609 PDF

609
Study of Converter Transients Imposed on

the HVDC Converter Transformers
Working Group
B4.51
February 2015
CIGRE WG B4-51
______________________________________________________________________
Working Group B4.51
Study of Converter Transients Imposed on
The HVDC Converter Transformers
February 2015
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CIGRE WG B4-51
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Working Group B4-51
Study of Converter Transients Imposed on the HVDC Converter Transformers
Contributing Members in Alphabetical Order
Yanny Fu (Convener) Narinder Dhaliwal (Secretary)

DNV Kema, Netherlands Manitoba Hydro, Canada
Carsten Bartzsch Mats Berglund

Siemens, Germany ABB, Sweden
Hong Chao Ricardo Goncalves

CSG, China Furnas, Brazil
Manfredo Correia Lima Joanne Hu

CHESF, Brazil RBJ, Canada
Alberto Junqueira Daniel Kell

CEPEL, Brazil TGS, Canada
Abhay Kumar Victor Lescale

ABB, Sweden Consultant, Sweden
Jan Lykkegaard Sergio do Espírito Santo

Energinet.dk, Denmark Furnas, Brazil
Rajesh Suri
Alstom Grid, India
WG also acknowledges the contributions of Mr. A. Forrest and Mr. L. Sintra both from
Canada.
WG would like to thank Mr. S. Nilsson for his valuable comments on the final
document.
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DISCLAIMER
“The information presented in this document is only intended to be a guide. It is

recommended that designers for each system must perform their own studies using
the detailed data specific to their system.”
Copyright © 2015
"Ownership of a CIGRE publication, whether in paper form or on electronic support only infers right of use for
explicitly agreed by CIGRE, total or partial reproduction of the publication for use other than personal and tran
Hence circulation on any intranet or other company network is forbidden".
Disclaimer notice :
"CIGRE gives no warranty or assurance about the contents of this publication,nor does it accept any responsi
as to the accuracy or exhaustiveness of the information. All implied warranties and conditions are excluded to
maximum extent permitted by law".
ISBN : 978-2-85873-310-1
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction....................................................................................................10
1.1 Review of Previous Work......................................................................10
1.2 Summary of Transformer Failure Survey .............................................12
1.3 Scope of Work......................................................................................13
1.4 References............................................................................................14
2. Normal Operation..........................................................................................16
2.1 Overview of LCC System......................................................................16
2.2 Six Pulse Bridge....................................................................................17
2.3 Converter Configurations......................................................................18
2.3.1 Single 12 Pulse Converters per Pole.........................................18
2.3.2 Two 12 Pulse Converters per Pole............................................19
2.4 Voltage Waveforms on the Valve Side of Converter
Transformer Terminal...........................................................................20
2.4.1 Operation at 15 Degrees Firing Angle........................................20
2.5 Transient Stresses during Commutation...............................................30
2.6 Spectral Analysis of Voltage Waveforms..............................................33
2.7 References............................................................................................33
3. Transformer Stresses Caused by Commutation Failure...........................34
3.1 Commutation.........................................................................................34
3.2 Commutation failure Causes.................................................................35
3.3 Commutation Failure Scenario.............................................................38
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3.4 Transformer Stresses...........................................................................39
3.4.1 Description.................................................................................39
3.4.2 Simulation Results.....................................................................42
3.5 Measurement Results...........................................................................42
3.6 References............................................................................................43
4. Polarity Reversal............................................................................................44
4.1 Introduction...........................................................................................44
4.2 DC Line Faults......................................................................................44
4.2.1 Response of Normal Control Action...........................................44
4.2.2 Fault Detection...........................................................................46
4.2.3 Deionization...............................................................................47
4.2.4 Overshoot of Direct current........................................................48
4.3 Polarity Reversal Due to Power Reversal.............................................50
4.4 Voltage Distribution during Polarity Reversal........................................51
4.5 Investigation of Polarity Reversal Stresses...........................................54
4.5.1 Polarity Reversal during DC Line Faults....................................54
4.6 References............................................................................................58
5. Current Harmonics........................................................................................59
5.1 Introduction...........................................................................................59
5.2 Six Pulse Bridge Currents.....................................................................59
5.3 Characteristic AC Harmonics in Line Currents of a
Converter transformer...........................................................................60
5.3.1 Characteristic AC Harmonics in Line Current on
Valve Side of a Six Pulse Bridge................................................60
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5.3.2 Characteristic AC Harmonics in Line Current on
Network Side of a Six Pulse Bridge...........................................62
5.4 Characteristic AC Harmonics in Line Currents on Valve Side
of a Six Pulse Bridge With commutation Reactance.............................63
5.5 Non Characteristic Harmonics..............................................................68
5.6 Effect of Harmonics on Converter Transformers..................................69
5.7 Level of Harmonics for Transformer Specification................................70
5.8 Estimation of Losses.............................................................................71
5.8.1 IEC Method................................................................................71
5.8.2 IEEE Method..............................................................................72
5.9 Temperature Rise Test.........................................................................74
5.10 DC Current in converter Transformer…………………………..……….74
5.11 References...........................................................................................75
6. Simulation Results........................................................................................76
6.1 Introduction...........................................................................................76
6.2 Gui-Guang I System.............................................................................76
6.2.4 DC Line Fault.............................................................................83
6.2.5 Commutation Failure..................................................................87
6.3 Itaipu System........................................................................................89
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6.3.4 DC Line Fault...........................................................................100
6.4 Harmonic Content of Transformer Valve Side Voltage in
Steady State Operation.......................................................................104
6.4.1 Harmonics in Phase to Ground Voltages.................................105
6.4.2 Harmonics in Phase to Phase Voltages...................................109
6.5 References..........................................................................................110
7. Field Measurements....................................................................................111
7.1 Gui-Guang I Project (+/- 500kV, 3000MW) ........................................111
7.1.1 Steady State Operation............................................................112
7.1.2 DC Line fault Test....................................................................115
7.1.3 Commutation Failure Test........................................................117
7.2 Itaipu Bipole (+/- 600 kV, 3150MW) ...................................................118
7.2.1 Rectifier Normal Operation.......................................................118
7.2.2 Inverter Normal Operation........................................................120
7.2.3 Inverter Commutation Failure on an AC system Fault.............121
7.2.4 Detailed Comparison of Field Measurements and
Simulations ………………………………………………………..122
7.3 Nelson River Bipole 2 (+/- 500kV, 2000MW) .....................................123
7.4 Nelson River Bipole 1 (+/- 463.5kV, 1854MW) ..................................125
7.4.1 Pole 2 Rectifier -DC Line fault..................................................125
7.4.2 Pole 1 Inverter - Commutation Failure.....................................128
7.5 Commutation Transients.....................................................................131
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8. Overview of Existing Transformer Test Requirements............................135
8.1 Valid Standards...................................................................................135
8.2 Dielectric Tests...................................................................................135
8.2.1 Dielectric Tests on AC Line Winding........................................135
8.2.2 Dielectric Tests on Valve Winding............................................136
8.3 Thermal Tests.....................................................................................137
8.4 Ongoing Work with the Standards......................................................137
8.5 Comparison of Stress in Service and Stress in Test...........................137
8.6 References..........................................................................................138
9. Analysis and Conclusions..........................................................................139
9.1 Introduction.........................................................................................139
9.2 Normal Operation...............................................................................139
9.3 DC Voltage Polarity Reversal.............................................................140
9.4 Commutation Failures.........................................................................140
9.5 Current Harmonics..............................................................................141
9.6 Conclusions........................................................................................142
9.7 References..........................................................................................142
Appendix A…………………………………………………………………………143
A.1 Simulation Model of Gui-Guang System………………………………..143
A.2 Simulation Model of Itaipu System………………………………………148
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Acronyms
AC------------Alternating Current
BP------------Bipole
DC-----------Direct Current
DGA---------Dissolved Gas Analysis
HVDC-------High Voltage Direct Current
LCC----------Line Commutated Converter
IEC-----------International Electrotechnical Commission
IEEE---------Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
PD------------Partial discharge
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Chapter 1 - Introduction
1.1 Review of previous work

The reliability performance data on HVDC systems in commercial service is compiled
and presented at CIGRE Paris Biennial Technical Sessions by Advisory Group AG
B4-04 of CIGRE HVDC and FACTS committee B4. This information is useful in
planning, design, construction and operation of HVDC systems. The advisory group
AG B4-04 also collects data every two years on the converter transformer failures. To
date the AG B4-04 has exclusively dealt with line commutated converters (LCC) but
the scope has been changed to include voltage source converters (VSC) systems,
which will be included in future reports. This report deals only with transformers used
in LCC systems.
The performance data for the LCC systems has consistently shown that transformer
failures contribute to over 60% of the forced energy unavailability.
The performance of HVDC converter transformers was first reviewed by Joint Task
Force (JTF) 12/14.10. The JTF 12/14.10 surveyed all the HVDC systems operating
from commissioning up to 1990.
For the purpose of the survey, the failures were defined as actual or preventive. A
failure was considered to be actual, if the failure required the removal of a unit from
service because of damage to active parts. A failure was considered as preventive if
the unit did not actually fail but was taken out of service to repair a potential failure of
active parts following diagnostic testing such as dissolved gas-in-oil analysis (DGA),
high insulation power factor, or failure of similar unit(s). Apart from the general
pertinent data, a description of the failure was requested together with the apparent
cause(s) as identified by the utility and/or by the manufacturer and the relationship, if
any, with the factory design/routine tests performed on that unit. The survey did not
cover external bushing flashovers related to pollution.
The JTF 12/14.10 published a report in ELECTRA [1] summarizing the performance
of HVDC systems. The JTF 12/14.10 recommended that following aspects should be
covered in detail in the design review prior to fabrication:
 Valve side bushings
 Currents induced in the core
 Harmonic stray fluxes
 Short circuit forces
 Winding turn to turn insulation
 Winding cables interstrand insulation
 Load tap changers
 Static shields
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The JTF 12/14.10 also investigated the relationship between test and service
stresses as a function of resistivity for HVDC converter transformers and smoothing
reactors [2]. The JTF 12/14.10 recommended that the duration of long term DC test
should be extended to two hours and that an applied AC test for one hour should be
performed with PD measurement.
As the Forced Unavailability of the HVDC systems due to converter transformers
continued to be very high, the WG B4-04 presenter at the CIGRE 2000 Technical
Session recommended that a Joint Task Force with study committee A2 should be
established to look into the reasons for high forced energy unavailability due to
transformer failures. Subsequently JTF B4.04/A2-1 was established. The Terms of
Reference of the JTF included investigating the performance of converter
transformers in relation to HVDC system performance based upon the annually
collected data.
The JTF B4.04/A2-1 first proceeded with a survey by directly contacting the utilities
using HVDC systems.
The survey also included failure descriptions provided by the reporting systems. The
JTF B4.04/A2-1 submitted its report [3] in Feb 2004 with a recommendation that a
new JTF or JWG A2/B4 be formed to further investigate the issues mentioned above
and that the scope should include consideration of detailed test recommendations to
relevant IEC and IEEE committees.
In 2005, AG B4-04 Terms of Reference were revised to perform a survey of
converter transformers failures every two years.
During the term of JWG A2/B4-28 three more transformer failure surveys were
conducted. The results showed that transformer failures were the largest contributor
to the forced energy unavailability. In Feb 2010, JWG A2/B4-28 issued its report [4]
and Guidelines for Conducting Design Review for HVDC converter transformers [5].
The design review guide is a very comprehensive document prepared specifically for
transformers in line commutated HVDC converters. The sections 6 (i) and 6(k) of the
new Design Review Guide state that voltage transients generated by the converter
operation, DC line faults and other converter faults should be specified.
The objective of WG B4-51 is to define the voltage and current transients imposed on
the converter transformers by the converter operation. The work of B4-51
complements the work of the proposed JWG A2/C4.39 ‘Electrical Transient
Interaction between Transformers and the Power System’ which is investigating
interaction between AC systems and transformers.
B4-51 considered only converter transformer stresses only for thyristor based Line
Commutated Converter HVDC schemes.
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1.2 Summary of transformer failure survey
Between 1990 and 2012 seven converter transformer failure surveys have been
conducted. These surveys cover the failures reported by 93 HVDC systems.
It is noted that some systems have not reported all the failures. If a system did not
report for any period, the transformer years for that period for that system are not
taken into account in the calculation of failure rate. For example if a system has 6
units and did not report for a 2 year interval, the 12 transformer years for that system
were not taken into account for the calculation of the failure rate
The combined results of all the surveys up to and including 2012 are as following:
Total No of transformer units = 770
Total Transformer years of service = 9863 Transformer Years
Total Number of actual reported failures = 144
Total Number of preventive failures = 197
Transformer actual failure rate = 0.0146 (1 in 68.49 yrs.)
Transformer preventive failure rate = 0.020 (1 in 50 yrs.)
Combined (actual + prevent) failure rate = 0.0346 (1 in 28.92 yrs.)
The transformer failure rate is calculated as following:

Failure rate = (Total number of units failed)/∑ (Number of units in service x Years in
service)
Figure 1 - Failure Rates in Survey Reports
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Figure 1 shows the failure rate history of converter transformers. The failure rate
dropped during the 1992-2002 period. However the failure rate increased again
between 2003 and 2012.
CONV TRANSFORMER FAILURE RATE

BY YEAR COMMISSIONED
0.16
0.14 ACTUAL PREVENT TOTAL

FAILURE RATE .
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
1970 - 1981- 1986- 1991- 1996- 2001- 2006-

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
YEAR COMMISSIONED
Figure 2 - Failure Rate Based on Year of Commissioning

Figure 2 shows the failure rate from the year of commissioning to the end of year
2010. The failure rate of the systems installed before 1985 still continues to be low.
The failure rate of the systems installed between 1985 and 1990 is still high after
over 20 years in service. It should be noted that transformers of higher rating up to
300MVA and higher DC voltage were first introduced during this period.
The failure rate of the systems commissioned between 1991 and 1995 continues to
be low. This is perhaps due to the fact that during this period no large rating HVDC
system were installed but a number of small projects were commissioned where the
transformer size was small. The increase in failure rate between 1996 and 2000 is
attributed to the fact that a number of systems with increased MVA rating
transformers were installed during that time.
1.3 Scope of work

The converter transformers are connected between an AC system on system side
and to a thyristor valve based converter on the DC side. The voltage wave shapes on
the AC system side are well-defined normal AC voltages containing no significant
harmonics. However the valve winding voltages to ground not only contain multiple
harmonics of fundamental frequency but also contain a DC component depending on
the location of the thyristor bridge from the neutral point. The converter operation
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also generates high frequency transients during the commutation process. These
harmonics are present during normal operation and their magnitude varies with the
converter firing angle and load. The valve side windings are also subjected to
overvoltages during various faults on the converter side.
In addition to the voltage harmonics, the converter currents also contain harmonics of
fundamental frequency. The effect of these harmonics must be considered very
carefully during the transformer design.
For this study the WG decided to analyze two typically used converter configurations.
One with single twelve pulse converter per pole and the other with two twelve pulse
converters per pole. For single converter per pole Gui-Guang I, +/-500kV, 3000MW
system was used for simulations and field measurements. For two converters per
pole Itaipu +/-600kV, 3150MW system was used for simulations and field
measurements, In addition field measurements were also taken on Nelson River BP1
and BP2 systems as most of the required variables were already monitored on the
fault recorder.
The following is the summary of the document:
Chapter 2 - Normal operation of the converters at firing angles of 15, 30 and 90
degrees.
Chapter 3 - Transformer stresses caused by commutation failures
Chapter 4 - Polarity reversal
Chapter 5 - Current harmonics
Chapter 6 - Simulation results for Gui-Guang I and Itaipu systems.
Chapter 7 - Field measurements
Chapter 8 - Overview of existing transformer test requirements.
Chapter 9 - Analysis and Conclusions
1.4 References
[1] CIGRE JTF 12/14.10-01; “In service performance of HVDC Converter
Transformers and oil-filled Smoothing Reactors”, Electra, No. 155, August, 1994,
pages 6-30.
[2] CIGRE JTF 12/14.10; “The relationship between test and service stresses as
a function of the resistivity ratio for HVDC Converter Transformers and Smoothing
Reactors”, Electra, No. 157, December 1994, pages 32 – 58.
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[3] CIGRE JTF B4.04/A2-1;”Analysis of HVDC Thyristor Converter Transformer
Performance”, Brochure No. 240. 2004.
[4] CIGRE JWG A2/B4-28;”HVDC Converter Transformers, Design Review, Test
Procedures and Ageing Evaluation and Reliability in Service”, Brochure No. 406.
2010.
[5] CIGRE JWG A2/B4-28;”HVDC Converter Transformers, Guidelines For
Conducting Design Reviews for HVDC Converter Transformers”, Brochure No. 407.
2010.
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Chapter 2 –Normal converter operation
Usually, when studying AC to DC conversion, the focus of the literature is on the

resulting voltage across the converter bridge or across the thyristor valves, and less
attention is given to the voltage on the terminals and windings of the transformers
that feed the bridges. Even when insulation coordination studies are performed, the
focus is on the voltages across the thyristor valves, where the valve arresters are
connected.
The aim of this Chapter is to point out the voltage waveforms that occur on the valve
side of a converter transformer, both phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground, at
different normal operating conditions.
First of all, the HVDC system considered in the calculation to generate the desired
waveforms is described in item 2.2. After that, the theoretically calculated waveforms
are presented in item 2.4 for firing angles of 15º, 30º and 90º in the rectifier.
Transient stresses due to commutation (overshoots during thyristor turn-off) that

occur during normal operation are discussed in Item 2.5.
Comparison between measured and simulated voltage waveforms may give an idea
of how close the simulations results are to reality, and indicate when improvement is
needed in the used models.
The voltage spectrum as well as the voltage time function, together with the
transformer frequency response, can guide the transformer's design.
2.1 Overview of LCC system
Figure 2.1 shows an overall view of a bipolar LCC transmission system. The
connection between the rectifier and inverter stations can be an overhead
transmission line, a cable, a combination of cable and transmission line or directly as
in the case of a Back-to-Back arrangement. The conversion from AC to DC and DC
to AC in an LCC system is performed using thyristor valves. The thyristor valve
bridge is connected to the DC line/cable through a smoothing reactor. The thyristor
valve bridge is connected to the AC network through converter transformers. As the
LCC converter generates significant amount of harmonic currents, AC filters are
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provided on the AC system bus. The AC filters may be connected to the tertiary of
the converter transformer for very small HVDC systems. DC filters are connected on
the DC side to eliminate harmonics in the DC voltage applied to the line. No DC
filters are required for back-to-back schemes and DC submarine cable projects.
SMOOTHING
REACTOR
TRANSMISSION LINE/CABLE
CONVERTER
CONVERTER
TRANSFORMER
DC FILTERS
AC FILTERS
Figure 2.1 - Bipolar Transmission System
2.2 Six pulse bridge
The basic building block for an LCC converter is the 3-phase full wave bridge using
six controlled thyristor valves as shown in Figure 2.2 for rectifier. This is known as
six-pulse converter bridge. The detailed AC current and DC voltage waveforms for a
converter bridge can be found in reference [1].
Except during commutation when the current is transferred from one valve in one
phase to a valve in the next phase, two valves are normally conducting in the bridge,
one in the upper half of the bridge and another on the lower half of the bridge. The
valves are fired at 60 degree interval in the sequence as shown by the numbers in
figure 2.2. The instant of firing of each valve is delayed by a period commonly called
firing angle α. A minimum delay of 5 degrees must be maintained to ensure that the
thyristor valve has positive voltage at the instant of firing. Each valve nominally
conducts for 120 degrees. Ideally if there was no inductance in the current paths the
transfer of current from one valve to the next would be instantaneous. However due
to the leakage inductance of converter transformers and the impedance in the supply
network, the current in the valve cannot change suddenly, and as a result, the
commutation from one valve to the next cannot take place instantaneously. For
example, if valve 3 is fired when valve 1 is conducting, the current transfer from valve
1 to 3 takes a finite period during which both valves are conducting. This is called the
overlap or commutation period and its duration is measured as an overlap angle μ.
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During this period the two terminals of the converter transformer on the valve side
are connected through the two thyristor valves and the phase to phase voltage on the
valve side collapses to zero. At the end of commutation period valve 3 conducts the
full current and the current in valve 1 goes to zero.
1 3 5
A
B
C
4 6 2
A B C
1 3 5 1
2 4 6
FIRING A NGLE 
OV ERLA P A NGLE 
Figure 2.2 - 6 Pulse Bridge Operating with a Firing Angle α and overlap angle μ
2.3 Converter configurations
The AC current of a six pulse bridge mainly contains harmonics of the order of 6n+/-
1. The DC voltage of a six pulse bridge contains harmonics of the order of 6n. To
eliminate these harmonics, large filters are required on the AC and DC side of the
converters. The need for many of the filters can be eliminated by using a 12- pulse
converter. Since the currents from the converters add on the AC side and the
voltages add on the DC side, the usual arrangement is to use two 6-pulse bridges
connected in series on the DC side, with their transformers connected in parallel on
the AC side. One bridge uses star-delta connection and the other uses star-star
connection. The most commonly used configurations are as following:
2.3.1 Single 12 Pulse Converter per Pole
With the development of 8kV thyristors most modern systems with power ratings of
up to 1600MW per converter use a single converter per pole. Figure 2.3 shows a
pole configuration of the single 12-pulse converter per pole. This type of configuration
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is already in use at a number of 500kV systems, at 600kV and is planned to be used
at 800kV level in India. The type of converter transformer and the configuration of the
transformers are determined by the rating of the converter and the transport
limitations. An existing 500kV system rated at 3000MW bipolar is used for
simulations for this report.
2.3.2 Two 12 Pulse Converters per Pole
Some of the older HVDC systems used this type of configuration at 500kV and
600kV level. However for the new projects, it is expected that this type of
configuration will be used only for voltage levels of 800kV and above from now on.
An exception might be where the system reliability/stability requirements dictate use
of two converters in series per pole. Figure 2.4 shows the single line diagram for one
such system. For this report the Itaipu system, with 600kV DC and two 12-pulse
converters per pole is used for simulations.
AC
NETWORK 2 Ud
BRIDGE 2
Uvo 1.5 Ud
Ud
BRIDGE 1
Uvo 0.5 Ud
Figure 2.3 Single Converter per Pole
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AC
N ETW OR K 4 Ud
BR I D GE 4
G
Uv o 3.5 U d
3 Ud
F
BR I D GE 3
E
Uv o 2.5U d
2 Ud
D
BR ID GE 2
C
Uv o 1.5 U d
B Ud
BR I D GE 1
A
Uv o 0.5 U d
V1 0
Figure 2.4- Two Twelve Pulse Converters per Pole
2.4 Voltage waveforms on the valve side of transformer
In the modern converter stations the transformers are connected to the valves inside
the valve hall with valve side transformer bushings through the wall of the valve halls.
The valve winding terminals of the converter transformer are subjected to the
switching transients of the converter. In this section voltage waveforms appearing at
the valve side of converter transformer terminals are shown at various locations of a
pole with two twelve pulse converters in series per pole (figure 2.4). The idealized
wave forms are shown for firing angles of 15°, 30° and 90° in rectifier. The
waveforms are theoretically calculated values without taking into account the effect of
switching transients and effect of stray capacitances and inductances.
In figures 2.5 to 2.25 the voltage scaling is in p.u. value of Uvo.
Where 1 p.u. = Uvo = R.M.S. value of the valve side phase to phase voltage
2.4.1 Operation at 15 Degrees Firing Angle
The wave forms shown in this section are for a rectifier converter operating at firing
angle of 15 degrees and an overlap angle of 20 degrees. The bridge voltage Ud
calculated for these operating conditions is
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Ud = 1.35 Uvo x (Cos 15° + Cos 35°)/2 = 1.2 p.u.
2.4.1.1 Low Voltage Bridge (z =1)
Figure 2.5 shows the voltage to ground at point A in figure 2.4.
As this bridge is the lowest voltage bridge (with lower end connected to ground), the
phase to ground voltage (Point A in figure 2.4) collapses to zero whenever the
associated valve between that phase and ground is fired. When the valve in the
lower half of the phase is not conducting, the voltage at point A is the same as the
voltage across valve V1.
BRIDGE 1 PHASE A
ALPHA 15 DEG
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
P.U. Uvo
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2 0 10 20 30 40 50
msec
-0.4
-0.6
Figure 2.5 - Bridge 1 Phase to ground Voltage
Figure 2.6 shows the valve side phase to phase voltage in bridge 1 for one phase
pair. The phase to phase valve winding voltage collapses to zero twice every cycle
whenever any A-phase valve is commutating. The duration of the collapse is equal
to the commutation interval (20 degrees in this case). The value of the voltage (dUvo)
at the instant of collapse is calculated as
dVvo = 1.414 Uvo Sin (α) = 1.414 Sin 15° = 0.366 p.u.
The voltage magnitude at the instant of recovery is 0.811 p.u.
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PHASE TO PHASE VOLTAGE

ALPHA 15 DEG
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
P.U. Uvo
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
-0.5 msec
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
Figure 2.6 - Bridge 1 Phase to Phase Valve Side Voltage
2.4.1.2 Bridge Two (z = 2)
Figure 2.7 shows the phase to ground voltage waveform as seen at A- phase
bushing of second bridge (Point C in figure 2.4). The voltage has a DC voltage
component with an average value of bridge 1 DC voltage (1.2 p.u.). The voltage
waveforms also include the 6 pulse ripple generated by bridge 1 and 12 pulse ripple
as combination of bridges 1 and 2.
BRIDGE 2 PHASE A
ALPHA 15 DEG
3.0
2.5
2.0
P.U. Uvo
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
msec
2.4.1.3 Bridge Three (z = 3)
Figure 2.8 shows the phase to ground voltage waveform as seen at A - phase
bushing of third bridge (Point E in figure 2.4). The voltage has a DC voltage
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component with an average value of bridges 1 and 2 DC voltages (2.4 p.u.). The
voltage waveforms also include the 6 pulse ripple generated by bridge 3 and the 12
pulse ripple generated by bridges 1 and 2.
BRIDGE 3 PHASE A
ALPHA 15 DEG
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
P.U. Uvo
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
msec
2.4.1.4 Bridge Four (z = 4)
bushing of fourth bridge (Point G in figure 2.4). The voltage has a DC voltage
component with an average value of bridges 1, 2 and 3 DC voltages (3.6 p.u.).
BRIDGE 4 PHASE A
ALPHA 15 DEG
6.0
5.0
4.0
P.U. Uvo
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
msec

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The voltage waveform also includes the 6 pulse ripple generated by bridge 3, 12
pulse ripple generated by bridges 3 and 4 (when the lower valve in bridge 4 is not
conducting) and the 12 pulse ripple generated by bridges 1 and 2. The phase to
phase valve winding voltage waveforms for bridges 2, 3 and 4 are the same as for
bridge 1 (fig 2.6)
angle of 30 degrees and an overlap angle of 15 degrees. The bridge voltage Ud
calculated for these operating conditions is
Ud = 1.35 Uvo x (Cos 30° + Cos 45°)/2 = 1.062 p.u.
The waveform is similar to the 15 degree operation except for the increased change
in voltage magnitude when the valves turn on and off. The magnitude of the voltage
jump after commutation increased from 0.406 p.u. to 0.542 p.u.
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Figure 2.11 shows the valve side phase to phase voltage in bridge 1. The waveform
is similar to the 15 degree operation. The value of the voltage (dUvo) at the instant of
valve firing is calculated as
dVvo = 1.414 Uvo Sin (α) = 1.414 Sin 30° = 0.707 p.u.
The voltage magnitude at the instant of recovery is 1.08 p.u.
Figure 2.11- Bridge 1 Phase to Phase Valve Side Voltage
2.4.2.2 Bridge Two (z = 2)
bushing of second bridge (Point C in figure 2.4).
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In comparison with 15 degree operation, the DC offset has decreased from 1.2 p.u.
to 1.062 p.u. The magnitude of the 6 pulse and 12 pulse ripple is greater than that for
15 deg operation.
bushing of third bridge (Point E in figure 2.4). In comparison with 15 degree
operation, the DC offset has decreased from 2.4 p.u. to 2.124 p.u. The magnitude of
the 6 pulse and 12 pulse ripple is greater than that for 15 deg operation.
bushing of fourth bridge (Point G in figure 2.4). The waveform is similar to 15 degree
operation except for reduced DC offset and the commutation voltage jumps
increased from 0.810 p.u. to 1.18 p.u. Compared to 15 degree operation the DC
offset voltage decreased from 3.6 p.u. to 3.186 p.u.
The phase to phase valve winding voltage waveforms for bridges 2, 3 and 4 are the
same as for bridge 1 (fig 2.11).
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The waveforms shown in this section are for a rectifier converter operating at firing
angle of 90 degrees and an overlap angle of 5 degrees. The overlap angle of 5
degree is selected because when the rectifier is operating at 90 degrees each
commutation is driven by a much higher voltage, resulting in shorter time; besides,
the current flowing in the converter will probably be limited to about one third of
nominal. The bridge voltage Ud calculated for these operating conditions is
Ud = 1.35 Uvo x (Cos 0° + Cos 95°)/2 = -.06 p.u.
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BRIDGE 1 PHASE A
APLHA 90 DEG
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
P.U. Uvo
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
-0.5
msec
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
Figure 2.16 shows the valve side phase to phase voltage in bridge 1. The voltage
collapses to zero six times per cycle.
PHASE TO PHASE VOLTAGE

ALPHA 90 DEG
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
P.U. Uvo
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
msec
Figure 2.16- Bridge 1 Phase to Phase Valve Side Voltage
2.4.3.2 Bridge Two (z = 2)
bushing of second bridge (Point C in figure 2.4). The voltage waveform contains the
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commutation transients from bridge 1 and half of bridge 2. Although there is virtually
no DC offset, the waveform is very much distorted.
BRIDGE 2 PHASE A
ALPHA 90 DEG
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
P.U. Uvo
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
-0.5
msec
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
Figure 2.17 - Bridge 2 Phase to ground Voltage.
bushing of third bridge (Point E in figure 2.4). The voltage waveform contains large
amount of 6th and 12th harmonics and very small DC offset.
BRIDGE 3 PHASE A
ALPHA 90 DEG
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
P.U. Uvo
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
msec
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bushing of fourth bridge (Point G in figure 2.4). The waveform contains a very large
component of 12th harmonic.
BRIDGE 4 PHASE A
ALPHA 90 DEG
1
P.U. Uvo
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
-1
-2
-3
m sec
2.5 Transient Stresses during Commutation
The voltage waveforms presented in section 2.4 were theoretically calculated

neglecting the effect of stray capacitances and inductances. It was assumed that
when the commutation from one valve to the next valve is completed the voltages
assume their new value without any transients. However when the outgoing valve
switches off, there is a finite value of current derivative which results in voltage
oscillations.
When the outgoing valve switches off, there is voltage jump across the valve which is
applied to the stray capacitances across that valve. These capacitances in
combination with transformer reactance and capacitances set up high frequency
oscillations [1]. Figure 2.20 shows the instants at which these oscillations occur for a
rectifier operating at alpha α degrees and overlap µ degrees. The magnitude of the
commutation overshoot is dependent on the stray capacitances, stray inductances,
RC snubber circuits and the operating parameters (α and μ). The RC snubber circuits
across the thyristors help damp these oscillations. The snubber circuits are designed
to limit the commutation overshoot between 1.25 -1.3 (depending on the design of
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the thyristor valve and the loss evaluation) of the peak voltage. Surge arrester also
helps to limit the commutation overshoot.

 
COMMUTATION
OVERSHOOT
Figure 2.20 - Valve voltage with firing angle α and overlap angle μ and commutation
overshoot.
In reference [2], the theoretical calculation of the transient overvoltage due to the
turn-off processes in the thyristor valve is made. Different simplifications are made in
order to make it possible to estimate the voltage during commutation. After all, the
author ends the section with the statement below:
“It must be stressed, that the very simplified calculations presented above cannot be
used for a real optimization of the snubber circuits. They have been included in order
to give a certain insight in the relationships between various parameters. The
optimization of snubber circuits are usually performed with digital computer
simulation programs, which also can consider other factors, such as the correct
representation and damping of the converter transformers.
The losses in the snubber circuits, which can be substantial, are another important
factor that has to be considered at the optimization of the circuit parameters. As the
losses will increase with the size of the capacitor, it is essential to limit the
capacitance. The major part of the losses is generated at the charging and
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discharging of the capacitors at the commutations. The losses, which will be
generated in the resistors connected in series with the capacitors, will at each step
change in the voltage with the magnitude ∆U be approximately 1/2Cv. ∆U2. This also
gives that the losses in the snubber circuit will increase substantially at operation with
large firing or extinction angles. They will also depend upon the magnitude of the
converter current. “
The above statement emphasizes the need of well detailed modeling of the thyristor
valves, transformers and substation layout in order to have a good accuracy of the
real transient voltage.
In Figure 2.23 two waveforms are shown: one measured at transformer terminal and
the other obtained from theoretical calculation of the idealized waveforms without
considering the effects of stray capacitances, inductances and valve snubber circuits.
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
30.0 34.4 38.8 43.2 47.6 *10 -3 52.0
medicao_retificador_50Hz.adf: Vret
simulacao.adf: Vr_Y_ft
Figure 2.23 – Measured (green) and calculated (red) voltages waveforms at

transformer terminal at firing angle of 15º.
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2.6 Spectral Analyses of Voltage Waveforms
The spectral analysis of the voltage waveforms has already been used by CIGRE
BRASIL JWG A2/C4-03 (this group originated CIGRE JWG A2/C4.39) [3]. It was
used to estimate stresses imposed on AC transformers. The main idea is to compare
the spectra of the different normal operation simulated terminal voltages with the
spectra of the different standard test voltages waveforms, in order to verify if all
frequencies are adequately covered by the tests.
2.7 References
[1] Ulmann, Erich “Power Transmission by Direct Current” Springer-Verlag,

Berlin/Heidelberg 1975
[2] Ekstrom, Ake “High Power Electronics HVDC and SVC” EKC – Electric Power
Research Centre; The Royal Institute of Technology – Stockholm, June 1990.
[3] CIGRE BRASIL JWG A2/C4-03 Report
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Chapter 3 - Transformer stresses caused by commutation failure
3.1 Commutation
In order to give a clear picture of commutation failures, the successful commutation
process is first described below: A commutation is the transition of the load current
from one valve to the next one. The commutation is denoted as successful when the
next valve goes into conduction, takes all the current from the preceding one, and
then the preceding valve extinguishes and regains enough voltage withstand so that
when the forward voltage appears, it will not re-initiate conduction.
The installed LCC HVDC schemes in the world use combinations of six-pulse
bridges. Figure 3.1 below shows such a bridge which is used to illustrate the
process. In the upper group of three valves, commutation is intended to take place
from valve 1 to valve 3 and then to valve 5 and then back to valve 1 and so forth.
In the lower group of three valves, commutation is intended to take place from
valve 2 to valve 4 and then to valve 6 and then back to valve 2, and so forth.
Id
Ua 1 3 5
L
Ia
Ub
L
Ib
N Ud
Uc
L
Ic
4 6 2
Figure 3.1 - Equivalent Circuit for three phase full wave bridge converter
In order to have a successful commutation, it is necessary that the voltage driving the
commutation has an adequate magnitude and duration for the commutation to be
completed long enough before a forward voltage is applied to the extinguished valve.
Since the commutation takes place against an inductance, the duration of the
commutation process will be defined by the voltage driving it, the inductance in the
circuit, and the current magnitude to be achieved/commutated. The time is usually
denoted as an angle by the lower case letter ”μ”. The time between the end of the
commutation and the reapplication of forward voltage is usually denoted as an angle
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by γ (the Greek letter gamma), and called commutation margin. During this time, the
just extinguished valve recovers its forward voltage withstand capability. A modern
thyristor valve normally needs a margin of around 15~17 electrical degrees* for such
recovery
(*) somewhat less than one millisecond.
The inductance “L” shown in Figure 3.1 represents the converter transformer
inductance. Because of this inductance the transformer current cannot change
instantaneously; it will change according to the following equation:
di/dt = u(t)/L,
or which is the same I = 1/L * ∫u(t)dt.
This means that to change the full current from one valve to the next one, the time
integral of the voltage applied across the total inductance will have to equal the
current times the inductance. The integral is usually denoted as the voltage-time
area. It is shown in Figures 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4. The figures show the voltage on the
positive side for clarity. The higher the current to be commutated, or the inductance,
the larger the necessary voltage-time area A in order to achieve a successful
commutation of the current. Typical full-load values of μ are in the range 20° to 25°
under normal steady-state operation.
The need for a certain gamma comes from the phenomenon in thyristor valves that
the charge carriers developed during conduction must be removed (re-combined, is
the formal term) before the thyristors develop a forward voltage blocking capability.
This re-combination is achieved after conduction ceases, by applying a negative bias
voltage across the thyristor. This process takes time. The commutation margin (γ)
given to the valve includes the process just described, plus some margin. If a
thyristor becomes positively biased before complete re-combination, the thyristor will
again conduct current.
3.2 Commutation failure causes
A commutation is said to have failed when the preceding valve, as described above,
starts conduction again. This is typically caused by too little recovery time. The
reduction in recovery time may be caused by a number of situations:
 If the AC system voltage suffers a sudden change of phase (an

advance) when the commutation already is in progress, or right
after, the remaining time at the end, the margin (γ), will decrease.
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 If the ac system voltage suffers a reduction in magnitude when
commutation already is in progress, the commutation will take
longer time (μ ) to be completed, and the remaining time at the
end, the margin (γ), will decrease.
 An AC voltage dip may cause the DC current to transiently

increase, before the control brings it back to normal. The
commutation time (μ ) will thus grow, and the remaining time at the
end, the margin (γ), will decrease.
 If a transient positive spike appears in the AC voltage during the

time just after initiation of the forward voltage on the preceding
valve, it may re-initiate conduction.
The first three occurrences and their consequences on μ and γ are illustrated in
Figures 3.2 to 3.4 below
Figure 3.2 - Reduced commutation margin due to reduced voltage magnitude Volt-
time area.
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Figure 3.3 - Reduced commutation margin due to phase-angle shift Volt-time area
Figure 3.4 -Reduced commutation margin due to increased DC current
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3.3 Commutation failure scenario
If a valve that should remain extinguished remains conductive or resumes

conduction; i.e. if a commutation failure occurs, a by-pass pair will be formed with the
valve on the same phase but on the opposite side of the bridge. This will short-circuit
the bridge (Figure 3.5).
A typical 12 pulse converter has two equal 6-pulse bridges. If a commutation failure
occurs, the severity of the event will depend on if the cause affected both 6-pulse
bridges, as this would effectively short-circuit the converter. In a transmission with
one 12-pulse converter per pole this would short-circuit the pole. In a transmission
with two 12-pulse converters per pole (i.e. four six-pulse bridges) the commutation
failure in two bridges would not short-circuit the pole; however, if two six-pulse
bridges had a commutation failure, the likely hood that the other two will also have it
is very high; partly because the same AC transient will affect them, and even if this
4 6 2
Ia
Ib
Ic
1 3 5
5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5
FIRING
PULSES
V1 V1
Ia
B
A C
V6 REFIRED
V3 FIRED V3
Ib
V6 V6
V5 V5
Ic
V2
Ud
BRIDGE
VOLTS
BY PASS
B-PHASE
Figure 3.5 - Bridge bypassed on B-phase due to valve 6 failing commutation
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commutation doesn’t directly cause new commutation failures, the short circuiting of
the first 12-pulse bridge will result in an increase in DC current which might cause the
second 12-pulse converter to have a commutation failure as well.
In addition to the stresses that the short circuit may cause in the valves, bypassing
the upper 6-pulse bridge will result in the application of the full voltage from the DC
line and the DC filters to the lower bridge(s) to the extent permitted by their arresters
and the smoothing reactor, mainly through its stray capacitance across, but also
through the inductance. This in turn will, voltage-wise, stress the lower converter
transformers.
The likelihood of commutation failures can be reduced by increasing the margin γ,

but this would result in higher reactive power consumption, and slightly higher design
voltages for transformers and valves. Modern control is a very effective means to
also reduce the likelihood, as it advances the firing when AC system disturbances
are detected. However, once a commutation has started, its initiation instant can’t be
advanced. Modern control has, therefore also means to mitigate the consequences
of commutation failures [1].
3.4 Transformer stresses
3.4.1 Description
As mentioned above, a commutation failure in the upper six-pulse bridge will apply
the pole voltage to the lower bus of the bridge. This bus, in turn is connected to the
upper bus of the next bridge (see figures 3.6 and 3.7)
The upper transformer is obviously designed to withstand the pole voltage because
its terminals are connected to the upper bus whenever the corresponding valve is
conducting. This is not the case for the transformers lower down in the pole. Just as
for the top bridge transformer, the transformer terminals in the lower bridge(s) are
connected to their upper bus whenever the corresponding valve is conducting. This
means that the voltage applied by the commutation failure to this upper bus will also
be applied to the transformer. This voltage has the impedance of the smoothing or
line reactor behind it though, and can easily be controlled by means of arresters.
The arresters that limit the transformer stresses can be configured in different ways,
depending on different conditions for each project and station. The most usual ones
are:
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 In some converters the combination (sum, really) of the protective
levels provided by the valve arresters and DC neutral arrester
(CBN1 in Figures 3.6 and 3.7) is enough to obviate the necessity of
a six-pulse arrester (see next bullet).
 In some converters, due to the project characteristics in monopolar

operation, the neutral bus arrester has a high protective level. The
sum of this level with that of the valve arresters may be too high
and a so called six-pulse arrester can be used to reduce the
insulation requirements. This arrester is connected between the bus
joining the six-pulse bridges and ground (ML in Figures 3.6 and
3.7).
 In some configurations with two 12-pulse converters, there will be

so called mid-point arresters (CBL2 in Figure 3.6), which will limit
the voltage at the 12-pulse point. The voltage at the six-pulse point
of the upper bridge will then be limited by the combination (sum) of
this arrester and the valve arresters or by the use of a six-pulse
arrester (MH in Figure 3.6).
 In some converters there may even be arresters between the

transformer terminals and ground
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CB
MH
CBL2
ML
CBN1
Figure 3.6- Two 12-pulse converters per pole. Commutation failure in the upper six-
pulse bridge or in both upper bridges. See arresters MH and CBL2
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CBL2
ML
CBN1
Figure 3.7- One 12-pulse converter per pole. Commutation failure in the upper six-
pulse bridge. See arresters ML and CBN1.
3.4.2 Simulation Results
Some simulations were carried out for the specific projects that this group undertook:
namely, for Itaipu and for Gui-Guang. The resulting voltage stresses on the
transformers are shown in Chapter 6.
3.5 Measurement Results
In addition to the simulations, some recordings have been made from actual sites.
The resulting voltage stresses on the transformers are shown in Chapter 7.
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3.6 References
[1] ' A Novel Method to Mitigate Commutation Failures in HVDC Systems', Lidong
Zhang, Lars Döfnäs, Power System Technology, 2002. Proceedings, PowerCon
2002.
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Chapter 4 - Polarity reversal
4.1 Introduction
In a line commutated converter system the direction of the current is always the
same. The direction of power transmission is determined by the polarity of the DC
voltage. In order to reverse the direction of power flow the polarity of the DC voltage
must be reversed. Polarity reversal in an LCC HVDC link is also used for clearing DC
line faults. The polarity reversal during a DC line fault is normally a very short time
phenomenon whereas the polarity reversal for power reversal might be a long time
phenomenon.
4.2 DC Line faults
Faults on DC lines are almost always pole-to-ground faults. A pole-to-pole fault is

uncommon since it requires considerable physical damage to bring conductors of
two poles together. Lightning typically does not cause a bipolar fault. A shielding
failure will probably cause a pole to ground fault. This is not a rare occurrence. A
back flash could cause both poles to fail to ground but this would be rare.
A pole-to-ground fault blocks power transfer on the affected pole. Although a fault on
one pole leads to a transient overvoltage on the other pole, this pole in a well
designed system should be virtually unaffected.
Short circuits on DC line of a two-terminal and multi-terminal LCC system are cleared
by controlling the firing angle of the rectifier and inverter valves. On a bipolar line
each pole has separate and independent fault clearing controls.
4.2.1 - Response of Normal Control Action
A short-circuit momentarily causes the rectifier current to increase (since the rectifier
is feeding a low impedance fault rather than the high back voltage of the inverter). At
the inverter the current initially goes to zero since the line feeding it is short circuited.
The current control of the rectifier acts to reduce the direct voltage and bring back
the current to its normal set value (Iord). At the inverter, the current become less than
its current controller reference setting (Iord-Im). Consequently, the inverter mode of
operation changes from Constant Extinction Angle control to Current Control mode...
The line protection in the rectifier end also forces the rectifier to operate as an
inverter with a delay angle typically at 150 degrees or more. As a result the fault
current is quickly reduced to a level equal to the current margin setting (typically
about 15% of the rated dc current) and the stored energy in the faulted line is quickly
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removed by having both the rectifier and the inverter transferring the dc power from
the dc side into their respective ac systems. After the fault current is extinguished
and if the inverter is operating with a delay angle larger than 150 degrees, the
inverter will not charge the line. However, if the delay angle is less than 150 degrees
but larger than 90 degrees a slow charge buildup will take place if the line is or
appears to be open. This reverse polarity voltage resulting from this inverter
operating mode will be insignificant during the period for the rectifier to re-establish
power transfer after the line short circuit is cleared. It will have no effect on the
stresses imposed on the converter transformers.
Even if no additional protective devices were used, current regulators limit the short-
circuit current by decreasing the converter voltage. The short circuit momentarily
causes the rectifier current to increase and the inverter current to zero. In attempting
to decrease the current to the set value, the current regulator of the rectifier
decreases the direct voltage. The rectifier current controller limits the current to the
current order (Iord) or whatever limit is applied by the VDCOL circuit.
The best way to bring the line current and voltage to zero rapidly is to increase the
rectifier firing angle to about 150 degrees which reverses the rectifier voltage. The
rectifier drains energy from the DC circuit, where it is stored in the electric and
magnetic fields associated with the shunt capacitance and series inductance of the
line and of the DC reactors, and delivers the energy to the AC network. Valve action
prevents current reversal. Therefore, the line current becomes and remains zero.
The fault current does likewise. Because the faulted conductor was grounded
through the fault until or nearly until the line current became zero, the conductor is
left at or near ground potential so that the recovery voltage across the arc path is
negligible and the arc does not restrike.
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1 Normal
Voltage
Fault
Rectifier 3
2
Inverter
2
3
Distance along line

Figure 4.1 - Voltage profile of DC line:
1. Under normal operation
2. With DC line fault and normal control
3. With fast acting line protection
In order to establish terminal voltages of the correct polarity for fault clearing, two
steps are taken:
a. The inverter normally has the correct polarity, but in order to prevent reversal of its
polarity, its ignition delay angle is given a lower limit of about 100° ( 80°), which
allows the inverter voltage to run down to a low value but not to reverse.
b. The polarity of the rectifier voltage must be reversed so that its voltage inverts. As
soon as the fault is detected, the firing angle is shifted to about 155°.
4.2.2 Fault Detection
A DC line fault can either be a permanent fault or a temporary fault. Normally after
the line fault is detected, a restart is attempted after a specified de-ionization time to
restore the system back to normal... The de-ionization time varies from one system
to another and is optimized for individual system conditions and experience. If the
fault does not clear before the first restart attempt, a second or third restart attempt
may be tried depending on the system design. A permanent fault cannot be cleared
by control action. The faulty pole must be shut down to repair the line to clear a
permanent DC line fault. However permanent faults occur very rarely on a DC line.
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The temporary DC line faults can be cleared by control action. The temporary DC
line faults can be either of low resistance or of high resistance type.
4.2.2.1 Low Resistance DC Line Fault
When a low resistance DC line fault occurs, the DC line voltage falls to zero
instantaneously and stays at zero. A short circuit on the DC line is detected at the
rectifier station by monitoring the rate of change of direct voltage drop, by rate of
change of DC current increase and the level of the DC voltage. Various combinations
of these conditions can initiate the fault-clearing control action.
Typical settings of the fault detectors are as follows:

 The voltage-derivative unit responds within a few milliseconds (3 - 5 ms) if
the rate of decrease of direct voltage exceeds a preset value, say, 0.5
times normal voltage per millisecond, and if the direct voltage falls below a
certain level ( typically 0.3 to 0.4 p.u. depending on the system).
 If the rate of increase of direct current exceeds a preset value and if the
direct voltage falls below a certain level (typically 0.3 to 0.4 p.u. depending
on the system).
 The voltage-level unit responds after 30-40 ms if the direct voltage is below
0.3 to 0.4 p.u. times its normal value.
The time delays and voltage settings are intended to provide selectivity between DC
line faults and AC faults or converter faults. AC faults at the inverter end can result in
commutation failures depending on the location of the fault. The DC line protection
must be designed to distinguish between a commutation failure and a DC line fault.
The converter faults such a bushing flashover result in pole differential protection and
shutdown of the pole.
4.2.2.2 High Resistance Line Faults
When a high resistance line fault occurs on a DC line, the DC voltage will not drop
suddenly to zero across the fault and might even stay at a level higher than the low
voltage level detector. This type of fault is generally caused by faults between the
towers, which might be the case when forest fires are burning under the DC line. The
fault can only be detected by comparing the rectifier current with the inverter current.
The time delay for this protection is generally longer than the protection for the low
resistance.
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4.2.3-Deionization
After an overhead line conductor has been de-energized for approximately 0.15 to
0.5 sec, an arcing fault path is generally sufficiently deionized so that it withstands
normal voltage. The automatic fault clearing may, if desired, be followed by
automatic re-energization. In most instances the line is restored to normal voltage
and to the same power as before the fault. If the fault remains or if the arc restrikes,
because of inadequate deionization time, the event will repeat again. If desired, two
or three attempts at re-energization are made automatically in succession with
increasing deionization time. The last attempt can also be tried in a reduced voltage
operation mode.
Direct-current lines consisting wholly of cables are not reenergized, as a rule,

because cable faults are nearly always permanent.
4.2.4 Overshoot of Direct Current
Fault Current - Initially the fault current is limited only by the surge impedance Zs of
the line to 2Vd/Zs, which is considerably greater than the current margin. For
example, on a DC overhead line rated at 375 kV and 1.8 kA and having a surge
impedance of about 300 , the initial fault current is 2 x375/300= 2.5 kA, but the
current margin is only 0.15 x 1.8 = 0.27 kA. The initial current results from the
discharge of the shunt capacitance of the line through the series impedance of the
line, and the current regulators at the terminals cannot possibly limit it. In all cases
the crest current in the fault exceeds this initial value.
Rectifier Current - Overshoot of the rectifier current above the set value depends on
the inductance of the DC reactor, the gain and time constant of the current regulator,
the distance of the fault from the rectifier, the wave form of the direct voltage, and the
instant on this wave at which the fault occurs.
Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3 show the DC line voltages (line side of smoothing reactor)
at the rectifier and inverter stations, respectively, during a permanent DC line fault. It
can be noted that the DC line fault causes a sudden decrease in the DC voltage at
both rectifier and inverter stations, from 600kV (1.0 p.u.) to about -300kV (-0.5 p.u.).
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Figure 4.2 – DC Voltage at Rectifier Station during a DC Line Fault
Unsuccessful Restart (3 normal + 1 reduced voltages)
Figure 4.3 – DC Voltage at Inverter Station during a DC Line Fault

First Unsuccessful Restart of a 3 Normal + 1 Reduced Voltage Attempts
In the example the DC line protection tries to restart the line, then every unsuccessful
restart at normal voltage causes a similar drop in the DC voltage, while the effect of
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the unsuccessful restart at reduced voltage of the fault presented is a little bit lower,
from 0.75 p.u. to about -0.5 p.u.. The voltage applied to the DC bushings of the
converter transformer are subjected to similar variations, including polarity reversal,
stressing the transformer insulation.
4.3 Polarity reversal due to power reversal
The HVDC transmission systems that are used to connect between two power
systems are often required to reverse the direction of power transmission. In the LCC
transmission system the direction of the current is determined by the thyristor valve
connections and cannot be changed unless voltage reversing switches are used.
The power reversal is achieved by reversing the voltage at both ends of the
transmission system. The firing angles of the rectifier and the inverter are changed in
a short time to the inverter and rectifier regions respectively.
This control action differs from the line protection as following:
- For the DC line faults the voltage reversal only takes place at the rectifier
station (although the inverter firing angle is reduced to 100 degrees, the DC voltage
does not reverse polarity) whereas for power reversal both the rectifier and the
inverter station reverse their DC voltages.
- For the DC line faults the rectifier voltage is reversed only for a period of few
hundred milliseconds and then it is restored back to the original polarity. However for
a power reversal, once the voltages at both ends are reversed, the reversed polarity
will be maintained for a significant period of time.
The frequency of power reversal is dictated by the power transfer requirements by

the system operator. The number of power reversals can vary from a few times per
year to 6 to 8 times during 24 hours or even 2-3 times during an hour. The number of
power reversals depends on the agreed power exchange schedule. There is
generally no restriction on how often power reversals can be done. For example on
the Danish links, during the last 10-12 years there has been periods with several
power reversals per day because the power exchange between Denmark and
Norway/Sweden is driven by the energy price difference.
The power is ramped simultaneously in both ends, when the power is approaching
minimum power the pole is blocked and remains blocked until the power ramping
passes the minimum power in the other direction at which moment the pole is
deblocked again. The DC voltage can be reduced to zero in a controlled manner
therefore reduces the voltage stresses on the converter transformer. During the
ramping through zero the direction is changed, rectifier is changed to inverter and
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vice versa. When a power reversal is required, the new set point and the new
direction are ordered to the controls and then the controls perform the power reversal
automatically.
In the Danish links, for example, the time in which the pole is blocked between the
power minimum limits depends on the ramping speed; during normal power control
the power is changed with 2 - 10 MW/minute. In case the function emergency power
control (EPC) is activated the ramping is 20- 100 MW/second and the total time for
blocking during the power reversal is in this situation 1-2 seconds.
Figure 4.4 shows the DC line voltage profile during emergency power reversal on
Skagerrak I. The figure shows that the complete reversal occurred in 300ms. In this
case the pole was not blocked.
300
200
100
0
kV
-100
-200
-300
28 28.5 29 29.5 30 30.5 31 31.5 32 32.5 33
SEC
Figure 4.4 - DC Line Voltage Profile during Emergency
Power Reversal in Skagerrak 1
4.4 Voltage distribution during polarity reversal
In order to give clarity as to why the different types of polarity reversal are interesting
for the transformer insulation stresses, a brief explanation is given here about the
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mechanism. A full understanding of the insulation structure, stresses, and time
functions in the transformer is not within the scope of this Working Group.
An HVDC converter transformer insulation is exposed to stresses due to AC voltage

and DC. Voltage [2]. The line winding and its terminals are subjected to voltages
similar to conventional transformers that is, steady state AC voltages and transient
voltages like lightning and switching surges. However the valve windings and their
terminals will, in addition to the AC voltages, be subjected to DC voltages and the
commutation transients generated by the thyristor valve. This in turn gives rise to
combined AC and DC stresses.
The distribution of all time variable voltages across the insulation system is defined
by the geometry, the resistivity and the permittivity of materials involved. The
distribution of steady state direct voltage is mainly governed by the apparent
resistivities of the insulating materials. The insulation materials in the transformers
mainly consist of oil and cellulose.
It is generally acceptable to model the insulation structure as an R-C network to

determine the behaviour under DC conditions. When a DC voltage is initially applied,
the voltage distribution is capacitive, while the final or steady state DC field is
determined by the relative resistivities of the insulating materials. In the actual
system the ratio of the resistivities between solid insulation and oil changes with
temperature.
Figure 4.5 shows a simplified equivalent circuit for the transformer insulation used for
explaining the voltage distribution during polarity reversal. For this explanation it is
assumed that the interface between the oil and the cellulose is an equipotential
surface and that the resistivities and the permittivities of the materials do not change
during polarity reversal.
As the AC and DC stresses are predominantly determined by independent

parameters, it can be assumed that any complex voltage field can be separated into
AC and DC components. The stresses due to each voltage can be calculated
separately and the two stresses can be combined to give the actual stress.
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C CELL C OIL
R CELL R OIL
CELLULOSE OIL
Figure 4.5 - Insulation system, equivalent R - C circuit
Figure 4.6 shows the stresses at steady state DC voltage (solid line D) and
immediately after a polarity reversal (dotted line E). The maximum stresses occur
when the resistivity ratio cellulose/oil is high. In steady state condition, the DC
voltage distribution is mainly determined by the ratio of the resistivities. Normally the
resistivity is such that the major part of the total DC voltage drop in steady state will
be across the cellulose. Together with the AC component the distribution in the
composite system will be like the line D in figure 4.6. Thus the significant stress in
the solid insulation is due to the applied DC voltage.
U (kV)
A B
E
+U(a .c. + d.c.) U dc > = 90 min
F
0
T IM E
D
-U(a.c. + d.c.) > = 90 min
C
A - C ellulose D - Final distribution before polarity reversal
B - Oil E - Initial distribution after polarity reversal
C - Initial distribution before polarity reversal F - F inal distr ibution after polarity r ever sal
Figure 4.6 - Voltage distribution before and immediately after polarity reversal
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Immediately after the polarity reversal, (line E in figure 4.6) the charge of the
cellulose in the opposite direction remains but will be reduced due to the capacitive
voltage distribution at the 2U step (-U to +U). The result is a significant increase of
the voltage across the oil. The values of resistivities and permittivities involved
determine this temporary voltage across the oil. This voltage is normally higher than
the voltage across the oil immediately after an application of +U or -U but is reduced
to a low level of mainly AC voltage (line F in figure 4.6) in steady state.
The EPRI report TR-102480 [4] provides detailed information on the effects of static
charge, moisture and the resistivity (as a function of temperature) of oil and
pressboard on the transformer design.
4.5 Investigation of polarity reversal stresses
The effect of polarity reversal due to various control actions has been reported by
JWG A2/B4-28. The following is the description of the effect of polarity reversal as
described in section 4.1 of Technical Brochure 406, by JWG A2/B4-28 [3].
“In AC dielectric tests there is a one to one proportionality between the test level and
the corresponding dielectric stress. For example, during the induced voltage test the
transformer is fed with double the rated voltage to induce double the rated dielectric
stress between turns in all windings. Moreover the ratio between the stress between
turns during the induced voltage test and normal service condition is not influenced
by the type of the transformer oil used during the test and in service (because
different oils have practically the same permittivity).
This proportionality between voltage and stress and independence from oil type is
not generally true for polarity reversal (PR) test and DC test because the dielectric
stress depends not only on the applied voltage but also on a) polarization time and b)
oil conductivity (which can be significantly different depending on the type of mineral
oil).
Therefore, to evaluate the effectiveness of the PR test, it is necessary to determine

the relation between the safety margin of 1.25 in the voltage test level (as per IEC
61378-2) and the safety margin in applied in dielectric stress for different polarization
times and oil conductivities.”
4.5.1-Polarity reversal during DC line faults
The following is the result of investigation of polarity reversal during DC line faults as
described in section 4.1.2 of TB406 [3].
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“When a DC transmission line fault occurs the line voltage goes to zero almost
instantaneously (in less than 2ms). The rectifier current increases and the rectifier
firing angle goes to 90 degrees in order to control the current. The line protection
detects the fault within 30 to 50ms and forces the firing angle of the rectifier to 155
degrees. The increase in firing angle causes the DC line voltage to approximately
half the nominal voltage in the reverse polarity and extinguishes the fault.
250 ms
Udc -0.5 p.u.
t
1 p.u.
Figure 4.7 - DC line voltage during a line fault
After a preselected deionization time (approx. 250 ms) the rectifier firing angle is
forced to normal operation (13-18 degrees) and the DC line voltage returns to the
normal polarity. The change in polarity occurs in less than 30 ms. Figure 4.7 shows a
typical waveform for a DC line fault.
The polarity reversal during the DC line fault occurs over a very short period
compared to the polarity reversal test. Table 1 shows the differences between the
polarity reversal test, normal power reversal and DC line fault.
Polarity Reversal Type
Power reversal Standard Test HVDC Line Fault
Steady State DC Yes No Yes

reached before
Reversal
Time between two >12 hr 90 min 300ms

reversals
Reversal time < 2 min < 2 min < 2ms
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Steady State DC Yes No No

reached after
reversal
Table 1 - Difference between the polarity reversal test and operating conditions
Since the polarity reversal in line fault occurs in less than 2 to 30 ms compared to
120 sec in the polarity reversal test, simulations were performed to see the effect of
the reversal time. Figures 4.8, 4.9 and 4.10 show the stresses on the bushing
surface after various time intervals.
The time to reverse the polarity:
 Slightly affected the stress distribution at the time when the reversal was
completed.
 Did not affect the stress distribution (and its peak value) in following
instants.
These results are not surprising if we consider that even 120 s (for the test PR) is a
short time when compared with the insulation system time constants.
The two polarity reversals related to a HVDC line fault take place in less than 250
ms. In such a short time the charge and voltage distribution due to DC polarization
cannot change significantly.
2.5
1.5
p.u.
0.5
0.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
mm
Transient PR from DC (12 ms ramp)
Transient PR from DC (2 min ramp)
Static PR
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Figure 4.8 - Creep stress on bushing surface at t=0 s after PR completion
2.5
1.5
p.u.
0.5
0.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
mm
Static PR
Figure 4.9 - Creep stress on bushing surface at t = 300 s after PR completion
2.5
1.5
p.u.
0.5
0.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
mm
Static PR
Figure 4.10 - Creep stress on bushing surface at t - 1200 s after PR completion
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This transient can be related to the very first instants of a power reversal PR,
although less severe because the pole voltage swings to just approx 50% of the full
voltage.”
4.6 References
[1] E. W. Kimbark, “Direct Current Transmission”, Vol 1, John Wiley & sons, !971.
[2] IEC 61378-3 (2006) - Converter Transformers - Application guide.
[3] Technical Brochure 406 – HVDC Converter Transformers - Design Review, Test
Procedures, Ageing Evaluation and Reliability in Service, JWG A2/B4.28,
February 2010, Cigré)
[4] EPRI TR-102480, “Proceedings- Static Electrification in Power Transformers”,

June 1993.
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Chapter 5 - Current Harmonics
5.1 Introduction
The line commutated converters used in HVDC links for power transmission produce
harmonic voltages on DC side and harmonic currents on AC side. These harmonic
orders depend, among several factors, on the converter number of pulses, defined as
the number of non simultaneous commutations per fundamental frequency voltage
cycle. The harmonic currents flow through the converter transformers windings,
producing effects as heating and thereby increased losses.
5.2 Six pulse bridge currents
An HVDC converter consists of number of six pulse bridges usually connected in

series as shown in figures 2.3 and 2.4. Figure 5.1 shows a single six pulse bridge.
AC NETWORK
Ia
Ib
Ic
Id
Figure 5.1 - Six Pulse Bridge
Figure 5.2 shows the current waveform of phase A current ia, flowing between the six
pulse bridge and the converter transformer.
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OVERLAP ANGLE
 
t
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Id
Figure 5.2 - Phase A Current (Ia)
When a valve in positive half of the bridge is fired it does not pick up full DC current
Id immediately due to inductance in the circuit. After a time delay measured as
overlap angle μ, the commutation of the current from previous valve is completed.
The current Ia then stays constant at the DC current level Id till the next valve in the
same half of the bridge is fired. The current then goes to zero after the commutation
delay. A firing pulse is sent to the valve in the same phase in negative half of the
bridge sixty degrees after the stop pulse was issued to the valve connected in the
positive half of the same phase. The current wave shape for the negative half valve is
similar to the positive half valve but of the opposite polarity. The current waveform is
shown in figure 5.2, and as can be seen, it is not a sine wave, which means it
contains many harmonics.
5.3 Characteristic AC harmonics in line currents of a converter transformer
5.3.1 Characteristic AC harmonics in line currents on valve side of a six pulse

bridge
A converter of p pulses produces in ideal conditions characteristic harmonic voltages

on the DC side of order (pn) and characteristic harmonic currents on the AC side of
order (pn ± 1),
where n = 1, 2, 3, ……...
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The characteristic harmonics, associated to the natural commutation process among
valves, are those that exist only when the following ideal converter operation
conditions are fulfilled:
 The supplying AC voltages are shifted from each other by one third of a cycle
and have only fundamental frequency component.
 The DC current is constant.
 The valves conduction starts in identical time instants.
 The commutation inductances are identical for the three phases, producing
commutation angles of exactly the same value.
t Id
0 Id 60 120 180 240 300 360
Figure 5.3 - Valve Side Line Current Under Ideal Conditions and Zero Commutation
Reactance
Figure 5.3 shows the valve side line currents under ideal conditions and zero
commutation reactance. It can be shown that the Fourier analysis [1] of the above
wave shape leads to
2 3 1 1 1
ia = . I d cos(t ) - cos(5t ) + cos(7t ) - cos(11t ) + …..  ------- (1)
 5 7 11
The above equation shows that the harmonics of (6n-1) order are of positive
sequence and the harmonics of (6n+1) order are of negative sequence components.
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The r.m.s. value of fundamental frequency current component is given by:
6
I1 = Id Amperes -------- (2)

And the r.m.s. value of the harmonic current of order n is given by:
6
In = Id Amperes -------- (3)
n
It can thus be concluded that, for the idealized conditions shown, the magnitude of
the harmonic component current of order n is directly proportional to the magnitude
of the current in the DC line and inversely proportional to the harmonic order.
5.3.2 Characteristic AC harmonics in line currents on network side of six pulse

bridge
5.3.2.1 Wye-Wye Connected Transformer
Under ideal conditions, zero commutation reactance and transformer ratio of 1:1, the
line currents on the network side of the converter transformer for a six pulse bridge
would have the same wave shape as figure 5.3. Equation (1) would also apply to the
network side line currents.
5.3.2.2 Delta -Wye Connected Transformer
Figure 5.4 shows the network side line current wave shape for Delta-Wye connected
transformer (neglecting the commutation reactance).
The Fourier analysis of figure 5.4 is shown in equation (4).
2 3 1 1 1
ia = . I d cos(t ) + cos(5t ) - cos(7t ) - cos(11t ) + ….. 
 5 7 11
------- (4)
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2Id 3
Id 3
0
60 120 180 240 300 360
t
Figure 5.4 - Network Side Line Current of Delta-Wye Transformer
Comparison of equations (1) and (4) shows that harmonic currents of order (6n+/- 1)
for n = 1, 3, 5, etc. are 180 degrees out of phase.
Based on this, one can conclude that the use of converter transformers in which the
secondary windings are phase shifted by 30 of fundamental frequency leads to
harmonic content reduction of the converter transformer currents on the network
side. Combined net harmonics from a Wye-Wye and Delta-Wye converter
transformers in to the network have an order of (12n±1), which reduces the needs for
filtering.
5.4 Characteristic AC harmonics in valve side line current with commutation

reactance
In the actual system the commutation reactance is not zero and causes a finite
overlap angle, usually called μ, that represents the commutation time. The wave
shape in figure 5.4 is closer to a sine wave than that in figure 5.3 and as a result the
magnitude of the harmonics as a percentage of the fundamental decreases with
increasing overlap angle.
The relationship between the nth harmonic current and the fundamental current
component can be expressed [1] as
In F
= ------- (5)
I1 D
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Where F  (G 2  H 2  2GH cos(2   ))
D  cos( )  cos(   )

sin( n  1)
G 2
n 1

sin( n  1)
H 2
n 1
For the illustrations below, the harmonics were calculated for firing angles of 10, 15,
30 and 60 degrees and overlap angle between 1 and 50 degrees. The normal
overlap angle for the HVDC systems is in the range of 0 to 30 degrees.
Figures 5.5 to 5.12 show the magnitude of the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, 17th, 19th 23rd and
25th harmonic currents for the above operating conditions as percentage of the
fundamental current.
5th HARMONIC CURRENT AS % FUNDAMENTAL
25
20
15
I5/I1 %
ALPHA = 10 deg
ALPHA = 15 deg
10
ALPHA = 30 deg
ALPHA = 60 deg
5 ALPHA = 90 deg
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
OVERLAP ANGLE - DEG
Figure 5.5 - 5th Harmonic Current as Function of Overlap Angle
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7th HARMONIC CURRENT AS % OF FUNDAMENTAL
16
ALPHA = 10 deg
ALPHA = 15 deg
12 ALPHA = 30 deg
ALPHA = 60 deg
ALPHA = 90 deg
I7/I1 %
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
OVERLAP ANGLE - DEG
10
ALPHA = 10 deg
ALPHA = 15 deg
8 ALPHA = 30 deg
ALPHA = 60 deg
ALPHA = 90 deg
6
I11/I1 %
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
OVERLAP ANGLE - DEG
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10
8 ALPHA = 10 deg
ALPHA = 15 deg
ALPHA = 30 deg
6
ALPHA = 60 deg
I13/I1 %
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
OVERLAP ANGLE - DEG
17th HARMONIC CURRENT AS A % FUNDAMENTAL
10
ALPHA = 10 deg
ALPHA = 15 deg
8
ALPHA = 30 deg
ALPHA = 60 deg
6
I17/I1 %
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
OVERLAP ANGLE - DEG
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5 ALPHA = 10 deg
ALPHA = 15 deg
ALPHA = 30 deg
4
ALPHA =60 deg
I19/I1 %
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
OVERLAP ANGLE - DEG
23rd HARMONIC CURRENT AS % OF FUNDAMENTAL
ALPHA = 10 deg
4 ALPHA = 15 deg
ALPHA = 30 deg
ALPHA = 60 deg
3
I23/I1 %
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
OVERLAP ANGLE - DEG
Figure 5.11 - 23rd Harmonic Current as Function of Overlap Angle
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25th HARMONICS CURRENT AS % OF FUNDAMENTAL
4 ALPHA 10 deg
ALPHA 15 deg
ALPHA 30 deg
3 ALPHA 60 deg
I25/I1%
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
OVERLAP ANGLE - DEG
5.5 Non characteristic harmonics
Because of non-ideal system conditions, conversion equipment manufacturing

tolerances and process conditions, non-characteristic harmonics will also be
generated. The non-ideal operating conditions, described as follows.
 The AC voltages applied to the converter are not perfectly balanced and
distortion free and the impedances of the system, especially the converter
transformers, are not exactly the same in the six phases (three in each six-
pulse group).
 The signals on the DC side can be modulated by other converter stations

installed electrically close, especially in the case of the inverter station.
 Errors in the determination of the converter firing angles are present.
The analysis of the non characteristic harmonic behaviour is not included in this
report. However, this consideration in actual projects is of great importance, due to
the possibility of the existence of resonances within the electric power systems.
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Sometimes it is also necessary to install filters tuned to frequencies associated with
non characteristic harmonics.
5.6 Effect of harmonics on converter transformers
The harmonic currents in a converter transformer will increase conductor and eddy
current losses. In HVDC converter transformers there are appreciable harmonic
currents, which give rise to additional losses. These losses must be considered at the
design stage in order to ensure that the transformer will meet specified temperature
rise limits during normal operation. A 6 pulse HVDC converter generates harmonics
of the order of (6n+/- 1).
In a two winding transformer, the ampere-turns are balanced if the magnetizing

current is neglected. The harmonic currents in the valve winding are balanced by
harmonics in the line-winding; therefore the conductor current loss factor is the same
for both valve and line windings.
In a three winding transformer which includes both star and delta valve windings on
the same core limb, special attention [4] must be paid to the effect of the harmonics.
The valve winding harmonics can be divided into two groups:
1) Harmonics in phase - the harmonics from the star and delta bridges that are in
phase, sum together and appear on the line side. For HVDC converters, the
harmonics of the order of 11, 13, 23, 25, 35, 37, 47 and 49 are in phase.
2) Harmonics in phase opposition - the harmonics from star and delta bridges that
are in phase opposition, cancel each other and do not appear on the line side. For
HVDC converters, the harmonics of the order of 5, 7, 17, 19, 29, 31, 41 and 43 are in
phase opposition.
The effect of harmonic currents in phase opposition depends on the coupling

between the windings and the transformer design. Refer to IEC 61378-1 [2] clause
5.2 for details.
If the magnitude of harmonics in opposition is significant and the windings into which
they flow are loosely coupled, the resulting leakage flux may result in local hot spots
especially near the winding ends [4] and may eventually lead to transformer failure.
In those situations it is highly recommended that study of the effects of harmonics in
opposition by means of a simulation tools should be conducted at the design stage.
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5.7 Level of harmonics for transformer specification
In section 5.4 it was shown that the amount of current harmonics generated by a
converter depends on the firing angle and the overlap angle. Figures 5.5 to 5.12
show that the percentage harmonic content as a function of fundamental decreases
with the loading. However the magnitude of the fundamental component increases
with loading resulting in actual increase of current magnitude for some harmonics
and decrease for others. For each actual transformer, the harmonic current
magnitudes and their relative directions have to be considered.
5th HARMONIC CURRENT AS

A FUNCTION OF DC CURRENT
0.5
0.4
5th HARMONIC - kA
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
DC CURRENT - kA
Figure 5.13 - 5th Harmonic Current as a Function of DC Current
Figure 5.13 shows an example of how the amount of 5th harmonic current increases
with the increase in DC loading.
In order to determine the maximum losses that could occur in the converter
transformer, the transformer designers must find and take into consideration the
worst condition that could occur. Another approach, albeit a conservative one, is to
consider the highest value of each harmonic current and apply it simultaneously,
even if they cannot occur at the same time. The fundamental frequency losses will be
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the largest factor contributing to the losses. In addition, for converter operation, the
loss component due to harmonic currents will contribute to the total losses of the
transformer. In order to determine the maximum losses during converter operation,
the maximum value of each harmonic that can be generated under any operating
conditions including continuous overload, needs to be included in the specification.
The harmonic currents up to 49th harmonic must be included in the specification.
5.8 Estimation of losses
In order to ensure that the transformer will not overheat during operation, factory
tests must be conducted to ensure that the design will meet the specification.
However it is not practical to replicate the actual operating conditions in the factory
where the test sets can only work with a single frequency at any time.
The accepted practice is to estimate the total losses in the transformer including the
harmonics then perform the temperature rise test with equivalent fundamental
frequency current.
5.8.1 IEC Method
The IEC 61378-3 clause 9.1.4 application guide [3] proposes the estimation of the
losses using dual frequency testing method. The procedure calls for measurement of
total load losses at fundamental frequency and another frequency which is at least
150 Hz higher than the fundamental frequency.
The calculation is performed as following:
P1 = Total load losses at 50/60 Hz
P5 = Total load losses at 250/300 Hz
PWE1 = Eddy losses at 50/60 Hz
PWS1 = Stray Losses at 50/60 Hz
I2R = Ohmic losses at rated current
f1 = Power frequency 50/60 Hz
f5 = 250/300 Hz
PWE1 and PWS1 can now be determined from the following equations:
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CIGRE WG B4-51
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P1 = I2R + PWE1 + PWS1 ------- (6)
2 0.8
f   f5 
P5 = I2R + PWE1  5  + PWS1  
 f1   f1 
The eddy and stray losses for current of any frequency can be calculated as
following:
In = nth harmonic current
I1 = Nominal load current at power frequency
2 2
 fn 
PWEn = PWE1.  
In
Eddy losses at nth harmonic  
 I1   f1 
2 0.8
 fn 
PWSn = PWS1.  
In
Stray losses at nth harmonic  
 I1   f1 
2
Total losses PN = I 1 R + ∑ PWEn + ∑ PWSn -------(7)
Where n = 1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17 and 19
5.8.2 IEEE Method
The following is a brief summary of the procedure, for detailed instructions refer to
IEEE Std C57.129-2007, clause 8.6.2.2 [5].
The procedure is as follows
a) Measure all winding resistances and correct to 85°C.
b) With DC-side winding shorted, test for load loss using the rated fundamental
2
frequency (h = 1) sinusoidal current. Calculate I 1 R (resistive) and stray loss
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component and correct loss values to 85°C. This loss value is called
fundamental load loss ( P1 ).
c) Using the same procedure as for fundamental frequency measure harmonic

losses at each harmonic through 49. Correct all loss values to 85°C and to the
same reference current level as used for the determination of ( P1a ).
d) Calculate loss adjustment factors at each harmonic frequency as shown in

equation (8) as follows:
Ph
Fh = ------- (8)
P1a
Where
h is the harmonic number
Ph is the calculated harmonic loss at harmonic h based on the measured
harmonic losses and corrected to the same current level as used for the
determination of P1a and to a winding temperature of 85°C.
P1a is the calculated load loss at fundamental frequency. It is based on
measured fundamental frequency losses corrected to a winding

temperature of 85°C.
e) Total load losses are given by equation (9) as follows:
2
49
I 
PLLT = P1a    h   Fh  P1 ------- (9)
2  I 1a 
f) Total load losses to be used before loss evaluation and the temperature rise
test are given by equation (8) as follows:
PTL  PLLT  PCL
Where
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PCL is the no load loss.
5.9 Temperature rise test
The objective of the temperature rise test is to take into account the effect of current
harmonics on eddy and stray losses by properly increasing the sinusoidal test loss
and current. Even with an increase in current, it should be noted that the
temperature rise test may not produce the same hot spot rise as in normal service
since the extra losses due to harmonic currents are mainly concentrated at the
extreme ends of the windings, while the correction factor applied during the test will
generate extra losses uniformly along the winding. As a result, the hot spot
generated during the test may be less than that developed in normal converter
operation.
In order to simulate the service load loss during the temperature rise test, an
equivalent load current is used which calculated as follows:
0.5
P 
The equivalent test current I eq  I1   N 
 P1 
Where
PN = Total load loss as calculated in equation (7)
P1 = Load loss at fundamental frequency as calculated in equation (6).
I1 = Fundamental frequency nominal load current.
5.10 DC Current in converter transformers
In addition to the non-characteristic harmonics, there is always some dc current

following in the converter transformers. The converter transformers are designed so
that this small amount of dc current does not result in core saturation. However,
there is still a requirement to study the complete system for any interaction between
ac and dc systems that may lead to core saturation instability. This problem can
occur [xx] when the dc system (dc reactors, line or cable capacitance) has a natural
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resonance at or near the fundamental frequency and involves the saturation of the
transformer core by dc currents.
This type of instability can be easily triggered by energization of a converter

transformer in HVDC system connected to a weak ac system. The second harmonic
due to in-rush current results in a fundamental frequency voltage on the dc side
which results in a large fundamental frequency component in the dc current due to
resonance condition of the dc system. This results in unequal firing due to the
response of the current control loop. Unequal firing contributes to additional dc
component in the transformer windings current which contributes to the saturation of
the core and in turn adds to the magnetizing current the second harmonic
component. The additional second harmonic content further increases the
fundamental frequency oscillations on the dc side. If the proper mitigation measures
are not taken, then the system will go unstable resulting in shut down of the HVDC
system.
5.11 References
[1] E. W. Kimbark, “Direct Current Transmission”, Vol 1, John Wiley & sons, !971.
[2] IEC 61378-1 (1997) - Converter Transformers - Transformers for Industrial

Applications.
[3] IEC 61378-3 (2006) - Converter Transformers - Application guide.
[4] J. A. C. Forrest, B. Allard, “Thermal Problems Caused by harmonic frequency

Leakage Fluxes in Three-Phase, Three Winding Converter Transformers”, IEEE
Trans. Vol. 19, Jan. 2004, pp 208-213.
[5] IEEE Std C57.129 2007, IEEE Standard for General Requirements and Test
Code for Oil-Immersed HVDC Converter Transformers.
[6] J.D. Ainsworh: “Core Saturation Instability in Kingsnorth HVDC Link”- Presented
to CIGRE Study Committee 14, Winnipeg, Canada, June 20-24, 1977.
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Chapter 6 –Simulation results
6.1 Introduction
In chapter 2 theoretical wave shapes at the valve side of the transformer terminals
were presented. The effect of valve snubber circuits and other stray capacitances
were not included. This chapter presents results of PSCAD simulation results of two
HVDC links. The systems selected for the simulation are Gui-Guang I +/-500kV link
and the Itaipu +/-600kV. Bipole I. The Gui-Guang I represents a single 12 pulse
converter per pole system and the Itaipu represents a two 12 pulse converters per
pole system. The details of models for both systems are provided in Appendix A.
6.2 GUI-GUANG SYSTEM
Figure 6.1 shows a simplified single line diagram of the Gui-Guang system. The
transmission system is rated at 3000 MW, +/- 500 kV and 3000A. Each pole uses a
single 12 pulse thyristor converter valve. The low voltage bridge in each pole has a
grounded start/delta connection and the high voltage bridge in each pole has
grounded star/star connection. There are six single phase two winding transformers
per pole at each station. The overhead transmission line distance is 936 km.
Anshun Converter Station Zhaoqing Converter Station
Smoothing Reactor DC Overhead Line Smoothing Reactor

500 kV, 50 Hz 500 kV, 50 Hz
AC System AC System
2 DC Filters
2 DC Filters
Converter
Converter
Transformer
Transformer
2 DC Filters
2 DC Filters
12 Pulse 12 Pulse
Thyristor Valve Thyristor Valve
3 AC Filter Banks 4 AC Filter Banks
Figure 6.1 - Single Line diagram of Gui-Guang HVDC System

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Each pole has two DC filters, each triple tuned at 12th, 24th and 36th harmonic. The
Anshun station has three AC filters banks. The Zhaoqing station has four AC filter
banks. Each AC filter bank is a combination of double tuned and triple tuned filters
and capacitor shunts. The AC systems at the rectifier and inverter are 500 kV and 50
Hz. More detailed information on the Gui-Guang system can be found in ref [1].
angle of 15 degrees. The waveforms at the inverter would be similar except for the
commutation failure and the DC line faults.
6.2.1.1 Low Voltage Bridge
Figure 6.2 shows the voltage to ground at the valve side bushing of the low voltage
bridge. Figure 6.3 shows the phase-to-phase voltage at the valve side bushing of the
low voltage bridge. When comparing figures 6.2 and figure 6.3 to figures 2.5 and 2.6
in chapter 2, it can be seen that these wave shapes contain high frequency
oscillations generated at each commutation. At turn-off, the thyristor ceases to
conduct current shortly after the current zero, and at this time the damping circuit
becomes connected in series with the external inductance (converter transformer and
bus inductance) of the converter forming a series LC circuit. The oscillations are
generated when the circuit is subjected to step-change in voltage when the thyristor
turns off.
GUI-GUANG 15 DEG
Va_p1_d
400
300
200
100
(kV)
0
-100
-200
SEC 0.9600 0.9650 0.9700 0.9750 0.9800 0.9850 0.9900 0.9950
Figure 6.2 - Low Voltage Bridge Phase to Ground Voltage

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GUI-GUANG 15 DEG
Vab_p1_d
400
200
0
(kV)
-200
-400
SEC 0.9600 0.9650 0.9700 0.9750 0.9800 0.9850 0.9900 0.9950 1.0000
Figure 6.3 - Low Voltage Bridge Phase to Phase Voltage
6.2.1.2 High Voltage Bridge
bushing of the transformer at the second bridge. The voltage has a DC voltage
component with an average value of bridge 1 DC voltage (1.2 p.u. Uvo). The voltage
waveforms also include the 6 pulse ripple generated by bridge 1 and 12 pulse ripple
as combination of bridges 1 and 2. Figure 6.5 shows the phase to phase voltage
waveform on the valve side of the transformer at the high voltage bridge.
GUI GUANG 15 DEG

Va_p1_S
800
600
400
kV
200
0
SEC 1.0000 1.0050 1.0100 1.0150 1.0200 1.0250 1.0300 1.0350
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Figure 6.4 - High Voltage Bridge Phase to Ground Voltage
GUI GUANG 15 DEG

Vab_p1_S
400
200
0
kV
-200
-400
SEC 0.940 0.950 0.960 0.970
Figure 6.5 - High Voltage Bridge Phase to Phase Voltage
angle of 30 degrees.
bridge. The wave shape is similar to figure 2.10 except for the high frequency
oscillations caused by the commutations.
GUI GUANG 30 DEG

Va_p1_d
400
300
200
100
(kV)
0
-100
-200
SEC 0.980 0.990 1.000 1.010 1.020
Figure 6.6 - Low Voltage Bridge Phase to ground Voltage
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Figure 6.7 shows the valve side phase to phase voltage in low voltage. The
waveform is similar the 15 degree operation.
GUI GUAG 30 DEG

Vab_p1_d
400
200
0
(kV)
-200
-400
SEC 0.970 0.980 0.990 1.000 1.010 1.020
Figure 6.7- Low Voltage Bridge Phase to Phase Valve Side Voltage
Figure 6.8 shows the voltage to ground on the valve side of the high voltage
transformer. When comparing to figure 2.12 in chapter 2 the only difference is the
high frequency components caused by the commutation. As expected the wave
shape is the same as for the lower bridge, but the valve side of the high voltage
transformer has a DC offset and the ripple of the lower bridge.
GUI GUANG 30 DEG

Va_p1_S
800
600
400
kV
200
0
SEC 0.980 0.990 1.000 1.010 1.020
Figure 6.8 – High Voltage Bridge Phase to ground Voltage
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Figure 6.9 shows the phase to phase voltage across the valve side terminals of the
high voltage bridge. As expected the wave shape is the same as for the lower bridge,
GUI GUANG 30 DEG

Vab_p1_S
400
300
200
100
0
y
-100
-200
-300
-400
SEC 0.970 0.980 0.990 1.000 1.010 1.020 1.030
GUI GUAG 90 DEG

Va_p1_d
500
400
300
200
100
(kV)
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
SEC 1.100 1.110 1.120 1.130 1.140
Figure 6.9 - Low Voltage Bridge Phase to ground Voltage
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Figure 6.10 shows the valve side phase to phase voltage in low voltage bridge. The
voltage collapses to zero six times per cycle.
GUI GUANG 90 DEG

Vab_p1_d
500
400
300
200
100
0
(kV)
-100
-200
-300
-400
-500
SEC 1.0950 1.1000 1.1050 1.1100 1.1150 1.1200 1.1250 1.1300 1.1350 1.1400
Figure 6.10 - Low Voltage Bridge Phase to Phase Valve Side Voltage
bushing of the high voltage bridge (Point C in figure 2.4). The voltage waveform
contains the commutation transients from bridge 1 and half of bridge 2. Although
there is virtually no DC offset, the waveform is very distorted.
GUI GUANG 90 DEG

Va_p1_S
600
400
200
0
kV
-200
-400
-600
SEC 1.1000 1.1050 1.1100 1.1150 1.1200 1.1250 1.1300 1.1350 1.1400
Figure 6.11 – High Voltage Bridge Phase to ground Voltage.
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GUI GUAG 90 DEG
Vab_p1_S
400
300
200
100
0
kV
-100
-200
-300
-400
SEC 1.110 1.120 1.130 1.140 1.150
Figure 6.12 – High Voltage Bridge Phase to Phase Voltage
6.2.4 DC Line Fault
A DC line fault was simulated to see the affect of control action on the voltage
imposed on the transformer windings. The fault was simulated as following:
T0 = DC line fault occurs
T0 + 30ms = Line protection operates and forces the rectifier angle to 150 degrees
at a rate of 180 deg/20ms
T0 + 50ms = Fault is extinguished.
T0 + 230ms = the firing angle is forced to normal at a rate of 180deg/20ms
The figures 6.13 to 6.15 show the voltages measured at the rectifier station, on the
line side of the smoothing reactor, at the high voltage bridge before the smoothing
reactor and at the midpoint between the two bridges. The figures show that the
voltages on the dc side of the converter reverse when the fault occurs. However after
the current is extinguished in the fault the magnitude of the reverse voltage
decreases to a low value during the de-ionization time. It is noted that this case is
only a representative of phenomenon and does not represent the worst conditions. It
is recommended that detailed studies should be performed to determine the worst
case conditions. .
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GUI GUANG DC LINE FAULT
DC Volts_P1
600
500
400
300
200
100
kV
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
SEC 1.000 1.050 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250 1.300
Figure 6.13 – DC Voltage on the Line Side of Smoothing Reactor
Uhigh
800
600
400
200
kV
-200
-400
-600
Figure 6.14 – DC Voltage Before the Smoothing Reactor
Umid
400
300
200
100
kV
0
-100
-200
-300
Figure 6.15 – DC Voltage at Mid Point of the Converter
6.2.4.1 Low Voltage Bridge at the rectifier station
Figure 6.16 shows the voltage to ground at point A in figure 2.4. For the first two
cycles the voltage is similar to that during 90 degrees operation, as the DC line fault
protection has not operated and the current controller is controlling the DC current in
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the fault by controlling the rectifier firing angle close to 90 degrees. Once the line fault
protection operates the firing is forced to 150 degrees and the DC current in the fault
and bridges is forced to zero. As no current if flowing through the valves the voltage
at the valve side of the transformer floats to phase to “neutral” value: as a virtual
neutral is formed by the symmetric valve impedances when the thyristors are not
conducting.

Va_p1_d
400
300
200
100
0
(kV)
-100
-200
-300
-400
SEC 0.950 1.000 1.050 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250 1.300
Figure 6.16 - Low Voltage Bridge Phase to Ground Voltage

Vab_p1_d
400
300
200
100
0
(kV)
-100
-200
-300
-400
SEC 0.950 1.000 1.050 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250 1.300
Figure 6.17 - Low Voltage Bridge Phase to Phase Valve Side Voltage
6.2.4.2 High Voltage Bridge at the rectifier station
Figure 6.18 shows the phase to ground voltage waveforms as seen at all three
phases of the high voltage bridge windings (corresponding to point C in figure 2.4).
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The voltage waveforms show that during first couple of cycles the transformer
windings are transiently subjected to reverse voltage. The magnitude of the peak
reverse voltage is different for each phase. The voltage waveform contains the
commutation transients from bridge 1 and half of bridge 2.
tran_R_p1_Y : Graphs
Va_p1_S
800
600
400
200
kV
-200
-400
-600
Vb_p1_S
800
600
400
200
kV
-200
-400
-600
Vc_p1_S
800
600
400
200
kV
-200
-400
-600
1.000 1.050 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250
Figure 6.18 – High Voltage Bridge Phase to ground Voltage.

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Vab_p1_S
400
200
0
kV
-200
-400
SEC 1.000 1.050 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250
6.2.5 COMMUTATION FAILURE
A single cycle commutation failure in the high voltage bridge was simulated to see
the effect on the lower voltage bridge. A valve in phase A was simulated to have
failed to commutate to phase B valve.
Figures 6.20 to 6.22 show the phase to ground valve winding side voltages of all
three phases of the high voltage bridge. When commutation failure occurs a bypass
pair is formed by A phase valves. The phase A voltage stays at the level of the DC
voltage of the low voltage bridge during the bypass. The voltages of the other phases
switch to normal AC voltages with DC offset equal to the six pulse voltage of the low
voltage bridge.
Figure 6.20 - High Voltage Bridge Phase A to ground Voltage.
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Figure 6.21 - High Voltage Bridge Phase B to ground Voltage.
Figure 6.22 - High Voltage Bridge Phase C to ground Voltage.
Figures 6.23 to 6.25 show the valve side phase to ground voltages of the low voltage
bridge. Figure 6.26 shows the valve winding current in A phase of the high voltage
bridge. When the bypass pair is formed by A-phase valves, the current in the
transformer winding goes to zero in all three phases.
Figure 6.23 - Low Voltage Bridge Phase A to ground Voltage.
Figure 6.24 - Low Voltage Bridge Phase B to ground Voltage.
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Figure 6.25 - High Voltage Bridge Phase C to ground Voltage.
Figure 6.26- High Voltage Bridge Phase A Valve Current.
6.3 ITAIPU SYSTEM
Figure 6.27 shows a simplified single line diagram of one bipole of the Itaipu HVDC
transmission system. Itaipu transmission system consists of two Bipoles, each rated
at 3150 MW, +/- 600 kV and 2625A. Each pole uses a two 12 pulse thyristor valve
converters in series. The low voltage bridge in each converter has a grounded
start/delta connection and the high voltage bridge in each converter has grounded
star/star connection. There are six single phase three winding transformers per pole
at each station. Each transformer is rated at 314MVA. The overhead transmission
line distance is 807 km for bipole 1.
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Foz de Iguacu Sao Roque

500kV, 50Hz 345kV, 60Hz
+/-600kV DC, 2625A
DC FILTER
DC FILTER
AC FILTERS AC FILTERS
Figure 6.27- Single Line Diagram of Bipole 1 of Itaipu System
Each pole has 2nd, 5th, 12th harmonic and high pass DC filters. The Foz de Iguacu
station is the rectifier connected to 500kV, 50 Hz system. The Sao Roque station is
the inverter station connected to 345kV, 60 Hz system. Both stations have 3rd, 5th,
11th, 13th harmonic and high pass AC filters. More detailed information on the Itaipu
system can be found in ref [2]. The nominal valve side line to line voltage is 127kV
rms (179.6kV peak).
angle of 15 degrees and full load. The waveforms at the inverter would be similar
except for the commutation failure and the DC line faults.
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6.3.1.1 Low Voltage Bridge of the Low Voltage Converter
bridge of the low voltage converter (point A in figure 2.4). As expected it is similar to
figure 6.3. Figure 6.30shows the valve side phase to phase voltage.
ITAIPU 15 DEG
Va_br1_d
300
200
100
kV
-100
SEC 0.980 0.990 1.000 1.010 1.020 1.030
Figure 6.28 - Low Voltage Bridge (Low Voltage Converter) Phase to Ground Voltage
Figure 6.29 - Frequency Spectrum of figure 6.28
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ITAIPU 15 DEG
Vab_br1_d
200
100
0
kV
-100
-200
SEC 0.980 0.990 1.000 1.010 1.020 1.030
Figure 6.30 - Low Voltage Bridge (Low Voltage Converter) Phase to Phase Voltage
Figure 6.29 shows the AC components of the frequency analysis of wave shape in
figure 6.28. The wave shape in figure 6.28 also contains a DC component equal to
half the average DC voltage of one bridge (0.5Ud as shown in figure 2.4). The
dominant harmonics are of the order of 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17, 18, 19, 21,
23, 24 and 25 etc. See section 6.6 for details.
6.3.1.2 High Voltage Bridge of the Low Voltage Converter
bushing of the transformer at the high voltage bridge of the low voltage converter
(point C in figure 2.4). The phase to phase voltage waveform on the valve side of the
transformer of this bridge is same as figure 6.30.
ITAIPU 15 DEG
Va_br1_s
400
300
200
kV
100
0
SEC 0.990 1.000 1.010 1.020 1.030
Figure 6.31 - High Voltage Bridge (Low Voltage) Converter) Phase to Ground
Voltage
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Figure 6.32 - Frequency Spectrum of Figure 6.31
1.5 times the average DC voltage of one bridge (1.5Ud as shown in figure 2.4). The
23, 24 and 25 etc. The harmonic content of all the harmonics except the multiples of
12 remains the same as the lower bridge (fig 6.28). See section 6.6 for details.
6.3.1.3 Low Voltage Bridge of the High Voltage Converter
bridge of the low voltage converter (point E in figure 2.4). The valve side phase to
phase voltage of this bridge is the same as in figure 6.30.
ITAIPU 15 DEG
Va_br2_d
600
500
400
300
kV
200
100
0
SEC 1.000 1.010 1.020 1.030 1.040
Figure 6.33 - Low Voltage Bridge (High Voltage Converter) Phase to Ground Voltage
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23, 24 and 25 etc. The harmonic content of all the harmonics except the multiples of
12 remains the same as the lower bridge (fig 6.21). See section 6.6 for details.
6.3.1.4 High Voltage Bridge of the High Voltage Converter
(point G in figure 2.4). The phase to phase voltage waveform on the valve side of the
ITAIPU 15 DEG
Va_br2_s
800
600
400
kV
200
0
SEC 0.990 1.000 1.010 1.020 1.030
Figure 6.35 - High Voltage Bridge (High Voltage Converter) Phase to Ground Voltage
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23, 24 and 25 etc. See table 6.1 for details. The harmonic content of all the
harmonics except the multiples of 12 remains the same as the lower bridge (fig 6.28).
Figures 6.37 to 6.40 show the voltage to ground at the valve side bushing of the all
four transformers starting from the lowest voltage bridge to the highest voltage
bridge.
ITAIPU 30 DEG
Va_br1_d
300
200
100
kV
-100
SEC 0.990 1.000 1.010 1.020 1.030 1.040
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Figure 6.37 - Low Voltage Bridge (Low Voltage Converter) Phase to ground Voltage
ITAIPU 30 DEG
Va_br1_s
500
400
300
kV
200
100
0
SEC 0.980 0.990 1.000 1.010 1.020 1.030
Figure 6.38 - High Voltage Bridge (Low Voltage Converter) Phase to Ground Voltage
ITAIPU 30 DEG
Va_br2_d
600
500
400
300
kV
200
100
0
SEC 0.980 0.990 1.000 1.010 1.020 1.030 1.040
ITAIPU 30 DEG
Va_br2_s
800
700
600
500
400
kV
300
200
100
0
SEC 0.980 0.990 1.000 1.010 1.020 1.030 1.040
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ITAIPU 30 DEG
Vab_br1_d
300
200
100
0
kV
-100
-200
-300
SEC 0.970 0.980 0.990 1.000 1.010 1.020 1.030
Figure 6.41 shows the valve side phase to phase voltage in low voltage bridge of the
low voltage converter. The waveform is similar the 15 degree operation except the
voltage jumps during commutation are higher. The phase to phase voltages for the
other transformers are same as in figure 6.41.
See section 6.9 for the harmonic content of the wave shapes.
angle of 90 degrees. The voltage wave shapes for at the valve terminals of all four
transformers are shown in figures 6.42 to 6.45. Figure 6.46 shows the typical phase
to phase voltage on the valve side. The high frequency oscillations are characteristic
of the valve damping circuits and the stray capacitances of the individual
system.
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ITAIPU 90 DEG
Va_br1_d
250
200
150
100
50
kV
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
SEC 0.910 0.920 0.930 0.940 0.950 0.960
Figure 6.42 - Low Voltage Bridge (Low Voltage Converter) Phase to Ground Voltage
ITAIPU 90 DEG
Va_br1_s
400
300
200
100
kV
-100
-200
SEC 0.910 0.920 0.930 0.940 0.950 0.960
Figure 6.43 - High Voltage Bridge (Low Voltage Converter) Phase to Ground Voltage
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ITAIPU 90 DEG
Va_br2_d
500
400
300
200
100
kV
0
-100
-200
-300
SEC 0.910 0.920 0.930 0.940 0.950 0.960
ITAIPU 90 DEG
Va_br2_s
600
500
400
300
200
kV
100
0
-100
-200
-300
SEC 0.910 0.920 0.930 0.940 0.950 0.960
ITAIPU 90 DEG
Vab_br1_d
250
200
150
100
50
0
kV
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
SEC 0.910 0.920 0.930 0.940 0.950 0.960
Figure 6.46 - Phase to Phase to Voltage Valve side

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6.3.4 DC Line Fault
A DC line fault was simulated to see the affect of control action on the voltage
imposed on the transformer windings. The fault was simulated as following:
T0 = DC line fault occurs
T0 + 30ms = Line protection operates and forces the rectifier angle to 150 degrees
at a rate of 180 deg/20ms
T0 + 50ms = Fault is extinguished.
T0 + 230ms = The firing angle is forced to normal at a rate of 180deg/20ms
The figures 6.47 to 6.49 show the voltages measured at the rectifier station, on the
line side of the smoothing reactor, at the high voltage bridge before the smoothing
reactor and at the midpoint between the low voltage and high voltage converters. The
figures show that once the current is extinguished in the fault, the dc line is being
charged slowly in the reverse direction. The comparison between figure 6.14 for GG1
and figure 6.47 illustrates the fact that each system has unique characteristics and
must be studied in detail with its own parameters.
ITAIPU DC LINE FAULT

Udl
800
600
400
200
kV
-200
-400
SEC 1.000 1.050 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250 1.300
Figure 6.47– DC Voltage on the Line Side of Smoothing Reactor
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Ud
800
600
400
200
kV
0
-200
-400
-600
SEC 1.000 1.050 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250 1.300
Figure 6.48 – DC Voltage Before the Smoothing Reactor

Udmid
400
300
200
100
kV
0
-100
-200
-300
SEC 1.000 1.050 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250 1.300
Figure 6.49 – DC Voltage at the Junction of Lower and Upper Converters
6.3.4.1 Low Voltage Bridge of the Low Voltage Converter at the rectifier station
Figure 6.50 shows the voltage to ground at point A in figure 2.4. Figure 6.51 shows
the phase to phase voltage of this bridge.
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Va_br1_d
300
200
100
0
kV
-100
-200
-300
SEC 0.950 1.000 1.050 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250 1.300
Figure 6.50 - Low Voltage Bridge (Low Voltage Converter) Phase to ground Voltage

Vab_br1_d
300
200
100
0
kV
-100
-200
-300
SEC 1.000 1.050 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250 1.300
Figure 6.51 - Low Voltage Bridge (Low Voltage Converter) Phase to Phase Valve
Side Voltage
6.3.4.2 High Voltage Bridge of the Low Voltage Converter at the rectifier station
bushing of the high voltage bridge (Point C in figure 2.4). The voltage waveform
contains the commutation transients from bridge 1 and half of bridge 2. After the dc
current is extinguished the DC component follow the same pattern as the dc line
voltage.
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Va_br1_s
400
300
200
100
kV
0
-100
-200
-300
SEC 0.950 1.000 1.050 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250 1.300 1.350
Figure 6.52 – High Voltage Bridge (Low Voltage Converter) Phase to ground Voltage.

Vab_br1_s
300
200
100
0
kV
-100
-200
-300
SEC 1.000 1.050 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250 1.300
6.3.3.3 Low Voltage Bridge of the High Voltage Converter at the Rectifier
Station
bridge of the low voltage converter (point E in figure 2.4). The valve side phase to
phase voltage of this bridge is the same as in figure 6.53.
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Va_br2_d
600
500
400
300
200
100
kV
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
SEC 1.000 1.050 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250 1.300
6.3.3.4 High Voltage Bridge of the High Voltage Converter at the Rectifier
Station
(point G in figure 2.4). The phase to phase voltage waveform on the valve side of the

Va_br2_s
800
600
400
200
kV
0
-200
-400
-600
SEC 0.950 1.000 1.050 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250 1.300
6.4 Harmonic Content of Transformer Voltage in Steady State Operation
The figures in sections 6.2 and 6.3 show that both phase to ground and phase to
phase voltages on the valve side of the converter transformer contain harmonics.
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The following sections (6.4.1 and 6.4.2) provide more details about these harmonics.
Only the harmonic content of Itaipu system with two twelve pulse converters per pole
are discussed in here as it also covers the single twelve pulse converter per pole
configuration.
It should be noted that the discussion in these sections only applies to the specific
operating conditions simulated in the previous sections and the calculated
percentages of harmonic cannot be applied to all operating conditions. No attempt is
made in the report to determine the worst possible conditions. Only harmonics up to
25th are considered for discussion. This does not imply that higher harmonics either
do not exist or are not important.
In the following discussion figure 2.4 is used as reference for various bridges.
6.4.1 Harmonics in the phase to ground voltage
6.4.1.1 Alpha 15 degree operation
Table 6.4.1 shows the DC component and the harmonic content of the phase to
ground voltages at the valve side of transformer windings for all four bridges.
The following observations can be made from this table:
 Each bridge voltage has a DC component equal to Ud * (n-0.5).
Where Ud = Average DC voltage of the bridge (150 kV in this case)
n = Bridge number starting from the ground.
 The fundamental component equals to the phase to neutral voltage of the

valve winding side voltage.
 The voltages contain a large component of harmonics of the order of 3n.

Where n = 1, 3, 5, 7, etc.
 The voltages contain harmonics of the order of 6n.

Where n = 1, 2, 3, etc.
 The voltages contain harmonics of the order of 6n +/-1

Where n = 1, 2, 3, etc.
 The magnitude of harmonic content of all the harmonics except the multiples
of 12 does not change from one bridge to another.
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Table 6.4.1
HARMONIC CONTENT IN THE VALVE WINDING - PHASE TO GROUND

VOLTAGE
FIRING ANGLE = 15 DEG
DC VOLATGE IN kV AC VOLTAGES IN kV rms
HARMONIC BRIDGE 1 BRIDGE 2 BRIDGE 3 BRIDGE 4

ORDER
POINT A POINT C POINT E POINT G
DC LEVEL 74.8 224.8 374 524
1 67.7 67.6 67.7 67.7
3 21.2 21.2 21.2 21.2
5 5.98 5.97 5.97 5.98
6 6.96 6.94 6.98 6.98
7 5.64 5.65 5.62 567
9 3.09 3.10 3.10 3.11
11 4.76 4.75 4.75 4.76
12 1.07 3.13 5.18 7.17
13 4.04 3.98 4.06 3.96
15 1.04 1.09 1.09 1.09
17 2.77 2.77 2.76 2.74
18 1.60 1.75 1.77 1.83
19 2.13 2.08 2.13 2.00
21 1.94 1.98 2.08 2.1
23 1.00 0.95 0.97 0.85
24 1.86 5.56 9.05 12.23
25 0.71 0.68 0.74 0.77
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 The harmonic with multiples of 12 increase as following:
Vn = V1 x (2n-1)
Where V1 = Magnitude of harmonic in bridge 1
Vn = Magnitude of harmonic in bridge n
n = Bridge number counted from the ground
As an example, table 6.4.1 shows the 12th harmonic voltages for bridges 1 to 4 as
following:
Bridge 1 = 1.07 kV
Bridge 2 = 3.13 kV = (1.07 x (2 x 2-1))
Bridge 3 = 5.18 kV = (1.07 x (2 x 3-1))
Bridge 4 = 7.17 kV = (1.07 x (2 x 4 -1))
6.4.1.2 Alpha 30 degree operation
Table 6.4.2 shows the DC component and the harmonic content of the phase to
ground voltages at the valve side of transformer windings for all four bridges.
Table 6.4.2 shows that with increase in firing angle some harmonics have increased
and others have decreased. This is to be expected as the harmonics are dependent
on the firing angle and the commutation angle. The relationship between the firing
angle and the commutation angle is non linear.
The variation of harmonics from one bridge to another however shows the same
pattern as for the 15 deg firing angle case.
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Table 6.4.2
HARMONIC CONTENT IN THE VALVE WINDING - PHASE TO GROUND

VOLTAGE
FIRING ANGLE = 30 DEG
DC VOLATGE IN kV AC VOLTAGES IN kV rms
HARMONIC BRIDGE 1 BRIDGE 2 BRIDGE 3 BRIDGE 4

ORDER
POINT A POINT C POINT E POINT G
DC LEVEL 74.8 224.8 374 524
1 73.80 73.80 73.7 73.7
3 29.07 29.1 29.1 29.1
5 6.12 6.10 6.10 6.1
6 11.41 11.46 11.5 11.5
7 6.06 5.96 6.07 6.00
9 6.37 6.48 6.41 6.52
11 6.93 5.97 5.96 6.03
12 3.07 9.16 15.17 21.08
13 4.95 4.91 4.91 4.86
15 1.95 2.18 2.01 2.16
17 4.63 4.56 4.58 4.60
18 0.94 0.97 1.00 1.01
19 4.20 4.32 4.15 4.36
21 0.51 0.61 0.56 0.60
23 3.47 3.48 3.40 3.40
24 0.84 2.50 4.09 5.50
25 2.83 3.12 2.79 3.73
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6.4.2 Harmonics in the Phase to Phase Voltages
Simulation results in sections 6.2 and 6.3 have shown that the wave shapes of the
phase to phase voltages of valve side windings is same for all the bridges
irrespective of their location with respect to the neutral point.
Figures 6.56 and 6.57 show the harmonic content of the phase to phase voltages for
the Itaipu system for two different operating conditions corresponding to figures 6.30
and 6.41 respectively.
Figure 6.56 - Frequency spectrum of phase to phase voltage (15 degree firing angle).
Figure 6.57 - Frequency spectrum of phase to phase voltage (30 degree firing angle).
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Table 6.4.3 shows the magnitude of the harmonics in figures 6.49 and 6.50. For
discussion only harmonic up to 25th are shown in the table.
Table 6.4.3
HARMONIC CONTENT IN THE PHASE TO PHASE VALVE WINDING VOLTAGE
ALL VALUES IN kV rms
HARMONIC ORDER 15 DEG FIRING ANGLE 30 DEG FIRING ANGLE
1 117.23 127.77
5 10.38 10.54
7 9.80 10.47
11 8.24 10.19
13 6.97 8.56
17 4.87 7.92
19 3.62 7.32
23 1.92 5.92
25 1.15 5.35
Table 6.4.3 shows that only harmonics of the order of 6n +/- 1(n = 1, 2, 3, etc) are
present in the phase to phase voltages. The magnitude of harmonic depends on the
operating conditions.
6.5 References
[1] "Basic Design Aspects of Gui Guang HVDC Power Transmission System",
International Conference on Power System Technology, (PowerCon 2002), Kunmig,
China, Oct, 2002.
[2] V. Madzarevic, C.A.O. Peixoto, L. Hagloef: “General Description and Principal

Characteristics of the Itaipu HVDC Transmission System” from Conference Sharing
the Brazilian Experience, Paper 1.1, Rio de Janeiro March 20-25, 198
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Chapter 7 - Field measurements
7.1 Gui-Guang I Project (+/- 500kV, 3000MW)
The 980 km HVDC long-distance transmission system of Gui-Guang transmits

3000MW of power from the Anshun Converter Station in Guizhou Province in
southwest China to the Zhaoqing Converter Station in Guangdong Province near the
load center of Guangzhou (Figure 7.1). It is a bipolar system, each pole comprising a
12-pulse converter bridge suspended from the ceiling. The DC system is rated for ±
500 kV with 3000 A nominal DC current. The thyristors are water-cooled and direct-
light-triggered. The converter transformers are of the single-phase two-winding type.
Triple-tuned filters are used for filtering harmonics on the DC- and AC-side of the
converters. The smoothing reactors are of the oil-immersed type. Since October
2004 the HVDC scheme is in commercial operation.
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Figure 7.1 - Zhaoqing Converter Station
During the commissioning of the 3000 MW Gui-Guang HVDC Project extensive tests
have been carried out to verify that the HVDC converters interact and function
according to the station’s specific requirements. Various HVDC system
configurations, such as bipolar, monopolar earth return and metallic return at normal
and reduced DC voltage, both power flow directions, and other HVDC system
operational conditions have been tested to confirm the specified performance.
Disturbance tests performed verify that the DC system responds according to
specified requirements to AC faults, DC line faults, in case of commutation failures,
and other specific dynamic response criteria. The following section includes the
results of field measurements (commissioning records) for various disturbances.
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7.1.1 Steady State Operation
The test was performed on November 23, 2007 from 10:49:21 until 18:57:55.
Measured quantities were checked at power levels of 3000MW.
Fig 7.2 - Overview of the DC System before the test
The on-site commissioning measurements (rectifier side) are as following graphs.
(1) The Phase A voltage at the valve side of transformer bushings of Pole 1 Y/Y
Transformer;
(2) The Phase B voltage at the valve side of transformer bushings of Pole 1 Y/Y
Transformer;
(3) The Phase C voltage at the valve side of transformer bushings of Pole 1 Y/Y
Transformer;
(4) The Phase A voltage at the valve side of transformer bushings of Pole 1 Y/
Transformer;
(5) The Phase B voltage at the valve side of transformer bushings of Pole 1 Y/
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Transformer;
(6) The Phase C voltage at the valve side of transformer bushings of Pole 1 Y/
Transformer;
(7) IdH: the Pole 1 DC current measurement between the smoothing reactor and the
converter;
(8) UdL: the measurement at Pole 1 DC voltage divider on the line side.
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Figure 7.3 - Normal Operation
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7.1.2 DC line fault tests
DC line fault testing is used to verify the correct performance of the DC line
protection, to calibrate and prove the correct operation of the DC line fault locator
as well as the overall DC line fault recovery of the HVDC system.
The test was performed on September 12, 2004. Relevant Transient Fault Recorder
records of the test are given below. The test was carried out in monopolar metallic
return operation of Pole 2 at power transfer of 300 MW (500 kVdc, 600 Adc). The
line fault recovery settings were configured for a maximum of 2 recoveries to
nominal voltage (500kV) with de-ionization times of 200ms for the first, and 250ms
for the second recovery. Two line faults at the rectifier (Tower #13) were performed
in this configuration, the first fault at 10h39, the second at 11h16. The total time,
measured from inception of the fault to 90% of the pre-fault DC power (excluding
the de-ionization time) was 100ms and 98ms respectively.
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Figure 7.4 - DC line Fault
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7.1.3 Commutation failure tests
Figure 7.5 - Commutation Failure Test
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7.2 Itaipu Bipole (+/- 600 kV, 3150MW)
The Itaipu HVDC transmission system consists of two bipoles, each rated at +/-
600kV and 3150MW. Each pole has two 12 pulse converters in series. The
measurement of AC voltages shown in this section were taken at capacitive tap of
the valve side transformer bushings.
7.2.1 Rectifier Normal Operation
Figure 7.6- Rectifier valve side voltages of the high voltage converter transformers
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The legend for the figure 7.6 traces from top to bottom is as following,
(1) The Phase A voltage at the valve side of transformer bushings of Converter 4
Y/Y Transformer;
(2) The Phase B voltage at the valve side of transformer bushings of Converter 4
Y/Y Transformer;
(3) The Phase C voltage at the valve side of transformer bushings of Converter 4
Y/Y Transformer;
(4) The Phase A voltage at the valve side of transformer bushings of Converter 4
Y/ Transformer;
(5) The Phase B voltage at the valve side of transformer bushings of Converter 4
Y/ Transformer;
(6) The Phase C voltage at the valve side of transformer bushings of Converter 4
Y/ Transformer;
(7) The DC Line voltage at Pole 2 line side.
For comparison traces 1, 2 and 3 of figure 7.6 correspond to figure 6.35 in chapter
6. Traces 4, 5 and 6 correspond to figure 6.33 in chapter 6. There is very good
agreement between the measured and the simulated results.
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7.2.2 Inverter Normal Operation
Figure 7.7 show the valve side voltages of the high voltage converter. No simulation
results for the inverter were shown in chapter 6 as the voltages were expected to be
similar to the inverter.
Figure 7.7 - Inverter valve side voltages of the high voltage converter transformers
The legend for the figure 7.7 traces from top to bottom is the same as for figure 7.6.
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7.2.3 Inverter Commutation failure for an AC system fault.
Figure 7.8 show the valve winding voltages of the high voltage converter
transformers as result of commutation failures due an AC system fault near the
inverter.
Figure 7.8 - Inverter Valve side voltages of the high voltage converter transformers
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The legend for the top seven traces is the same as for figure 7.7. The very bottom
trace is the signal for commutation failure.
7.2.4 Detailed Comparison of Field Measurements and Simulated Values
In order to validate the transients in the Itaipu model, a data was obtained from
Itaipu system with 1usec sampling time. Field data and the simulated data for the
star bridge high voltage side valve bushing with 20usec interval is shown in figure
7.8a.
Figure 7.8a – Comparison of measured and simulated voltages for Itaipu bridge 2.
The following observations can be made from figure 7.8a:
 The simulated transient voltage oscillation frequency is about 30% higher

than the measured one;
 Both simulated and measured highest transient voltages are very close to
each other with the simulated one slightly higher.
 The steepness of the transient voltages with fastest rise both simulated and
measured are also very close to each other.
 The difference between simulated and measured transient voltage oscillation

frequency can be due to the differences on the parasitic capacitance and
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inductance represented in the model since these parameters can only be

estimated. Nevertheless, it can be concluded that the simulated transient
voltage follows quite well with the measured one.
7.3 Nelson River Bipole 2 (+/- 500 kV, 2000MW)
Although no simulation results for Nelson River Bipole 2 are included in chapter 6, it
was decided to include the results for DC line faults as this system is prone to DC
line faults. Nelson River bipole 2 uses two twelve converters in series per pole.
Each six pulse bridge is supplied by a three phase two winding transformers. Figure
7.9 shows a simplified single line diagram of pole 3.
-500 kV
230 kV
Ugr2 Udl
T32S X3
X2
X1
T32D
X3
X1
-250 kV
T31S
Udgr1
T31D
Figure 7.9 - Nelson River Bipole 2 - Pole 3
The measurements were made at the valve side AC bushings of the converter
transformers of the high voltage converter VG32. In addition to the measurement of
the AC side voltages, the output of the DC voltage dividers was also recorded.
These voltage dividers are located as following
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Udl = Located on the line side of the smoothing reactor
Udgr2 = Located between the high voltage converter and the

smoothing reactor
Udgr1 = Located at the DC side junction of low voltage and high

voltage converters
Figure 7.10. - Measurements For a DC Line Fault on Nelson River BP2 - Pole 3
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The measurement points are shown in red in figure 7.9. The legend for the traces
from top to bottom is as following,
1. Phase C voltage on the valve side bushing X3 of transformer T32S.
2. Phase B voltage on the valve side bushing X2 of transformer T32S.
3. Phase A voltage on the valve side bushing X1 of transformer T32S.
4. Phase C voltage on the valve side bushing X3 of transformer T32D.
5. Phase A voltage on the valve side bushing X1 of transformer T32D.
6. DC line voltage measured by the line side voltage divider Udl.
7. DC voltage measured by high voltage side voltage divider Udgr2.
8. DC voltage measured by mid point voltage divider Ugr1.
Figure 7.10 shows that immediately after the DC line fault occurs the voltages on
the valve side winding of the converter transformers oscillate around 0 volts with
transiently reversing to the opposite polarity of the original DC voltage. Once the
fault is cleared the DC component slowly decays to zero.
7.4 Nelson River Bipole 1 (+/- 463.5 kV, 1854MW)
7.4.1 Pole 2 Rectifier - DC Line Fault
Figure 7.11 shows simplified diagram of pole 2 of Nelson River bipole 1. There are
three six pulse converters connected in series in each pole. The converter
transformers are designated as T21, T22 and T23.
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+450 kV
138kV
T23 Udl
A
B
C
T22 A
B
C
T21 A
B
C
Figure 7.11 - Nelson River Bipole 1 - Rectifier Pole 2
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Figure 7.12 - DC Line fault on Pole 2 DC line
Figure 7.12 shows the measurements taken at the valve side bushings of the
converter transformers and the line side DC voltage divider. There are no DC
voltage dividers between the converters. The traces for T23 are clipped due to
saturation of the recording amplifiers.
The recording show that once the fault is extinguished the DC voltage level at the
transformer bushings returns to zero after the initial polarity reversal..
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7.4.2 Pole 1 Inverter - Commutation Failures
Figure 7.13 shows simplified diagram of pole 1 inverter of Nelson River bipole 1.
There are three six pulse converters connected in series in each pole. The
converter transformers are designated as T11, T12 and T13.
-450kV
230 kV
Udl
T13 A
B VG13
C
T12 A
B VG12
C
T11 A
B VG11
C
Figure 7.13 - Nelson River Bipole 1 - Inverter Pole 1
The reason for selecting this system was that this pole is prone to commutation
failures and it was very convenient to obtain fault traces.
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Figure 7.14 - Single Cycle commutation failure in the high voltage bridge VG13
(Trace for T12A phase is missing)
converter transformers for a single cycle commutation failure in the bridge VG13, C-
phase. The voltages of the bridge failing commutation (VG13) show the same
pattern as figures 6.20 to 6.22 for the simulation of commutation failure in high
voltage bridge of GG1 system.
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Figure 7.15 - Single Cycle Commutation in All Converter Bridges
converter transformers for a single cycle commutation failure in all the bridges.
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7.5 Commutation Transients
As outlined in chapter 2 section 2.5, the commutation process in a converter

generates high frequency voltage oscillations. These oscillations are generally of
high frequency and impose stresses not only on the thyristor valves but also on the
converter transformer valve windings. The effect of these oscillations is taken into
account in determining the insulation coordination of the converter valve. Modern
HVDC systems are designed with transformer bushings through the wall and are
terminated very close to the thyristor valves. As these transients are present during
normal converter operation, it is therefore essential that the effect of these
transients must also be taken into account in the design of valve windings of the
converter transformer.
Measurments were taken in pole 2 of Nelson River Bipole 1(fig 7.11) to illustrate
how the commutation transients effect the valve winding voltages.
Figure 7.16 - T21 B - Phase Valve Winding Voltage to Ground.
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Figure 7.17 - T22 B - Phase Valve Winding Voltage to Ground
Figure 7.18 - T23 B - Phase Valve Winding Voltage to Ground
Figures 7.16 to 7.18 show the valve winding voltages of the three bridges. As
expected the T22 valve winding is subjected to the DC voltage of the 150kV
converter including the harmonics and commutation transients. The T23 valve
winding is subjected to the DC voltage of 300kV converter including combined
harmonics of 150 kV and 300kV converters .
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The harmonic analysis of these waveshapes showed a trend similar to the one
noted in the simulations in chapter 6.
Figure 7.19 shows an expanded view of the T21 voltage shown in figure 7.16
Figure 7.20 shows the theoretically calculated valve winding voltage on T21
neglecting the effect of commutation transients.
The comparison of figures 7.19 and 7.20 shows how the commutation transients
affect the valve winding voltages. The frequency of oscillations (fig 7.19) due to
commutation for this system is 1.7 kHz. The actual frequency of oscillation will vary
from one system to another depending on system parameters.
Figure 7.19 - T21 B Phase Valve Winding Voltage (expanded)
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Figure 7.20 - T21 B Phase Valve Winding Voltage (theoretically calculated

neglecting the commutation transients)
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Chapter 8 - Overview of Existing Transformer Test Requirements
8.1 Valid standards
Currently there are two valid international standards regarding converter

transformer test requirements:
1) IEC 61378-2 (2001ed) Converter transformers – part 2 Transformers for HVDC

applications [1].
2) IEEE C57.129 (1999ed) Requirements and test code for oil immersed HVDC
converter transformers [2].
In addition to the mentioned transformer standards, there are also valid standards
for key transformer components like tap changers and bushings. IEC 62199 for
HVDC bushings is worth mentioning.
The standards, in the published form they exist today, are intended to cover the
special needs of the HVDC converter transformers. These needs include dielectric,
thermal and loss testing mainly, but also topics of special interest to the application.
In general, most test methods applied refer back to the IEC 60076 and IEEE C57
transformer standards where that has been possible.
8.2 Dielectric tests
The dielectric tests described in the standards are described below.
8.2.1 Dielectric tests on AC line winding
Dielectric testing of the AC line side winding of an HVDC converter transformer is

not very different from that of a winding on any transformer. Typically, the AC line
side winding has non-uniform insulation. The typical dielectric tests are highlighted
below.
1. Lightning impulse. This test may include chopped impulse.

2. Switching Impulse. This test might indirectly be a test on the valve side,
since the switching impulse is induced to that winding as well.
3. AC short duration induced tests where applicable. AC applied test can only
be used in the neutral.
4. AC long duration test is also a part of the testing as on any transformer.
The induced tests on the AC line side automatically induce voltage stress between
turns on the valve side as well. This is worth pointing out since many of the tests on
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the valve side are performed as applied tests, which do not create voltage stress
between turns.
8.2.2 Dielectric tests on valve winding
Dielectric testing on the valve side contains some tests unique to HVDC converter
transformers. All dielectric tests performed are described below.
1. Lightning impulse. 1.2/50 us standard wave is applied to the terminals of the

valve windings. Chopped impulse can be part of the test with a 1.2/50 wave
shape chopped after 2-6 us and with a 30% undershoot of the chop. The
untested terminal of a winding is typically grounded. The standards allow for
different test levels between terminal-to-terminal and terminal-to-ground,
which means that the terminals may have different insulation levels. The
tests are intended to cover the type of stress with high frequency content and
mainly stress windings.
2. Switching impulse. The valve winding terminals are both: tested with induced
voltage, when the AC line side is tested as well as a separate test for the
valve side. The separate test is performed with both terminals connected
together and with the voltage applied to the terminals. The second test is
intended to test the insulation of the valve winding to ground.
3. DC separate source-voltage withstand test. The test voltage is applied to
both terminals of a winding simultaneously. The test is intended to test the
insulation of the valve winding to ground during DC stress. The test voltage
amplitude is such that 150% of the arithmetic sum of the AC-voltage of the
valve winding and the average DC-offset forms the test voltage. The different
voltage shapes are therefore added to each other when determining the test
voltage, regardless if the voltages physically superimpose in the transformer.
4. DC polarity reversal test. The test voltage is applied to both terminals of a
winding simultaneously and reversed with regular intervals. The test is
intended to test the insulation of the valve winding to ground during DC
polarity reversals. Some further background to the test is also elaborated in
section 4. The same basic principle for determining the test voltage as for the
DC withstand test is applied, but the amplitude of the test is lower.
5. AC separate source-voltage withstand test. The test voltage is applied to
both terminals of a winding simultaneously. The test is intended to test the
insulation of the valve winding to ground. The test level is based on
approximately 150% of the arithmetic sum of the AC-voltage of the valve
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winding and the average DC-offset. Compared to what is seen by the valve
winding in service, the combination of AC separate source-voltage withstand
test and DC separate source-voltage withstand test, with both types of
voltage wave shapes is very demanding.
Bushings on the valve side are typical subject to the same test levels as the winding
terminals with the exception of DC withstand and DC polarity reversal test, where
the test level is often elevated 15% above the winding terminal test level.
8.3 Thermal tests
The methods applied to ensure the thermal and loss performance of the HVDC
converter transformers are well described in section 5 of this document. In that
section it is pointed out that the methods used for feeding correct losses during heat
run tests create the correct mean winding temperature rise levels, while hot spot
temperature rise may become lower than in actual service including harmonics. A
similar, but less well-known consequence is that temperature rise of tank and core
due to presence of leakage flux becomes higher using this method, than would be
the case for a load current carrying harmonics.
8.4 Ongoing work with standards
In addition to the standards referred to above there are ongoing discussions on

potential changes of the standards. The Cigré working group A2/B4-28 put focus on
the DC polarity reversal test, especially trying to highlight the physical relevance of
the test time and test voltage amplitude of the test. [3] This is also further
elaborated in section 4 in this document. The work of A2/B4-28 is currently partly
continuing in the Cigré working group A2/D1-41, where methods are developed and
material parameters determined in order to provide input to the discussion started in
A2/B4-28.
For HVDC bushings there is a dual logo standard between IEC and IEEE under
creation. Discussions to aim for a dual logo standard for HVDC transformers are
also ongoing.
8.5 Comparison of stress in service and stress in test
When comparing the stresses occurring in service to the stresses that arise during
testing attention should be paid to a number of factors. The amplitude is of course
important, but the amplitude should also be put in relation to the probability of
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occurrence and also to the number of possible occurrences. Especially for voltage
transients, the frequency content of the transient is important in order to judge if it is
well represented by a test or not.
8.6 References
[1] IEC 61378-2 (2001ed) Converter transformers – part 2 Transformers for

HVDC applications
[2] IEEE C57.129 (1999ed) Requirements and test code for oil immersed HVDC
converter transformers
[3] Cigre brochure 406 " HVDC converter transformers – design review, test
procedures, ageing evaluation and reliability in service", February 2010
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Chapter 9 - Analysis and conclusions
9.1 Introduction
The task of the Working Group was to indentify the voltage and current transients
imposed on the converter transformer from the converter side. The Working Group
considered the following system conditions:
1. Normal Operation
2. DC Voltage Polarity Reversal
3. Commutation failures
4. Current harmonics.
A combination of EMTDC simulations and actual system fault recordings were used
to develop this information.
9.2 Normal Operation
Under normal operation the valve side phase to ground voltages consist of a
combination of DC voltage, fundamental AC voltage, harmonic voltages of
fundamental frequency and high frequency transients due to commutation.
The DC and fundamental harmonics voltages are as following:
 Each bridge voltage has a DC component equal to Ud * (n-0.5).
Where Ud = Average DC voltage of the bridge
n = Bridge number starting from the ground.
 The fundamental component equals to the phase to neutral voltage of the

valve winding side voltage.
 The voltages contain a large component of harmonics of the order of 3n.

Where n = 1, 3, 5, 7, etc.
 The voltages contain harmonics of the order of 6n.

Where n = 1, 2, 3, etc.
 The voltages contain harmonics of the order of 6n +/-1

Where n = 1, 2, 3, etc.
 The magnitude of harmonic content of all the harmonics except the multiples
of 12 does not change from one bridge to another.
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 The harmonic with multiples of 12 increase as following:
Vn = V1 x (2n-1)
Where V1 = Magnitude of harmonic in bridge 1
Vn = Magnitude of harmonic in bridge n
n = Bridge number counted from the ground.
The high frequency transients are caused by the interaction between the stray
capacitances and the transformer reactance when the thyristor valves turn-off. The
magnitude of the commutation overshoot is dependent on the stray capacitances,
thyristor RC snubber circuits and the operating parameters (firing angle α and
overlap angle μ). The RC snubber circuits across the thyristors help damp these
oscillations. As this information is unique to each system no general statement can
be made. The information about these transients should be provided to the
transformer designer after the valve design has been completed.
9.3 DC Voltage polarity reversal
DC voltage polarity reversal can be caused by either DC line faults or normal power
reversal in the DC systems. Both the simulations and the field measurements show
that DC line faults cause only transient polarity reversal for less than 100 ms and
not a sustained polarity reversal. JWG A2/B4-28 [1] reported that polarity reversals
due to DC line faults do not contribute to an additional stresses as the duration of
the reversal is very small compared to the insulation time constants. Therefore
polarity reversal due to DC line faults is not a major concern especially for system
that transmits power only in one direction.
For DC systems where power reversals occur regularly the effect of polarity
reversal becomes very important. The transformer design must take into account,
not only the frequency of polarity reversals but also the rate of polarity reversal.
9.4 Commutation failures
When a commutation failure occurs in a bridge a short circuit is created across the
bridge. In a system with a single twelve pulse converter per pole, a commutation
failure in the lower bridge results in short to ground across the bridge. This however
does not result in any stresses on the valve winding of the lower bridge transformer.
When a commutation failure occurs in the upper bridge, it results in pole voltage
being applied to the lower bridge transformer valve winding. At the same time the
lower thyristor bridge is also subjected to the pole voltage. The thyristor bridge
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however is protected by surge arresters. Therefore the valve winding of the lower
bridge converter transformer must also be designed to the same protective level as
the thyristor valves. It is therefore essential that transformer design must be
coordinated with the converter valve design.
For systems using two twelve pulse converters in series per pole, the insulation
level of the bottom three converter transformers must be coordinated with the
corresponding thyristor bridges.
9.5 Current harmonics
An HVDC converter generates characteristic current harmonics of the order of

(6n+/- 1). In a two winding transformer, the ampere-turns are balanced if the
magnetizing current is neglected. The harmonic currents in the valve winding are
balanced by harmonics in the line-winding; therefore eddy current enhancement
factor is the same for both valve and line windings.
In a three winding transformer which includes both start and delta valve windings on
the same core limb, special attention must be paid to the effect of the harmonics.
In HVDC converters, the harmonics of the order of 11, 13, 23, 25, 35, 37, 47 and 49
are in phase and the harmonics of the order of 5, 7, 17, 19, 29, 31, 41 and 43 are in
phase opposition.
The effect of harmonic currents in phase opposition depends on the coupling

between the windings and the transformer design. It is recommended that study of
the effects of harmonics in opposition by means of a simulation tools should be
conducted at the design stage.
In addition the characteristic harmonics mentioned above, there are non-

characteristic harmonics due to the following non-ideal conditions:
-Unbalance of transformer reactance between phases and between star and

delta bridges.
-Firing angle Asymmetry
-AC voltage unbalance and distortion
There is always small amount of dc current flowing in the converter transformers.

Detailed studies must be performed to investigate any possibility of core saturation
instability.
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9.6 Conclusions
The converter transformers are connected to AC system on primary side and to a

thyristor converter valve on the secondary side. For the theoretically calculated and
simulated cases, primary side voltages are considered to be ideal. The measured
values contain the effect of all the harmonics that may be present on the primary
side. However the valve winding voltages to ground not only contain multiple
harmonics of fundamental frequency but also contain a DC component depending
on the location of the thyristor bridge from the neutral point. The converter operation
also generates high frequency transients during commutation process. These
harmonics are present during normal operation and their magnitude varies with the
converter firing angle. The valve side windings are also subjected to overvoltages
during various faults on the converter side as well as fast polarity reversal.
This report describes the voltage and current transients imposed on the converter
transformers during converter operation, based on theoretical calculation, digital
simulations and field measurements of typical HVDC systems. The result of this
report can be used as basis for specification, design and testing of converter
transformers.
Since the converter transformer voltage stresses are determined by converter

operation such as expected frequency of normal and emergency power reversals,
all relevant information shall be provided by the owner of HVDC system to the
converter transformer designers. Moreover, converter transformer designer must
be provided with the detailed information about the converter voltage transients
including commutation transients, converter insulation and coordination and the
current harmonics generated by the converter. The design of converter transformer
needs to be closely coordinated with the design of the converter in general and the
valve in specific.
9.7 References
[1] Technical Brochure 406 – HVDC Converter Transformers - Design Review, Test
Procedures, Ageing Evaluation and Reliability in Service, JWG A2/B4.28,
February 2010, Cigré)
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APPENDIX A
The electromagnetic transient program PSCAD/EMTDC has been used to simulate

the Gui-Guang and Itaipu HVDC system and to investigate the converter
transformer stresses under normal operating conditions as well as the fault
conditions.
It is crucial that both fundamental and high frequency characteristic of electrical

components of the HVDC system be correctly represented in the electromagnetic
transient simulation program so that the stresses applied on the converter
transformer can be accurately simulated.
The details of the main components such as converter transformer and stray
capacitance, valve and snubber circuit and ac filters have been given in
Appendix A.1 and A.2. The simulation time step is selected based on the following
criteria
1. It has to be small enough to capture the transient wave that could be applied
on the converter transformer bushing terminal.
2. It has to be large that the simulation can be run with reasonable simulation
time.
3. It has to be less than one travelling wave time on the shortest section of
line/cable
In general, the switching surge due to either switching or faults is the range from
several kHz to a few ten kHz. The most conservative approach on selecting time
step for PSCAD/EMTDC simulation is to allow the minimum sampling of 5 to10
points within one cycle depending on how fast the transient wave ramp initially.
Thus 10µs time step is selected which allows for the capture of transient up to
10kHz (10 sampling point) to 20kHz (5 sampling point). The models are tailored for
the studying the converter transformer stress as within the scope of this WG. They
are not applicable for the simulation of very fast transient such as lighting studies.
A.1 SIMULATION MODEL OF GUI-GUANG SYSTEM

the Gui-Guang HVDC system and to investigate the converter transformer stresses
under normal operating conditions as well as the fault conditions.
A.1.2 Simplified Gui-Guang HVDC System

Figure A.1 shows the simplified PSCAD/EMTDC system model of Gui-Guang ±500
3000MW HVDC Link. The ac system on each side of the HVDC link is modelled as
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______________________________________________________________________
an equivalent voltage source. The main components of the simulation model are
briefly described in the following sections.
0.270 [H] 0.270 [H]

530.0
525.0
0.0
0.0
Ea
Anshun Zhaoqing
V Ph Ph V
T
DCline
1 1
AC
DCline DCline
AC Filters
Filters
0.270 [H] 0.270 [H]
Figure A.1 Simplified PSCAD/EMTDC System Model of Gui-Guang ±600

3150MW HVDC Link
A.1.3 Converter Transformer

Converter transformers at the Anshun and Zhaoqing converter station are modelled
as single phase three winding transformers connected either in star-star or star-
delta configuration.
The stray capacitance of the Anshun and Zhaoqing converter transformers was
based on manufacturer data
Figure A.2 shows the stray capacitance of the single phase of each three winding
transformers.
(a) Y-Y Winding (b) Y-Delta Winding
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Figure A.2 Simulated Converter Transformer Stray Capacitance Parameters

(1Phase)
A.1.4 AC Filter Model

There are three types of filter banks installed on the Anhsun 500kV ac bus as
shown in Figure A.3. The final stage includes three banks of Type A filters, four
banks of Type B filters and four banks of Type C capacitor banks all rated for
130MVAr. 1.49 [uF]
1.47 [uF]
1.5 [uF]
1500.0 [ohm] 400.0 [ohm]
1.72e-3 [H] 138.06e-3 [H] 9.51e-3 [H]
2.93e-3 [H]
2500.0 [ohm]
1.34e-3 [H] 48.01e-3 [H]
6.78 [uF]
52.84 [uF]
7.21 [uF]
Type A Type B Type C

DT 11/13 130MVA TT 3/24/36 130MVA Shunt C 130MVA
Figure A.3 AC Filter Model and Parameters at Foz de Iguacu
There are three types of filter banks installed on the Zhaoqing 500kV ac bus as
shown in Figure A.4. The final stage includes four banks of Type A filters, four
banks of Type B filters and five banks of Type C capacitor banks all rated for
140MVAr.
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______________________________________________________________________
1.605 [uF]
1.634e-3 [H] 129.39e-3 [H] 8.116e-3 [H] 1.578 [uF]
1.616 [uF]
1500.0 [ohm] 400.0 [ohm]
2.721e-3 [H]
2500.0 [ohm]
1.239e-3 [H] 44.731e-3 [H]
7.218 [uF]
56.824 [uF]
7.704 [uF]
Type A Type B Type C
DT 11/13 140MVA TT 3/24/36 140MVA Shunt C 140MVA
Figure A.4 AC Filter Model and Parameters at Sao Roque
A.1.5 DC Filter Model

Figure A.5 shows the simulated dc filters and their parameters at the Anshun and
Zhaoqing converter station as installed in Gui-Guang HVDC system.
1.6 [uF]
1.6 [uF]
10.869 [H]
10.869 [H]
10.384 [H]
10.384 [H]
4.48 [uF]
4.48 [uF]
5.81 [uF]
5.81 [uF]
2.06 [H]
2.06 [H]
Figure A.5 DC Filter Model and Parameters
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A.1.6 DC Transmission Line

DC transmission line is modelled as a frequency dependent line as shown in Figure
A.6.
Mid-Span Sag:
18 [m] for Conductors
13 [m] for Ground Wires
G1 G2
9.5 [m] 12 [m]

C1 C2
.45 [m] 15.6 [m]
Tower: DC2
30 [m]
Conductors: chukar
Ground_Wires: 1/2"HighStrengthSteel
0 [m]
Ground Resistivity: 5.0 [ohm*m]

Relative Ground Permeability: 1.0
Earth Return Formula: Analytical Approximation
Figure A.6 DC Transmission Line Model
A.1.7 Thyristor Valve Converter

Each 12-pulse valve converter is modelled with two PSCAD/EMTDC compact dc
converter components connected in series. The compact dc converter component
includes a built in Graetz bridge valve group, internal Phase Locked Oscillator
(PLO), firing and valve blocking controls, and RC snubber circuits for each thyristor.
The resistance and capacitance of RC snubber circuits are 2800ohm and
0.0179µF.
148
CIGRE WG B4-51
A.2 SIMULATION MODEL OF ITAIPU SYSTEM

Itaipu HVDC system and to investigate the converter transformer stresses under normal
operating conditions as well as the fault conditions.
A.2.2 Simplified Itaipu HVDC System

Figure A.2.1 shows the simplified PSCAD/EMTDC system model of Itaipu ±600
3150MW HVDC Link. The ac system on each side of the HVDC link is modelled as an
equivalent voltage source. The main components of the simulation model are briefly
described in the following sections.
Foz de Iguacu Sao Roque

500kV, 50Hz 345kV, 60HZ
+/-600kV DC / 2610A / 807km
2nd/6th, 12th, 24th

2nd/6th, 12th, 24th
DC filters
DC filters
Equivalent Equivalent
AC System AC System
3rd/5th,11th/13th,HP1A,HP1B
3rd/5th,11th,13th,HP1/2/3/4
2nd/6th, 12th, 24th
2nd/6th, 12th, 24th
DC filters
DC filters
AC filters
AC filters
Figure A.2.1 Simplified PSCAD/EMTDC System Model of Itaipu ±600 3150MW

HVDC Link
A.2.3 Converter Transformer

Converter transformers at Foz de Iguacu and Sao Roque converter station are modelled
as single phase three winding transformers connected either in star-star or star-delta
configuration.
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CIGRE WG B4-51
The actual stray capacitance of Foz de Iguacu and Sao Roque converter transformers
was not available when the simulation was performed. Thus, the same values of stray
capacitance as measured for Gui-Gong converter transformers have been used.
Figure A.2.2 shows the stray capacitance of the single phase of each three winding
transformers.
(c) Y-Y Winding (d) Y-Delta Winding
Figure A.2.2 Simulated Converter Transformer Stray Capacitance Parameters

(1Phase)
A.2.4 AC Filter Model

There are two types of filter banks installed at Foz de Iguacu 500kV ac bus as shown in
Figure A.2.3. The final stage includes two banks of Type 1 filters and three banks of
Type 2 filters which are represented in the PSCAD/EMTDC model.
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CIGRE WG B4-51
TYPE1
2.986 [uF]
0.83 [H]
70 MVAR 3/5
0.814 [uF] 2930 [ohm]
0.2266 [H] TYPE2

49.15 [uF]
49.15 [uF]
0.04195 [H] 0.444 [ohm]
0.444 [ohm] 134.3 MVAR 11/13
0.04195 [H]
134.3 MVAR 11/13 1.691 [uF]
1.691 [uF]
0.00144 [H]
0.00144 [H]
72 MVAR HP1A
72 MVAR HP1A 1.858[uF] 170 [ohm]
0.916[uF] 1060 [ohm]
0.00941[H]
0.01986[H]
0.929 [uF] 305 [ohm] 72.7 MVAR HP1B
0.007715 [H]
(e) Type 1 (f) Type 2
Figure A.2.3 AC Filter Model and Parameters at Foz de Iguacu
Figure A.2.4 shows the five types of ac filter installed at Sao Roque converter station.
The simulation model represents the final stage configuration which consists four of
11th/13th filter banks, two of 3rd/5th HP filter banks, four 237Mvar HP filter and one
294Mvar HP filters.
109.4 MVAR 11th 237 MVAR HP1

2.417[uF] 3990 [ohm] 5.273[uF] 46.76 [ohm]
0.02406 [H] 0.002318[H]
296.3 MVAR HP2

2.468 [uF] 3300 [ohm] 111.4 MVAR 13th 6.591[uF] 46.76 [ohm]
0.01687[H] 0.002318[H]
4.281 [uF]
0.405 [H]
59 MVAR 3/5
1.16 [uF] 2500 [ohm]
0.1101 [H]
Figure A.2.4 AC Filter Model and Parameters at Sao Roque
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CIGRE WG B4-51
A.2.5 DC Filter Model

Figure A.2.5 shows the simulated dc filters and their parameters at Foz de Iguacu and
Sao Roque converter stations as installed in Itaipu HVDC system.
+/-600kV Bus +/-600kV Bus
1.285 [uF]
0.523 [uF]
0.828 [uF]
1.01 [uF]
1.57 [uF]
0.5 [uF]
1.267 [H]
0.841 [H]
14 [ohm]
11 [ohm]
0.5333 [uF]
0.5579 [uF]
2.111 [H ]
1.401 [H]
12900 [ohm]
13200 [ohm]
0.8913 [uF]
0.7228 [uF]
28.42 [mH]
35.04 [mH ]
17.42 [mH ]
210 [ohm]
660 [ohm]
7.78 [mH]
18 [ohm]
18 [ohm]
23 [ohm]
23 [ohm]
Neutral Bus Neutral Bus

2nd/6th 12th 24th 2nd/6th 12th 24th
(a) Foz de Iguacu (b) Sao Roque
Figure A.2.5 DC Filter Model and Parameters
A.2.6 DC Transmission Line

DC transmission line is modelled as a frequency dependent line as shown in Figure B.6.
G1 G2
5.83 [m] 10.00 [m]

C1 C2
0.4572 [m] 16.40 [m]
Tower: cc600
31.27 [m]
Conductors: Bittern 1272 MCM
Ground_Wires: 3/8" Steel
0 [m]
Ground Resistivity: 1000.0 [ohm*m]

Relative Ground Permeability: 1.0
Earth Return Formula: Analytical Approximation
Figure B.6 DC Transmission Line Model
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CIGRE WG B4-51
A.2.7 Thyristor Valve Converter

Each 12-pulse valve converter is modelled with two PSCAD/EMTDC compact dc
converter components connected in series. The compact dc converter component
includes a built in Graetz bridge valve group, internal Phase Locked Oscillator (PLO),
firing and valve blocking controls, and RC snubber circuits for each thyristor. The
resistance and capacitance of RC snubber circuits are 5000ohm and 0.05µF.
153

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Study of Converter Transients Imposed on

Working Group B4.51

Study of Converter Transients Imposed on

The HVDC Converter Transformers

Study of Converter Transients Imposed on the HVDC Converter Transformers

Contributing Members in Alphabetical Order

Yanny Fu (Convener) Narinder Dhaliwal (Secretary)

Carsten Bartzsch Mats Berglund

Hong Chao Ricardo Goncalves

Manfredo Correia Lima Joanne Hu

Alberto Junqueira Daniel Kell

Abhay Kumar Victor Lescale

Jan Lykkegaard Sergio do Espírito Santo

“The information presented in this document is only intended to be a guide. It is

Hence circulation on any intranet or other company network is forbidden".

maximum extent permitted by law".

1.1 Review of Previous Work......................................................................10

1.2 Summary of Transformer Failure Survey .............................................12

1.3 Scope of Work......................................................................................13

2.1 Overview of LCC System......................................................................16

2.2 Six Pulse Bridge....................................................................................17

2.3 Converter Configurations......................................................................18

2.3.1 Single 12 Pulse Converters per Pole.........................................18

2.3.2 Two 12 Pulse Converters per Pole............................................19

2.4 Voltage Waveforms on the Valve Side of Converter

2.4.1 Operation at 15 Degrees Firing Angle........................................20

2.4.2 Operation at 30 Degrees Firing Angle........................................24

2.4.3 Operation at 90 Degrees Firing Angle........................................27

2.5 Transient Stresses during Commutation...............................................30

2.6 Spectral Analysis of Voltage Waveforms..............................................33

3. Transformer Stresses Caused by Commutation Failure...........................34

3.2 Commutation failure Causes.................................................................35

3.3 Commutation Failure Scenario.............................................................38

3.4.2 Simulation Results.....................................................................42

3.5 Measurement Results...........................................................................42

4.2 DC Line Faults......................................................................................44

4.2.1 Response of Normal Control Action...........................................44

4.2.2 Fault Detection...........................................................................46

4.2.4 Overshoot of Direct current........................................................48

4.3 Polarity Reversal Due to Power Reversal.............................................50

4.4 Voltage Distribution during Polarity Reversal........................................51

4.5 Investigation of Polarity Reversal Stresses...........................................54

4.5.1 Polarity Reversal during DC Line Faults....................................54

5.2 Six Pulse Bridge Currents.....................................................................59

5.3 Characteristic AC Harmonics in Line Currents of a

5.3.1 Characteristic AC Harmonics in Line Current on

Valve Side of a Six Pulse Bridge................................................60

Network Side of a Six Pulse Bridge...........................................62

5.4 Characteristic AC Harmonics in Line Currents on Valve Side

of a Six Pulse Bridge With commutation Reactance.............................63

5.5 Non Characteristic Harmonics..............................................................68

5.6 Effect of Harmonics on Converter Transformers..................................69

5.7 Level of Harmonics for Transformer Specification................................70

5.8 Estimation of Losses.............................................................................71

5.8.1 IEC Method................................................................................71

5.8.2 IEEE Method..............................................................................72

5.9 Temperature Rise Test.........................................................................74

5.10 DC Current in converter Transformer…………………………..……….74

6.2 Gui-Guang I System.............................................................................76

6.2.1 Operation at 15 Degrees Firing Angle........................................77

6.2.2 Operation at 30 Degrees Firing Angle........................................79

6.2.3 Operation at 90 Degrees Firing Angle........................................81