
to the method of Katalinic et al. (2006), with minor
modifications. A 0.1-mL sample of each extract was
added to 3.9 mL of 6 9 105 M methanolic solution
of DPPH radical and vortexed (WiseMix VM-10,
Daihan, Korea) for 15–30 s. The reaction was allowed
to proceed in the dark at room temperature for
30 min, and the absorbance (A) was then measured at
515 nm. A standard curve was prepared using different
concentrations of Trolox. The results were expressed
as lmol Trolox equivalents (TE g1 d.b.). The samples
were analysed in three replicates. The inhibition ratio
for DPPH radical-scavenging activity was calculated
from the following equation:
DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity %
¼ ½ðAcontrol  Asample Þ=Acontrol   100 ð5Þ
Statistical analysis
The research was conducted in a randomised plot fac-
torial experimental design. The determination of the
investigated components was performed in three repli-
cates. The results were analysed using MATLAB
(MathWorks Inc., Natick, MA, USA) and JMP (ver-
sion 7.0; SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). Mean
differences were tested for significance with a least
significant difference (LSD) test at a 5% level of signif-
icance. The best model describing the thin-layer drying
characteristics of goldenberries was identified as the
model with the lowest reduced chi-squared (v2) and
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2014
12 Effect of different drying methods N. İzli et al.
root-mean-square-error (RMSE) values and the high-
€
est coefficient of determination (R2) (Ozbek & Dadalı,
2007). These statistical values are defined as follows:
P
N
ðMRexp;i  MRpre;i Þ2
_
v2 ¼ I¼1
Nn
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
uP
uN
u ðMRpre;i  MRexp;i Þ
tI¼1
_
RMSE ¼
N
where,
MRexp,i stands for the experimental MR in test
number i,
MRpre,i stands for the estimated MR in test number i,
N stands for the observation number,
and
n is the number of constants in the drying model.
Results and discussion
Drying kinetics of dried goldenberry
Figure 1 shows the drying curves of the goldenberry
with elapsed drying time at each of the drying temper-
atures (75 and 100 °C), at a microwave power of
160 W and at two microwave – convective combina-
tions with different temperatures (160 W – 75 °C and
160 W – 100 °C) and an air velocity of 1 ms1. The
experimental results showed that the total drying time
required to reach the final moisture content was
140 min at a microwave – convective power combina-
tion level of 160 W – 75 °C. The drying time at this
level was 63.2% shorter than the drying period at a
microwave-only power of 160 W (380 min) and 72.3%
shorter than the drying period at a convective-only
temperature of 75 °C. Similarly, a marked reduction in
the drying time was observed at a microwave – con-
vective power combination level of 160 W – 100 °C
(105 min) compared with the microwave alone
(160 W) or air drying treatment alone at 100 °C
(230 min). In general, the time required to reduce the
moisture content to a given level was dependent on
the drying conditions; the time was longest at 75 °C
(505 min) and shortest at 160 W – 100 °C. These
results showed that the drying time requirement was
significantly reduced by combining microwaves with
conventional drying. Workneh et al. (2011) found that
combined microwave/hot air drying resulted in
reduced drying time by 84% in comparison with con-
ventional hot air drying. Similar results were reported
by various authors for the drying of fruits and vegeta-
bles using microwave – convective techniques
(Contreras et al., 2008; Dev et al., 2011).
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2014
International Journal of Food Science and Technology © 2013 Institute of Food Science and Technology
ð6Þ
ð7Þ
Figure 1 Drying curves of goldenberry at different drying condi-
tions.
Fitting of drying curves
The statistical analysis values, including drying model
coefficients and the criteria used to evaluate the quality
of the model fit (R2, chi-square and RMSE), are
presented in Table 2. In all cases, the value of R2 was
greater than 0.92, indicating good fit. The R2 values
varied between 0.9239 and 0.9993, chi-square values
varied between 0.6094 9 104 and 84.7406 9 104,
and RMSE values varied between 0.0091 and 0.0919.
The Midilli et al. model exhibited the higher R2 and
the lower chi-square and RMSE values than other
thin-layer drying models for the air temperature of
100 °C and microwave – convective combinations of
160 W – 75 °C and 160 W – 100 °C. Additionally, the
Wang and Singh model gave better statistical values
than other models for an air temperature of 75 °C
and a microwave level of 160 W. The R2, chi-square
and RMSE values of the Midilli et al. and Wang and
Singh models ranged from 0.9987 to 0.9993,
0.7975 9 104 to 2.9948 9 104 and 0.0091 to 0.0117;
and 0.9928 to 0.9992, 0.6094 9 104 to
4
7.5669 9 10 , 0.0086 to 0.0283, respectively. Thus,
based on R2, chi-square and RMSE values, it can be
concluded that the Midilli et al. and Wang and Singh
models were satisfactory in describing the thin-layer
drying behaviour of goldenberries. Plots of experimen-
tal MR values and those predicted by the Midilli et al.
and Wang and Singh models with drying time at
selected temperatures and microwave power applica-
tions are shown in Fig. 2. The models presented a
slight over- or underestimation in comparison with the
experimental data under different drying processes, but
they are all very close to the experimental data.
Doymaz (2012) obtained good results when applying
these models in drying kinetics of grape leaves. The
Midilli et al. model has also been suggested by others
© 2013 The Authors
 © 2013 The Authors
Table 2 Estimated values of coefficients and statistical analyses obtained from various thin-layer drying models for drying of goldenberry using different drying treatments

75 °C 100 °C 160 W 160 W – 75 °C 160 W – 100 °C

Model Model Model Model Model

No coefficients R2 RMSE v2(104) coefficients R2 RMSE v2(104) coefficients R2 RMSE v2(104) coefficients R2 RMSE v2(104) coefficients R2 RMSE v2(104)

1 a = 1.079 0.9842 0.0372 13.6822 a = 1.086 0.9616 0.0587 33.9375 a = 1.073 0.9851 0.0362 13.2164 a = 1.125 0.9628 0.0634 40.7120 a = 1.132 0.9438 0.0790 62.1910
k = 0.005702 k = 0.009617 k = 0.008141 k = 0.01854 k = 0.0211
2 k = 0.005289 0.9774 0.0444 19.8078 k = 0.008803 0.9521 0.0656 42.1198 k = 0.007604 0.9797 0.0423 18.1691 k = 0.01652 0.9464 0.0760 59.1022 k = 0.01856 0.9239 0.0919 84.7406
3 k = 0.001179 0.9965 0.0176 2.9349 k = 0.001373 0.9847 0.0370 13.5635 k = 0.002081 0.9958 0.0192 3.6029 k = 0.001673 0.9962 0.0202 3.9917 k = 0.001111 0.9951 0.0234 5.7315
n = 1.279 n = 1.389 n = 1.256 n = 1.545 n = 1.701
4 a = 1.202 0.9978 0.0138 1.8323 a = 1.937 0.9989 0.0099 0.9048 a = 1.171 0.9981 0.0128 1.6083 a = 1.486 0.9943 0.0248 6.5403 a = 2.284 0.9944 0.0250 5.6741
k = 0.003912 k = 0.003196 k = 0.005807 k = 0.009411 k = 0.006073
c = 0.1788 c = 0.9414 c = 0.15 c = 0.4348 c = 1.241
5 a = 60.22 0.9453 0.0691 48.2129 a = 1.342 0.9989 0.0100 0.9130 a = 69.08 0.9384 0.0737 55.0669 a = 35.27 0.9674 0.0593 36.5813 a = 73 0.9864 0.0388 15.3389
ko=0.002392 ko=0.004252 ko=0.003427 ko=0.00519 ko=0.04107
b = 59.38 b = 0.3444 b = 68.26 b = 34.34 b = 72
k1 = 0.002368 k1 = 0.001788 k1 = 0.003399 k1 = 0.004999 k1 = 0.04169

International Journal of Food Science and Technology © 2013 Institute of Food Science and Technology
6 a = 1.81 0.9956 0.0196 3.7163 a = 1.874 0.9810 0.0413 16.8168 a = 1.784 0.9950 0.0209 4.3437 a = 2.006 0.9904 0.0322 10.4454 a = 2.071 0.9842 0.0418 17.7337
k = 0.007452 k = 0.01308 k = 0.01051 k = 0.02593 k = 0.03064
7 a = 0.003906 0.9991 0.0087 0.6869 a = 0.00609 0.9987 0.0106 1.0810 a = 0.005542 0.9992 0.0086 0.6094 a = 0.01166 0.9944 0.0246 6.6014 a = 0.01208 0.9928 0.0283 7.5669
b = 0.000003904 b = 0.000007455 b = 0.000007824 b = 0.00003088 b = 0.00002088
8 a = 3.549 0.9825 0.0390 15.1701 a = 1.275 0.9989 0.0099 0.8796 a = 3.081 0.9945 0.0220 4.8928 a = 5.389 0.9918 0.0297 9.1310 a = 4.341 0.9649 0.0624 37.0228
k = 0.004196 k = 0.004529 k = 0.004854 k = 0.005249 k = 0.008617
b = 0.9142 b = 0.5045 b = 0.8053 b = 0.7004 b = 0.7542
9 a = 0.9775 0.9989 0.0097 2.9948 a = 1.007 0.9990 0.0097 0.8486 a = 0.9813 0.9988 0.0102 0.9832 a = 0.9857 0.9987 0.0117 1.4663 a = 0.9833 0.9993 0.0091 0.7975
k = 0.00139 k = 0.006423 k = 0.002668 k = 0.002127 k = 0.001491
n = 1.226 n = 0.9282 n = 1.184 n = 1.456 n = 1.573
b = 0.000105 b = 0.001689 b = 0.0001523 b = 0.0004602 b = 0.0009966
Effect of different drying methods N. İzli et al.

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2014

13
14 Effect of different drying methods N. İzli et al.

to describe the drying of saskatoon berry (Reddy,
2006) and cape gooseberry (Vega-Galvez et al., 2012).
Furthermore, the Wang and Singh model was reported
to be the best model to describe the drying behaviour
of strawberry (Doymaz, 2008).
Colour analysis
The results of the changes in L* (brightness), a* (red-
ness/greenness), b* (yellowness/ blueness), C (Chroma)
and a (Hue angle) values caused by the different dry-
ing conditions are displayed in Table 3. According to
the results of the statistical analysis, the overall colour
parameters of goldenberry are significantly affected by
the different drying methods (P ≤ 0.05). The L*, a*
and b* values of the samples dried by microwave at
160 W were the highest among the dried samples and
closer to the L*, a* and b* values of the fresh sample.
The sample that was dried at 100 °C had the lowest L*
and b* values. Convective- and microwave-convective
combination – dried goldenberry samples were signifi-
cantly darker in colour than microwave-dried samples.
Colour changes during drying can be prevented by
microwave drying according to some authors (Sumnu
et al., 2005; Arslan & Ozcan, 2008). Sumnu et al.
(2005) reported higher L*, a* and b* values for micro-
wave-dried carrot slices compared with air-dried sam-
ples. The reduction in L* value of dried samples can
be explained by the Maillard and nonenzymatic
browning reactions that are unavoidable during drying
treatments (Kammoun Bejar et al., 2011). Carotenoids
are responsible for the orange colour of goldenberry
fruit (Ramadan & M€ orsel, 2003), and the decrease in
L*, a* and b* values as a result of drying treatments
can be strongly related to by the degradation of carot-
enoids. Furthermore, the drying treatments may cause
loss of substrates of Maillard reaction (sugar and some
soluble pigments) and result in decrease in a* value of
dried samples (Xiao et al., 2009).
The C and a values of the dried goldenberry samples
were significantly reduced compared with those of the
fresh samples. The C value indicates the brown colour
of the processed fruits. In addition to pigment degra-
dation, Maillard reactions may also be responsible for
the formation of brown colour compounds (Wojdylo
et al., 2009).

Figure 2 A comparison of the experimental and theoretical moisture ratios predicted by the Midilli et al. and Wang and Singh models at
specific drying times under selected drying conditions.

Table 3 Colour values of fresh and dried goldenberries at different drying methods

Colour parameters

Drying method L* a* b* C a°

Fresh 46.08
0.07a 22.98
0.03a 53.47
0.05a 58.32
0.06a 66.51
0.01a
Convective drying
75 °C 37.61
0.36c 21.09
0.09b 40.84
0.04c 46.37
0.03c 61.77
0.11d
100 °C 36.41
0.02e 19.26
0.01c 35.78
0.03f 40.28
0.03f 62.69
0.02cd
Microwave drying
160 W 38.91
0.15b 20.92
0.04b 41.85
0.16b 47.05
0.16b 62.84
0.05c
Microwave – convective drying
160 W – 75 °C 37.77
0.09c 18.11
0.89c 39.23
0.58d 43.24
0.14d 65.20
1.39b
160 W – 100 °C 36.92
0.04d 17.93
0.05c 37.99
0.14e 42.01
0.11e 64.76
0.14b

a–f
Means superscript with different alphabets in the same column differ significantly (P ≤ 0.05).

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2014 © 2013 The Authors
International Journal of Food Science and Technology © 2013 Institute of Food Science and Technology

Total phenolic content
Figure 3 shows the average total phenolic contents of
fresh and dried goldenberry samples. The phenolic
content of the fresh fruit analysed in this study was
834.863 mg GAE 100 g1 d.b. After drying treat-
ments, the phenolic content decreased by 64–75%. The
fresh sample had significantly (P ≤ 0.05) higher pheno-
lic content than the dried samples. Also, there was no
significant (P > 0.05) difference between the phenolic
contents of convective-, microwave- and microwave –
convective-dried samples. However, the descriptively
(P > 0.05) higher total phenolic content of samples
dried at 100 °C (239.709 mg GAE 100 g1 d.b.) and
160 W – 100 °C (236.826 mg GAE 100 g1 d.b.) com-
pared with those dried at 75 °C and 160 W – 75 °C
may be because the short time required for 100 °C
and 160 W – 100 °C drying preserved the phenolic
content of these dried samples. Some studies have
shown that thermal degradation of the phenolic com-
pounds increased the length of heat treatment (Kwok
et al., 2004; Wojdylo et al., 2009).
A reduction in total phenolic contents of dried sam-
ples could be due to drying process that did not imme-
diately inactivate the oxidative enzymes such as
polyphenoloxidases and peroxidases, which may have
in turn resulted in degradation of some polyphenols
(Garau et al., 2007). In addition, the lower amounts of
phenolic content could be explained by during drying
the binding of polyphenols with other compounds
(proteins) or the modifications in the chemical struc-
ture of polyphenols, which cannot be extracted or
determined by current methods (Martin-Cabrejas
Figure 3 The effects of different drying conditions (microwave
power, W) (■ Fresh; 75 °C; 100 °C; 160 W; 160 W – 75 °C
and 160 W – 100 °C) on the total phenolic content of goldenberries.
Bars with different letters are significantly different (P ≤ 0.05).
© 2013 The Authors
International Journal of Food Science and Technology © 2013 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Effect of different drying methods N. İzli et al. 15
et al., 2009). Some authors noted that the content of
total phenol decreasing during thermal processing of
different foods (Zanoelo et al., 2006; Sultana et al.,
2012).
Antioxidant capacity
The effects of convective, microwave and microwave –
convective combined drying treatments on the antioxi-
dant capacity of goldenberry samples are shown in
Fig. 4. These results indicated that the fresh sample
(47.152 lmol TE g1 d.b.) had significantly (P ≤ 0.05)
higher antioxidant capacity than the dried samples.
There was no significant (P > 0.05) difference between
the antioxidant capacity of convective- (75 °C and
100 °C) and microwave – convective combination
(160 W – 75 °C and 160 W – 100 °C)-dried samples
(11.494, 12.489, 11.765 and 12.760 TE g1 d.b., respec-
tively). Also, the samples dried by microwave at a
power of 160 W (16.468 lmol TE g1 d.b) had signifi-
cantly (P ≤ 0.05) higher antioxidant capacity than the
other dried samples. Karakaya (2004) reported that
phenolic compounds are responsible for the antioxi-
dant activities of botanical extracts; hence, processes
that affect the total phenolic content will also affect
antioxidant capacity. In this study, the antioxidant
capacities of the samples are proportional to their
total phenolic contents (Fig. 3). Positive correlations
between total phenolic content and antioxidant capac-
ity have also been reported for other foods (Inchuen
et al., 2010; Sultana et al., 2012). The reduction in
antioxidant capacity as a result of drying process
might be caused by degradation of phenolic
Figure 4 The effects of different drying conditions (microwave
power, W) (■ Fresh; 75 °C; 100 °C; 160 W; 160 W –
75 °C and 160 W – 100 °C) on the antioxidant capacity of gold-
enberries. Bars with different letters are significantly different
(P ≤ 0.05).
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2014
16 Effect of different drying methods N. İzli et al.
compounds or loss of antioxidant constituents of the
goldenberry samples (Sultana et al., 2012). A decrease
in antioxidant capacity after thermal treatment has
been reported in strawberry (Wojdylo et al., 2009) and
apple (Sultana et al., 2012).
Conclusions
In this work, the effects of microwave, convective and
microwave – convective drying treatments on the dry-
ing kinetics, colour, total phenolic content and antioxi-
dant capacity of goldenberries were investigated. The
results verified that the drying time was significantly
reduced by combining microwave treatment with con-
ventional drying. A microwave – convective combina-
tion treatment of 160 W – 100 °C offered the shortest
drying time, at an average of 2 h, followed by 160 W
– 75 °C, 100 °C, 160 W and 75 °C. Of the nine mathe-
matical drying models tested, the Midilli et al. and
Wang and Singh models were most satisfactory in
describing the drying behaviour of goldenberry under
the experimental conditions investigated. The Hunter
L*, a* and b* values for dried goldenberries decreased
with the drying treatments. Microwave treatment at
160 W yielded the best product colour values, which
were closest to the L*, a* and b* values of the fresh
sample. In addition, the C and a values of the dried
goldenberry samples were significantly reduced com-
pared with those of the fresh samples. The total phe-
nolic content of the dried goldenberry samples was
decreased by the drying treatments. The highest total
phenolic content and antioxidant capacity were found
in the fresh sample. The decrease in antioxidant capac-
ity as a result of drying treatments might be caused by
the degradation of phenolic compounds. The results of
the present study demonstrated that microwave – con-
vective drying method is suitable for goldenberry,
which can not only extensively reduce the drying time
but also retain the bioactive total phenolic content and
antioxidant capacity compared with the traditional
convective drying.
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