Food Chemistry 292 (2019) 1–5

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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Esterified plantain flour for the production of cookies rich in indigestible T

carbohydrates
Mirna M. Sanchez-Riveraa, Luis A. Bello-Péreza, Juscelino Tovarb, Mario M. Martinezc,
⁎
Edith Agama-Acevedoa,
a
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, CEPROBI, Yautepec, Morelos, Mexico
b
Department of Food Technology, Engineering and Nutrition, Lund University. Box 124, Lund SE-22100, Sweden
c
School of Engineering, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The role of raw plantain flour (RPF) and its citric acid (CA)-esterified counterpart (EPF) on the carbohydrate
Plantain flour nutritional properties of cookies was investigated. Cookies were elaborated with commercial wheat flour (CWF),
Wheat flour RPF, EPF, or a CWF-EPF blend, and assessed for composition, starch digestibility, texture and sensory properties.
Cookies EPF-cookie showed the lowest digestible starch (DS) content and estimated glycemic index (pGI) (25.0% and
Esterification
59.3, respectively). Cookies made with CWF-EPF exhibited the highest indigestible fraction values attributed to
Hydrolysis rate
the synergistic presence of the RS from EPF and the protein and non-starch polysaccharides from CWF. All RPF
Hardness
containing cookies exhibited lower hardness than CWF-cookie. Although the use of RPF decreased consumer’s
acceptability compared to CWF-cookie, the cookies with EPF showed sensory characteristics of 52–65% com-
pared with the CWF-cookie (100%). This study shows CA esterification of plantain flour as a successful strategy
to manufacture cookies with low DS and pGI.

1. Introduction
Banana flour exhibits an untapped nutritional and nutraceutical
potential mostly due to its high content in dietary fiber [resistant starch
(RS) and non-starch polysacharises, including pectin] and bioactive
compounds (polyphenols) (Ovando-Martinez, Sáyago-Ayerdi, Agama-
Acevedo, Goñi, & Bello-Pérez, 2009; Segundo, Roman, Gomez, &
Martinez, 2017). Several studies have suggested that unripe banana has
beneficial effects on human health associated particularly with its high
RS content (around 50–60%, dry basis) (Faisant, Gallant, Bouchet, &
Champ, 1995; Faisant et al., 1995). Banana flour contains 70–85%
starch, from which around 50% scapes luminal digestion in the intes-
tine due to the composition and conformation of the granules (Segundo
et al., 2017). This fraction is commonly termed RS type 2 (RSII).
Nevertheless, the granular structure of most sources of RSII, is disrupted
at normal cooking temperatures, such as those reached during baking,
which potentially leads to gelatinization and increased susceptibility to
digestion (Birkett & Brown, 2007; Garcia-Valle, Bello-Perez, Flores-
Silva, Agama-Acevedo, & Tovar, 2019; Martinez et al., 2018; Roman,
Gómez, Hamaker, & Martinez, 2019; Sánchez-Rivera, del Núñez-
Santiago, Bello-Pérez, Agama-Acevedo, & Alvarez-Ramirez, 2017).
Diverse strategies, including hydrothermal and chemical processing,
have been reported to modulate the impact of cooking on the starch
digestion properties of banana/plantain starch. Aparicio-Saguilán et al.
(2005) reported that acid-treated plantain starch displayed up to 20%
RS after cooking, which was notably higher than in its unmodified
counterpart (1.5% RS). Interestingly, when incorporated into cookies,
an 8.4% RS content and a medium (60) predicted glycemic index were
reported for composite cookies containing 85% of acid-treated plantain
starch (Aparicio-Saguilán et al., 2007). On the other hand, heat
moisture treatment (100 °C, 32.2% moisture, 6.5 h) of starch isolated
from “morado” bananas (Red dacca) led to a preparation containing
31% RS and 12% slowly digestible starch (SDS) after full gelatinization
(Hoyos-Leyva, Bello-Pérez, Agama-Acevedo, & Alvarez-Ramirez, 2015),
although no studies on the incorporation of this starch in a food product
were reported. Other studies have focused on the treatment of flours
aiming to produce matrix effects, attributed to interactions with non-
starch components, that may delay starch digestion even in fully gela-
tinized samples, as observed in flours from other starchy tissues
(Roman, Li, Gomez, Hamaker, & Martinez, 2017). Furthermore, with
these procedures there is no need for starch isolation which results in
significant lower costs. Thus, hydrothermal treatments, such as heat
moisture treatment (120 °C, 30% moisture, 24 h) and annealing (65 °C,
70% moisture, 24 h), have been used to modify starch digestibility in

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: eagama@ipn.mx (E. Agama-Acevedo).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.04.007
Received 8 September 2018; Received in revised form 25 March 2019; Accepted 1 April 2019
Available online 02 April 2019
0308-8146/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.M. Sanchez-Rivera, et al. Food Chemistry 292 (2019) 1–5

unripe plantain flour. Specifically, a fully gelatinized heat/moisture- Table 1

treated sample showed 14% SDS and 11% RS contents (Rodríguez- Formulation of cookies with different flours (g).
Damian, De La Rosa-Millán, Agama-Acevedo, Osorio-Diaz, & Bello- Sample Flour Flour Margarine Sugar Whole egg CMC Total
Pérez, 2013), while the annealed preparation exhibited 5% SDS and substitution weight
17% RS contents (De La Rosa-Millán, Agama-Acevedo, Osorio-Díaz, &
CWF 100 37.5 37.5 13.7 2.9 191.6
Bello-Pérez, 2014).
RPF 100 37.5 37.5 13.7 2.9 191.6
Treatment of starch with citric acid (CA) has also been used to re- EPF 100 75.5 37.5 13.7 2.9 229.1
duce its digestibility after gelatinization (Xie & Liu, 2004). When starch CWF/EPF 60 40 52.5 37.5 13.7 2.9 206.6
is incubated with CA in presence of heat, dehydration of CA is achieved
with the production of anhydride and carboxyl groups, which are CWF = commercial wheat flour; RPF = raw plantain flour; EPF = esterified
covalenty joined to OH groups of starch to produce starch-citrate ad- plantain flour; CMC = carboxymethyl cellulose.
ducts (Tharanathan, 2005). The ester carbonyl group of CA of these
adducts has been reported to inhibit enzymatic hydrolysis of the with some modifications (Sánchez-Rivera et al., 2017). In brief, 40 g CA
modified polysaccharide (Wepner, Berghofer, Miesenberger, were dissolved in 40 mL water under constant stirring and the pH was
Tiefenbacher, & Ng, 1999). The esterification of plantain flour with CA adjusted to 3.5 with 10 M NaOH and finally brought to a final volume of
has been reported to significantly increase the amount of RS after hy- 100 mL with water. CA solution (100 mL) was mixed with 100 g flour
drothermal procesing in a starch-water system model (Sánchez-Rivera on a stainless steel tray, covered with aluminum foil and kept for 16 h at
et al., 2017), which was precisely attributed to the formation of starch- room temperature. Samples were then dried in a conventional oven
citrates and granular aggregates. Furthermore, additional heating has (Biotecnica del Bajio, Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico) at 40 °C for 24 h to
been reported to increase the dehydration of the CA and the possibility 5–10% water content. The material was cooled for 30 min at room
of cross-linking (Jyothi, Moorthy, Sreekumar, & Rajasekharan, 2007; temperature and the dry mixture was washed with 3 L of distilled water
Wing, 1996), which prevents swelling of the starch granule (Rodriguez- to remove unreacted CA. The washed flour was dried at 40 °C for 24 h
Marin, Nuñez-Santiago, Wang, & Bello-Perez, 2010). This could also and finally ground and screened through a 100 US mesh (150 µm).
have some important positive implications in terms of starch digest-
ibility of hydrothermally-processed baked goods, such as cookies. The
studies mentioned above on CA esterification were carried out in pure 2.4. Preparation of cookies
starch/flour systems. However, no study has been carried out on the
application of these modified plantain flours in real foods, where the The formulations used to prepare the experimental cookies are
food matrix could also contribute to modulate starch digestibility. presented in Table 1; three batches of each formulation were elabo-
In this work, we hypothezised that CA-treated plantain flour may be rated. Margarine Primavera (Unilever, Ciudad de Mexico), sugar
used to produce cookies high in indigestible carbohydrates. The study (Aurrera, Ciudad de México) and whole egg (San Juan de los Lagos,
aims at investigating the starch digestibility and quality characteristics Jalisco, Mexico) were purchased in local supermarket. Carboxymethyl
of cookies made with 0, 40 and 100% replacement ot wheat flour by cellulose (CMC) was provided by Ashland (Ashland Speciality In-
esterified unripe plantain flour (EPF). gredients, Wilmington, DE, USA). All ingredients were mixed thor-
oughly in a Kitchen Aid mixer (KPRA model, St. Joseph, MI) at speed 2
2. Materials and methods for 5 min. It is noteworthy that 52.5 g margarine were used in EPF
cookie in order to obtain a better consistency. Dough portions of 8 g
2.1. Commercial wheat flour were laminated to 0.75 cm thickness and die-cut. The dough was baked
(190 °C for 20 min) in a household oven (Mabe, EM7600BB. Leiseer S.A
Commercial wheat flour (CWF, Molino Harinero San Blas, Puebla, de C.V., San Luis Potosi, Mexico) and allowed to cool down for 30 min
Puebla, Mexico) was purchased from the local market and passed at room temperature. Cookis were then stored in plastic containers with
through a US 50 sieve (300 μm). The label of the wheat flour exhibited a hermetic cover. Pictures of cookies are shown in Fig. 1.
proximal composition (g per 100 g) as follows: protein (11), total fat
(0.05), saturated fat (0.5), carbohydrates (71), dietary fibre (0.05), total
sugars (1), vitamin B1 (0.5), vitamin B2 (0.3), folic acid (0.2 mg), so- 2.5. Chemical composition of cookies
dium (75 mg), iron (4.0 mg), zinc (4.0 mg), energy value (337 kcal).
Moisture content was determined by drying 2 ± 0.01 g of sample
2.2. Raw plantain flour (RPF) (130 °C ± 2 °C for 1 h), according to AACC method 44-15 (AACC,
2000). Ash, protein and fat were analyzed according to AACC methods
Unripe plantains (Musa paradisiaca L.) were purchased from the 08-01.01, 46-13.01, and 30-25.01, respectively (AACC, 2000). All
local market in Cuautla (Morelos, Mexico) and processed into flours as analyses were performed in triplicate.
in Flores-Silva, de Berrios, Pan, Osorio-Diaz, and Bello-Perez (2014).
Briefly, plantains were peeled, cut into 1 cm slices and immediately
rinsed in citric acid (CA) solution (0.3% w/v). Slices were dried at 50 °C
in a convection oven (Biotecnica del Bajio, Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico)
and ground using a commercial grinder (Mapisa Internacional S.A. de
C.V., Mexico D.F., Mexico) to pass a US 50 sieve (300 μm) and stored at
25 °C in sealed plastic containers until further analyses. The chemical
composition of RPF was reported in a previous work (Flores-Silva et al.,
2014): moisture content = 9.2 g/100 g; protein = 3.3 g/100 g;
lipid = 0.5 g/100 g; ash = 2.4 g/100 g; carbohydrates (by differ-
ence) = 84.6 g/100 g.

2.3. Esterified plantain flours (EPF) Fig. 1. Cookies prepared with a) commercial wheat flour (CWF) and b) the
blend wheat flour and esterified plantain flour (CWF/EPF), and c) esterified
EPF was produced following the method of Wepner et al. (1999) plantain flour (EPF).

2
M.M. Sanchez-Rivera, et al. Food Chemistry 292 (2019) 1–5

2.6. Digestible starch degree (%) at 90 min. The analysis was performed in triplicate.

Digestible starch content was assessed following the multienzymatic
protocol reported by (Holm, Björck, Drews, & Asp, 1986) by digesting a
defatted sample (500 mg db) with a thermostable α-amylase (Ter-
mamyl® Novo A/S, Copenhagen) at 100 °C during 20 min (Roche, In-
dianapolis, IN); this mixture was then treated with amyloglucosidase
(Boehringer, Mannheim, Germany) at 60 °C for 30 min, and the final
digesta was analyzed for free glucose using the GOD-POD reagent
(SERAPAK® Plus, Bayer de México, S.A. de C.V., Edo. De México). The
analysis was performed in triplicate.
2.7. Indigestible fraction
The gastrointestinal digestion was simulated in vitro as previously
reported by Saura-Calixto, Garcia-Alonso, Goni, and Bravo (2000) to
estimate the indigestible fraction content. The indigestible fraction is an
alternative compositional parameter to total dietary fiber content and
include dietary fiber (RS and non-starch polysaccharides) and resistant
protein. Soluble (SIF) and insoluble (IIF) indigestible fractions were
assessed and the total indigestible fraction (TIF) was calculated as
IIF + SIF. The SIF content is equivalent to soluble dietary fiber (Saura-
Calixto et al., 2000), but this method is alternative to the official dietary
fiber assay, and it is thought to allow for the determination of most food
components that escape digestion and absorption in the small intestine,
including non-carbohydrate components such a proteins (Saura-Calixto
et al., 2000). In brief, 300 mg sample were weighted and sequentially
hydrolyzed with pepsin and α-amylase. After centrifugation, the re-
sidue was dried at 105 °C to calculate the insoluble indigestible fraction
(IIF) and the supernantant was dyalized, hydrolyzed with acid and the
carbohydrate concentration determined to obtain the soluble in-
digestible fraction (ISF). The analysis was performed in triplicate.
Reidue weight (g )
IIF = × 100
Dry sample weight (g )
2.9. Hardness evaluation of cookies
Hardness, one of the most analized physical parameters for de-
termining the quality of cookies, was measured using the TA-XT2i
Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro System, Godalming, UK) equipped with
a 25-Kg load cell and suited with P/45 cylindrical probe that exerted a
single copresion to the sample up to 50% strain. Five repetitions were
performed.
2.10. Sensory test
In a sensory test, CWF-cookie, EPF-cookie and CWF/EPF-cookie
were evaluated for “color”, “taste” and “texture”, using a five-hedonic
scale where 5 = like extremely, 4 = like, 3 = neither like or dislike,
2 = dislike and 1 = dislike extremely. The preference test were per-
formed with a panel of 50 testers (25 female and 25 male) in the
20–63 years old range. The samples were coded and the testers were
instructed not to discuss their opinions with each other. Samples were
placed on separate plastic trays with hermetic cover and labeled with
three digit random numbers. They were offered to the panel in an or-
derly manner, from left to right. The order of presentation of the
samples was different in each evaluation session (Angulo & O’Mahony,
2009).
2.11. Statistical analysis
Results are presented as mean ± SD (standard deviation)
or ± SEM (standard error of means). Differences among the means
obtained in each of the determinations were evaluated by one-way
analysis of variance (ANOVA) with a significance level of α = 0.05,
followed by Tukey’s test using the statistical package Origin Pro 2016
(OriginLab Corporation, MA, USA).

3. Results and discussion

SIF =
Maltose ( ) × 10.58
mg
L
Dry sample weight (g )
TIF = IIF + SIF
2.8. Predicted glycemic index
The in vitro starch digestion of cookies was assessed following the
protocol developed by Holm, Björck, Asp, Sjöberg, and Lundquist
(1985) with modifications. The amount of sample (500 mg) was cal-
culated based on digestible starch content. The amount of reducing
sugars released after digestion with pancreatin was determined spec-
trophotometrically after reaction with dinitrosalicylic acid (Miller,
1959). The hydrolysis degree was expressed as the percentage of di-
gestible starch hydrolyzed at different times. The predicted glycemic
index (pGI) was calculated from the hydrolysis curves, using the em-
piric formula pGI = 39.21 + 0.803 (H90) (r 0.99, p ≤ 0.05) (Goñi,
Garcia-Alonso, & Saura-Calixto, 1997), where H90 is the hydrolysis
3.1. Chemical composition
Table 2 shows the proximal analysis of cookies prepared with dif-
ferent flours. Cookies are products with low moisture content and have
long shelf-life (Giuberti, Fortunati, Cerioli, & Gallo, 2015). The
moisture content ranged between 2.5 and 4.6 g/100 g, where the wheat
flour was the main responsible for the moisture content in these pro-
ducts. The ash content was relatively low, being higher in RPF and EPF,
since unripe plantain flour contains the minerals present in the fruit
(Offem & Njoku, 1993). The margarine level used in the formulation of
these cookies was different to that used in a previous study (García-
Solís, Bello-Pérez, Agama-Acevedo, & Flores-Silva, 2018) due to the
textural quality outcomes of preliminary baking trials. This increased
margarine addition influenced the lipid content in the final cookies;
however, the lipid content in the plantain flours-containing cookies
resembled that of rice cookies containing a commercial RS-rich powder
(García-Solís et al., 2018). The addition of plantain flour resulted in a

Table 2
Proximate composition of cookies elaborated with different flours (g/100 g, dry basis).
Cookie Moisture Ash Fat Protein Carbohydrate*

CWF 4.6 ± 0.1a 0.4 ± 0.1b 8.7 ± 0.3d 5.4 ± 0.3a 80.9 ± 1.1a
RPF 4.1 ± 0.0b 1.1 ± 0.1a 10.9 ± 0.2c 2.2 ± 0.0c 81.7 ± 1.2a
EPF 2.5 ± 0.1d 1.0 ± 0.0a 21.6 ± 0.4a 1.6 ± 0.0d 73.2 ± 1.4c
CWF/EPF 3.9 ± 0.0c 0.6 ± 0.1b 13.8 ± 0.4b 4.1 ± 0.0b 77.6 ± 1.0b

Values are the mean of three replications ± standard deviation. Means in columns not sharing the same letter are significantly different at p < 0.05.
CWF = commercial wheat flour; RPF = raw plantain flour; EPF = esterified plantain flour. For cookie identification see Table 1.
* By difference.

3
M.M. Sanchez-Rivera, et al. Food Chemistry 292 (2019) 1–5

slight decrease in protein content compared to cookies containing only
CWF (Table 2), although it was still similar to that found in commercial
cookies (6 g/100 g). Carbohydrates are the main component of cookies,
with content ranging between 73.3 and 81.7 g/100 g, reflecting mainly
the high starch content of all flours.
3.2. Indigestible fractions
When EPF, RPF and CWF cookies are compared, the former showed
higher total insoluble fraction (TIF) content, which could, in principle,
be related to the higher RS content of EPF, as reported previoruly
(Sánchez-Rivera et al., 2017). Previously, CWF/EPF cookie showed the
highest TIF, which could be the result of interactions of the RS fractions
from EPF and the protein and non-starch polysaccharides present in
CWF. A similar pattern for the soluble (SIF) and insoluble (IIF) in-
digestible fractions was also found. The main component of the in-
digestible material in the cookies was the insoluble fraction, being
higher in CWF/EPF. CWF/EPF also showed the highest SIF and,
therefore, a high total IF content. On this basis, consumption of a 50 g
portion of CWF/EPF cookies could supply 50% of the daily re-
commended intake of dietary fibre (Dhingra, Michael, Rajput, & Patil,
2012).
3.3. Digestible and indigestible starch fractions and predicted glycemic index
The starch digestible fraction (DS) was analized in cookies after
defatting, which excludes the effect of varying the margarine content in
the formulation (Table 3). Cookies elaborated with RPF showed a
25.2% DS, which was significantly lower than CWF cookie (41.5%). The
low DS content of RPF cookie is likely attributed to the high RS content
present in RPF flour (Sánchez-Rivera et al., 2017). Interestingly, the DS
content was further decreased (down to 10.8%) when using EPF as
ingredient, indicating a successful effect of CA esterification on de-
creasing the digestibility of RPF in a cookie system. These results would
agree with our previous findings showing a high RS of EPF after gela-
tinization using a gel system (Sánchez-Rivera et al., 2017).
The predicted glycemic index (pGI) values of the cookies are shown
in Table 3. Carbohydrate-containing foods can be classified according
to their potential impact on postprandial blood glucose levels (“gly-
cemic response”), which can be measured as Glycemic Index (GI). Ac-
cording to this criterion, foods are divided into low (< 55), medium
(55–69) and high (> 70) GI (Foster-Powell, Holt, & Brand-Miller,
2002). A low glycemic response is considered beneficial for the pre-
vention of common diseases such as coronary heart disease, diabetes
and and other obesity-related illnesses. It has also been associated with
the reduced incidence and prevalence of some forms of cancer (Giuberti
et al., 2015; Mudgil & Barak, 2013). In line with DS results, the esti-
mated glycemic index (pGI) were lower for the products containing
banana flours, especially in those with CA esterified-flour (EPF). In
particular, pGI decreased from 79.6 (CWF) to 59.3 in EPF cookie
Table 3
Total indigestible fraction content (soluble and insoluble) and predicted gly-
cemic index of the different cookies.
(Table 3). This pattern may be also related to the elevated RS content in
the chemically modified plantain flour (Sánchez-Rivera et al., 2017).
Moreover, protein and some IFF components (e.g. pectin), as accom-
paniments included in CWF/EPF-cookie, might also affect the enzy-
matic breakdown of starch in a food product -such as here-studied
cookies- and thus limit the digestion by salivary and pancreatic α-
amylases. This might in turn lead to a reduced pGI compared to the
control cookie containing wheat flour only (Hettiaratchi, Ekanayake, &
Welihinda, 2012).
These results suggest important low glycemic features for the EPF-
cookie. Thus, esterification with CA at high temperature resulted in an
ingredient (EPF) that clearly decreased the starch digestibility of com-
posite (CWF-EPF) cookies. This could be explained by the high content
of RS, particularly chemically modified starch (RS4), produced by the
esterification treatment of RPF. The presence of viscous dietary fibers
have been also shown to reduce the glycemic response to starchy foods
(Mudgil & Barak, 2013). Moreover, RS has sometimes been also asso-
ciated with a low glycemic impact (Landa-Habana, Piña-Hernández,
Agama-Acevedo, Tovar, & Bello-Pérez, 2004). Modulating postprandial
blood glucose responses (by consuming low GI foods) has positive
health outcomes for both healthy subjects and patients with insulin
resistance. Thus, EPF could be used as a potential functional food in-
gredient, containing slowly digestible carbohydrates. In addition, the
inclusion of EPF in foods may result in diminished caloric values; there
are studies incorporating modified ingredients in oat cookies, aiming to
reduce their calorie content (Bello-Perez, Luis, Sáyago-Ayerdi,
Villagómez-Mendez, & Salas-Montiel, 2000).
3.4. Hardness analysis of cookies
Hardness is an important sensory characteristic of cookies (Table 4).
CWF cookie showed the highest hardness, which became softer by the
addition of plantain flours (RPF and EPF). In particular, cookies ela-
borated with plantain flours (RPF = 30.3 N; EPF = 22.5 N; CWF/
RPF = 24.7 N) showed lower hardness than that prepared with CWF
only. This might be due to hampering effects of plantain flours on the
interactions between wheat proteins (gliadins and glutelins) and starch
components, thus resulting in poorer arrangements in the food matrix
and diminished resistance to deformation (Schiedt, Baumann, Conde-
Petit, & Vilgis, 2013). The consumer’s preferences for cookies vary
depending on the hardness; generally low hardness cookies are pre-
ferred, although certain groups prefer products with a more rigid
structure. The use of EPF in cookies may be an alternative to prepare
this kind of bakery products to target specific groups of consumers.
3.5. Sensory evaluation scores
The sensory scores for color, texture and taste of cookies are dis-
played in Table 4. Panellists ranked the products in a hedonic scale
Table 4
Sensory scores of cookies.
Cookie Hardness (N) Sensory Characteristics

Cookie DS SIF IIF TIF pGI Colour Texture Taste

a a a
CWF 41.5 ± 1.4a 7.1 ± 0.2c 10.9 ± 0.2d 18.0 ± 0.9c 79.6 CWF 48.9 4.4 ± 0.8 4.0 ± 0.9 4.0 ± 0.9a
RPF 25.2 ± 0.3b 11.0 ± 0.6c 13.9 ± 0.2c 24.9 ± 0.9c 73.2 RPF 30.3b 2.7 ± 0.9c 2.2 ± 0.8b 2.3 ± 0.7b
EPF 10.8 ± 1.4d 12.7 ± 0.4b 15.6 ± 0.1b 28.4 ± 0.3b 59.3 EPF 22.5c 2.3 ± 1.2c 2.6 ± 1.1b 2.6 ± 1.1b
CWF/EPF 17.3 ± 0.5c 13.8 ± 0.5a 22.8 ± 0.4a 35.7 ± 0.5a 75.4 CWF/EPF 24.7c 3.4 ± 1.0b 3.1 ± 1.1b 3.1 ± 1.1b

Values are the mean of three replications ± standard deviation. Means in
columns not sharing the same letter are significantly different at p < 0.05.
CWF = commercial wheat flour; RPF = raw plantain flour; EPF = esterified
plantain flour. DS = digestible starch; SIF = indigestible soluble starch;
IIF = indigestible insoluble fraction; TIF = total indigestible fraction;
pGI = predicted glycemic index. For cookie identification see Table 1.
Hedonic scale: 5 = like extremely, 3 = neither like or dislike, 1 = dislike ex-
tremely.
Values are the mean of three replications ± standard deviation. Means in
columns not sharing the same letter are significantly different at p < 0.05.
CWF = commercial wheat flour; RPF = raw plantain flour; EPF = esterified
plantain flour.

4
M.M. Sanchez-Rivera, et al.
between 1 (worse) and 5 (best). The three hedonic attributes decreased
with the incorporation of plantain flours compared to the control
sample cookie (CWF). An opposite finding was reported by Roman,
Sahagun, Gomez, and Martinez (2019) by incorporating isolated ba-
nana starch into the formulation of sugar-snap cookies. This could be
due to the higher content of reducing sugars in plantain flours that
could impart a dark color to the products (Agama-Acevedo et al., 2009).
When EPF was used at the 40% replacement level (CWF/EPF), the three
acceptability scores improved, although significant differences were
only found for color between EPF and CWF/EPF cookies, due to the
whiteness of the CWF. These results suggest that replacement levels of
wheat by EPF should not exceed 40% in order to manufacture cookies
rich in indigestible carbohydrates and good consumer acceptability.
4. Conclusions
The high RS content of plantain flours decreases significantly after
conventional hydrothermal processing, such as baking. This may ne-
gatively impact the beneficial effects of plantain flours on human
health, which are largely associated with their high RS content. This
work shows for the first time that esterification of plantain flour (EPF)
produces an ingredient that can be successfully incorporated into
cookies with importantly decreased digestible starch content, low es-
timated glycemic index and acceptable sensory features. In particular,
cookies with the highest indigestible fraction contents and consumer
acceptability were prepared with a 60:40 wheat flour (CWF):EPF blend.
This was attributed to the combined presence of RS from EPF and
protein and non-starch polysaccharides from CWF. The results clearly
indicate the potential of citric acid-treated plantain flour to produce
cookies rich in indigestible carbohydrates and good consumer accept-
ability.
Acknowledgements
We appreciate the economic support from Instituto Politécnico
Nacional (IPN), SIP-IPN, EDI-IPN CONACYT-México and COFAA-IPN.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.04.007.
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