Case Study: 230-kV Transmission Corridor Rating Using Mechanical Measurements

9/27/2010
Abstract
• In Ontario, Canada, there have been ongoing restrictions in ability to transfer
power from the Niagara Falls stations to load centers 100 km away.
Case Study: 230‐kV Transmission • Capacity of a five‐circuit 230‐kV transmission interface falls when wind speed
across the conductors drops below 2 m/s.
Corridor Rating using Mechanical • Plans to supplement existing lines with two new circuits have been delayed.
• In the meantime, Hydro One initiated advanced studies of overhead line
g
Measurements to establish Long‐Axis clearance using:
– Helicopters to perform laser surveys of the conductor position
Helicopters to perform laser surveys of the conductor position
Hot‐Wire Anemometer Wind Speed – Sonar to measure the conductor heights continuously
– New algorithms to invert a traditional overhead line rating calculation.
• The process establishes spatially averaged wind speed along entire line sections,
rather than relying on spot readings with differing exposures, measured at
remote sites.
William A. Chisholm • This presentation will describe the work with a focus on an intercomparison of
methods to measure low wind speeds for line thermal rating.
W.A.Chisholm@ieee.org TERM OF ASSIGNMENT OF COPYRIGHT: The author assigns his copyright on the text "Case Study: 230‐kV
Transmission Corridor Rating using Mechanical Measurements to establish Long‐Axis Hot‐Wire Anemometer Wind
Speed ", for publication in the proceedings of the 1st National Seminar on Wind Engineering (SENEV 2010) .
W.A.Chisholm@ieee.org W.A.Chisholm@ieee.org
CIGRE and IEEE References for
Organization of Seminar (1)
Thermal Rating of Lines
• CIGRE Committee B2 Tutorial, January 2009 • Heat Balance of Overhead Conductors
• CIGRE Technical Brochure 207 (Thermal behaviour • Change of Tension, Sag and Clearance with
of overhead conductors) Conductor Temperature
– In single span
• CIGRE Technical Brochure 299 (Guid for selection
CIGRE Technical Brochure 299 (Guid for selection
– In multiple spans with freely swinging insulators
of weather parameters for bare overhead
• Field Results
conductor ratings)
– Predictors of Clearance
• IEEE Standard 738 (Standard for calculating the – Observations of Wind Speed, Direction and their
current temperature of bare overhead Standard Deviations
conductors)
Organization of Seminar (2) Heat Balance for Outdoor Conductor
• Ampacity Inversion • Heat Inputs
– Long‐Axis Hot‐Wire Method – PJ , Joule Heating, I2R where R is the ac resistance at
– Inputs: Clearance, Line Current, Ambient Temperature, the temperature of operation
Solar Radiation – PM
M ,, Magnetic Heating from currents induced in the
g g
– Outputs: Spatially Averaged Conductor Temperature steel core from unbalanced stranding
and Wind Speed – PS , Solar Heating, up to 1000 W/m2 and affected by
• Implementation by Utility and Results conductor absorptivity
– Pi , Corona Heating, usually can be ignored
• Conclusions and Discussion
1
9/27/2010
Heat Balance for Outdoor Conductor Heat Balance Model: Solar, Radiation
• Heat Outputs
– Pc , Convective cooling
• Wind speed v > 0.4 m/s, conductor diameter D =20 mm
Pr: Radiation Heat Loss
• Reynolds number Re =vD/ (f
f )about 1000 • Varies as (T
Varies as (Tc‐TTA ) 4
A )
• Nusselt number Nu is a function of Re and wind angle PS: Solar Input • Conductor Emissivity
– Pr , Radiative cooling, varies as fourth power of • Intensity
• Azimuth
temperature rise above ambient • Elevation
– Pw, Evaporative cooling if the conductor is wet or • Conductor
Absorptivity
sublimation cooling if it is loaded with ice
Heat Balance Model: Joule, Convection Overall Heat Balance
Radiation Heat Loss
(TC‐TA ) 4
PC : Convection Heat Loss Convection Heat Loss
(TC‐TTA (Effective Wind Speed) 0.5
A ))∙ (Effective Wind Speed) (TC‐TTA )x (Wind Speed) 0.5
A )x (Wind Speed)
Line Current
Solar Input
varies as I2R
• PJ
• PM varies nonlinearly
Line Current
Wind speed, angle to conductor Wind speed, angle to conductor
Heat Balance for Outdoor Conductor Transient Thermal Response (IEEE 738‐2006)
• Steady State
PJ  PM  PS  Pi  Pc  Pr  Pw Step Change in Current
• Unsteady State
dT
mc av  Pj  PM  PS  Pc  Pr
dt Rise in Conductor Temperature
– m is mass per unit length of conductor to New Steady State
– c is the overall heat capacity of the steel/aluminum
2
9/27/2010
Effect of Wind Speed on
Transient Thermal Response (IEEE 738‐2006)
Conductor Temperature (CIGRE B2 Tutorial)
Final Temperature
63.2% of Temperature Rise
In 20 minutes (time constant)
Initial Temperature
Effect of Wind Speed on Effect of Wind Angle on
Conductor Temperature (CIGRE B2 Tutorial) Nusselt Number governing Heat Transfer
• CIGRE TB 207 Model for Wind at angle 

 0    24 : Nu90 0.42  0.68  sin( 1.08
Nu   


24    90 : Nu90 0.42  0.58  sin( 
 0.90

• Stranding, Catenary give minimum value of 0.42
l f
Nu90 for axial flow along line (=0°).
• Older Model mixes forced, natural convection
based on V.T. Morgan concept.
Critical Wind Speed Range: 0‐2 m/s (0‐7.2 km/h)
Effect of Wind Angle on Standard Deviation of Wind Direction
Nusselt Number governing Heat Transfer also affects Nusselt Number

Nueff
Nu90

1
2  e
 2 2 2
0.05  0.95 sin  
2 0.25
d

3
9/27/2010
Standard Deviation of Wind Direction Standard Deviation of Wind Direction
also affects Nusselt Number also affects Nusselt Number
Wind angle Wind angle
standard deviation standard deviation
 tends to  tends to
increase as wind increase as wind
speed drops.
dd speed drops.
dd
At low wind speed,
CIGRE TB207
suggests yaw angle
of 45°.
Organization of Seminar (1) Changes in Sag of Single Span
• Heat Balance of Overhead Conductors
• Change of Tension, Sag and Clearance with
Conductor Temperature
– In single span
In single span
• Calculation of distributed wind speed from
measured clearance, ambient temperature and
conductor current
Conductor Elongation Factors Conductor Elongation Factors
Length As Manufactured Length As Manufactured
Increase in Length from Creep after 1 hour
4
9/27/2010
Changes in Sag of Single Span Conductor Elongation Factors
Length As Manufactured
Increase in Length from Creep after
Increase in Length from Creep after ……… 20 years
20 years
Changes in Sag of Single Span Conductor Elongation Factors
20 years
Reversible Elastic Strain from change in Wind/Ice Loads
Reversible Change: Elastic Strain Conductor Elongation Factors
20 years
Reversible Elastic Strain from change in Wind/Ice Loads
Reversible Thermal Strain from change in Temperature
5
9/27/2010
Reversible Change: Thermal Strain Effects of Heat
• Extreme electrical power system load now peaks
in summer, thanks to air conditioning
• Temperature rise above ambient powered by
square of current (I2R)
square of current (I
• Aluminum and steel expand when they get hot,
reducing clearances.
• Excessive temperature rise anneals aluminum,
damages splices
Why the Hyperbolic Cosine Shape?
• Heat Balance of Overhead Conductors x
– In single span
In single span z
dz
d
T
– In multiple spans with freely swinging insulators ds
dx d dx
• Calculation of distributed wind speed from T
dx T  (T )s
ds ds ds
measured clearance, ambient temperature and ds
conductor current mgs dz d dz
T  (T )s
ds ds ds
Why the Hyperbolic Cosine Shape?
Multiple Spans – “Ruling Span” Theory
End
• Calculate behavior
of “Ruling Span”
 (span) 3
RS  Start
End
 (span)
Start
• Transform result to 2
s  1 m other spans  SpanN 
Sag SpanN    Sag RS
 RS 
6
9/27/2010
Multiple Spans with Real Insulators Multiple Spans – Sag/Temperature Slope
• Winkleman AIEE 1959 / Chisholm and Barrett PWRD April 1989
• Perfect tension equalization (infinitely long
insulator strings) is basis of ruling span theory.
• Horizontal component of tension up the
p p
insulator string is small
but important: tensions
in adjacent spans are not
quite equal.
Multiple Spans – Sag/Temperature Slope Multiple Spans – Sag/Temperature Slope
More Sag Change with Temperature Less Sag Change with Temperature
for Short Spans: for Long Spans:
15 mm/C° versus 11 mm/C° 42 mm/C° versus 47 mm/C°
Multiple Spans – Sag/Temperature Slope Organization of Seminar (1)
Different Sag Changes with • Heat Balance of Overhead Conductors
Temperature for Spans of
Same Length in Different Positions
– In single span
• Field Results
– Predictors of Clearance
– Observations of Wind Speed, Direction and their
Standard Deviations
7
9/27/2010
Typical Clearance Limits for Overhead Lines Automobile Dashboard Analogy
• Legal Vehicle Height 4.3 m.
• Added Electrical Buffer set to withstand Switching
Surge Flashover Voltage.
• Examples of Total Clearance Requirement:
Examples of Total Clearance Requirement:
– 5.5 m for 115 kV
– 6.1 m for 230 kV
Ambient Adjusted Rating Analogy Weather‐Based Thermal Rating
• Measure Weather Parameters
• Measure Line Current
Estimate Speed Based on: • Perform Heat Balance Calculation
Temperature • Estimate the Conductor Temperature
Estimate the Conductor Temperature
Line Current (=Fuel Consumption)
• Calculate Thermal Expansion of Conductor
• Calculate the Tension Change from Known State
(stringing, 30‐60 years ago)
• Calculate Catenary of “Ruling” Span
• Estimate Catenaries of Other Spans
Tension Measurement Analogy Tension‐Based Thermal Observation
• Perform Heat Balance Calculation
• Estimate the Conductor Temperature
• Measure the Tension Change from Known State
(recent manual survey)
• Calculate Catenary of “Local Ruling” Span
8
9/27/2010
Clearance Measurement Analogy Clearance‐Based Thermal Observations
• Perform Heat Balance Calculation
• Estimate the Conductor Temperature
• Measure the Tension Change from Known State
(recent manual survey)
• Measure Catenary of Reference Span
Sonar Equipment to measure Clearance is
Clearance Monitoring with Sonar
Easily Calibrated from the Ground.
Echo Level (dB)
Distance (m)
Raw Measurement Error < 6 cm
Overall Layout of Monitoring Program
2002 2003 2003/4 Permanent
9
9/27/2010
Temporary Measurement Sites for Clearance Temporary Measurement Sites for Clearance
and Weather and Weather
Looking East
Looking West
Temporary Measurement Sites for Clearance Permanent Installations to monitor
and Weather Clearance and Weather
Weather Sensors: Sonic Anemometer, Sonar Clearance Sensors on
Temperature, RH 6x6” Wood Crossarms
Shaw Sensor (Conductor Replica)
Permanent Installations to monitor
Typical Measured Clearance Data
Clearance and Weather
Standalone System on 4” ABS Pipes
with Solar Panels
Sonar Clearance Sensors on 4”
ABS Plastic Pipes and Line Power
10
9/27/2010
Typical Measured Clearance Data Typical Measured Weather Data
Typical Measured Weather Data Regression Coefficient as “Grade”
• Ranked nine predictors:
– Other clearances in same section
– Tension
– Other clearances on adjacent line
– Other clearances on parallel line
Other clearances on parallel line
– Surface Temperature
– Clearance 20 miles away
– IEEE 738 (Ambient, Wind, Solar, Current)
– Ambient
– Line Current
Clearances Along One Line: Good Predictor Far Away, Excellent Correlation:
Excellent Within Stringing Section Other Lines on Same Right‐of‐Way
11
9/27/2010
Clearance in Parallel Line, 3‐15 km South:
Conductor Temperature: Good Predictor
Very Good Predictor
IEEE 738 Thermal Model: Good Square of Line Current: Mediocre Predictor
Ambient Temperature Alone: Mediocre
Ranking Using Linear Regression Coefficient Organization of Seminar (1)
Predictor of Clearance Pearson r2

Square of Load Current 0.38-0.53 • Heat Balance of Overhead Conductors
Ambient Temperature 0.53-0.69 • Change of Tension, Sag and Clearance with
IEEE 738 0.65-0.78
(Ambient, Load Current, Wind Speed, Solar)
Clearance in Another Stringing Section 0.69 – In single span
(98 spans away, different line direction)
Conductor Temperature 3 spans away 0.77 – In multiple spans with freely swinging insulators
Clearance in Parallel Right-of-Way, 2 km Away 0.85 • Field Results
Clearance in Adjacent Line on Same Right-of-Way 0.94 – Predictors of Clearance
Tension in Same Stringing Section 0.94 – Observations of Wind Speed, Direction and their
Clearance in the Same Stringing Section >0.99 Standard Deviations
12
9/27/2010
Wind Parameters measured with Wind Parameters measured with
Sonic Anemometer Sonic Anemometer
Standard Deviation of Wind Direction also Wind Parameters measured with Aluminum
affects Nusselt Number Conductor Replicas, Heated/Unheated
Wind angle
standard deviation
 of 45° at 1 km/h
suggests effective
wind yaw angle of:
i d l f
48° for cross flow Sonic Anemometer
(Nueff ‐13% ) (Vaisala)
30° for axial flow Heated and Unheated Portions
Located along Line Direction
(Nueff +55 %) (Shaw ThermalRate)
Comparison: Shaw Sensor Rating Estimate to Comparison: Shaw Sensor Rating Estimate to
Observed Ambient Temperature Observed Wind Speed (Ignoring Wind Angle)
13
9/27/2010
Comparison: Shaw Sensor Rating Estimate to Comparison: Shaw Sensor Rating Estimate to
Observed Wind Speed (Including Wind Angle) Observed Wind Speed (Including Wind Angle)
Remaining Scatter:
• High Ampacity when Wet
• Solar Input
• Wind Direction Standard Deviation
Organization of Seminar (2) Clearance‐Based Thermal Rating
• Measure Clearance in Reference Span
• Ampacity Inversion • Estimate Clearances of Other Spans
– Long‐Axis Hot‐Wire Method • Estimate Tension Change from Known State (recent
– Inputs: Clearance, Line Current, Ambient LIDAR survey of line at known temperature)
p ,
Temperature, Solar Radiation • Calculate Thermal Expansion of Conductor
– Outputs: Spatially Averaged Conductor Temperature • Estimate Conductor Temperature
and Wind Speed • Measure Ambient Temperature and Current
• Implementation by Utility and Results • Perform Heat Balance Calculation
• Estimate Average Wind Speed
• Conclusions and Discussion • Calculate Limited‐Time Rating
Conductor Temperature from Clearance Conductor Temperature from Clearance
Only a few points “above the line”, with clearances
suggesting a temperature less than ambient.
14
9/27/2010
Four Conductor Temperature Estimates from Standard Deviation of Four Temperatures
Individual Clearance Readings (obtained from Clearances) versus Ambient
Standard Deviation of Four Temperatures
(obtained from Clearances) versus Currents
• Ampacity Inversion
– Long‐Axis Hot‐Wire Method
– Inputs: Clearance, Line Current, Ambient Temperature,
Solar Radiation
– Outputs: Spatially Averaged Conductor Temperature
and Wind Speed
• Implementation by Utility and Results
Running in Reverse, Item 3:
Wind Speed from Clearance Wind Speed from Clearance, 2002 Trial
• With known line currents and conductor
temperatures estimated from clearances, iterate
wind speed until heat balance converges.
15
9/27/2010
Wind Speed from Clearance, 2003 Trial Organization of Seminar (2)
• Ampacity Inversion
– Long‐Axis Hot‐Wire Method
– Inputs: Clearance, Line Current, Ambient Temperature,
Solar Radiation
– Outputs: Spatially Averaged Conductor Temperature
and Wind Speed
• Implementation by Utility and Results
Background: Power and Weather Background: Why Summer?
The black line shows the
Addition to Base Load (MW), Ontario, 2005
Addition to Base Load (MW), Ontario 2004 expected effect when the
weather is normal for that
time of year.
Blue lines indicate days when
the weather effect was less
than normal
than normal.
• Warmer than normal days
during the winter months
• Cooler than normal days
during the summer
Red lines indicate days when
the weather effect was greater
The weather effect takes into account temperature, wind, than normal.
lighting, and humidity. The normal effect is determined by • Below‐normal temperatures
analyzing thirty years of records. Source: IESO in winter
• Above‐normal temperatures
in summer
Background: Why Summer? Background : Why at Low Wind Speeds?
• Extreme loads in Ontario now peak in summer,
thanks to air conditioning. (CIGRE Technical Brochure 207 Presentation)
Extra 150 MVA of Power Transfer at 2 m/s
• Aluminum and steel expand when they get hot. (7.2 km/h) compared to 1 m/s (3.6 km/h)
• Temperature rise above ambient
Temperature rise above ambient powered by
powered by
square of current (I2R).
16
9/27/2010
Power Transmission System in Ontario Power Transmission System in Ontario
Queenston (Sir Adam Beck) Generators
Queenston Flow West (QFW) Interface
Background: Why Niagara? Organization of Seminar (2)
Two new 230‐kV circuits were constructed to
supplement five existing parallel 230‐kV lines. • Ampacity Inversion
These increase limits by 800 MW and enable Sir Adam – Long‐Axis Hot‐Wire Method
Beck plants to deliver an additional 1.6 TWh/year. – Inputs: Clearance, Line Current, Ambient Temperature,
However, a land dispute delays the in‐service
However, a land dispute delays the in service date.
date. Solar Radiation
Hydro One has been able to operate around the – Outputs: Spatially Averaged Conductor Temperature
problem since 2004 by running its five existing 230‐kV and Wind Speed
lines to their maximum thermal capability. • Implementation by Utility and Results
On some occasions, the 1800‐MW limit based on static • Conclusions and Discussion
rating has been exceeded by 600 MW, preventing
cuts to interruptible industrial loads.
Conclusions: Conclusions: Change of Tension, Sag and
Heat Balance of Overhead Conductors Clearance with Conductor Temperature
• Thermal Models (IEEE 738, CIGRE Brochure 207) • A line between strain towers functions as a single
balance I2R (Joule) heat input with losses from unit, averaging the effects of wind, solar and
convection, radiation, sunshine. temperature over distances of 5‐50 km.
• Convection depends on wind speed at 1
Convection depends on wind speed at 1‐2 2 m/s.
m/s • Calculating tension from clearance requires the
Calculating tension from clearance requires the
• Convection depends on wind yaw angle to line. same care as calculating clearance from tension.
• Statistics of wind speed and direction are not well – No ruling span approximation
incorporated in present models because raw data – Effect of local spans more significant
are usually not available. • Calculating temperature from clearance usually
has standard deviation less than 3Cº.
17
9/27/2010
Conclusions: Conclusions:
Field Results, Predictors of Clearance Wind Speed Observations
• It is practical, inexpensive and reliable to measure • Wind direction standard deviation increases
clearance with ±6cm accuracy from ground level with remarkably as wind speed decreases below 2 m/s.
standard industrial sonar outdoors over a wide
temperature and humidity range. This usually increases the convective cooling.
• It was better to:
It b tt t • Agreement between heated conductor heat
Agreement between heated conductor heat
– predict clearance using another clearance measurement, balance (Shaw Sensor) and effective wind speed
taken 98 spans away on the same circuit, from nearby sonic anemometer is rather good.
• than to: • Neither measurement is a good predictor of line
– use the IEEE Standard 738 thermal model with load
current and weather data directly under the conductor. clearance with present methods.
Conclusions: Reverse Rating Process to Conclusions: Utility Implementation
obtain Distributed Wind Speed
• It is possible to invert the ampacity calculation • Clearance‐based thermal rating offers strong
process to establish the cross‐wind speed V90 advantages, especially when multiple lines
averaged over an entire 5‐50 km stringing present a combined limitation to power transfer.
section
section. – Inexpensive and autonomous installation
Inexpensive and autonomous installation
• The process gives noisy results that differ from – Practical in‐service calibration
the measured wind speed under the line. – Multiple vendors, standard industrial technology
– Directly useful for estimating clearance of other spans
• Distributed wind speed provides a sound basis for
thermal rating when line current exceeds 200 A.
Open Questions for Further Study Open Questions for Further Study
1. Measure component state (line, cable, 4. Rank of Other Predictors
transformer etc) in two ways. – Ultrasonic wind speed / direction
• They will disagree. – Shaw (Hot wire) sensor
2. What are measures of agreement? – Sag at 100’ from insulator (Sagometer)
• Static case – X tracks Y with scatter 5. Rank of Same Predictors, Other Sites
• Dynamic case – X lags Y with delay – Limited comparisons with tension
3. We “understand” the static cases. But what – Limited comparisons on lines with poorly
causes those delays? correlated load currents
– No comparisons in sheltered terrain
18
9/27/2010
About the Author
William A. (Bill) Chisholm, F (IEEE), Ph.D., P.Eng, managed the
Hydro‐One Niagara to Hamilton Real‐Time Thermal Rating
project, starting in 2001 and ending in 2005 with
commissioning of permanent clearance observation sites.
• BASc in Engineering Science, University of Toronto, 1977 Appendix 1:
• M.Eng (part time), University of Toronto, 1979
• Ph.D. (part time) in Electrical Engineering, University of
Waterloo 1983
Waterloo, 1983.
Estimates of Initial Line Condition
• 33 years of research background in power system lightning
protection, icing and thermal rating (Sags, Tensions, Ground Proflie)
• Retired as Principal Engineer at Kinectrics, 2007
• Professor, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, 2007‐8
– Wrote book, Insulators for Icing and Polluted Environments
with Light Detection and Ranging
•
– Taught graduate course, Protection contre la foudre
Panelist, Conductors sessions at IEEE‐PES meetings (Lidar)
• Member, joint IEEE/CIGRE Task Force B2.12, Weather
Parameters for Bare Overhead Conductor Ratings
• Bronze medal, 200m fly, 2010 World Masters Championships
LIDAR Conductor and Line Survey Using LIDAR
– Same principles as Radio Detection And Ranging
(RADAR) or Sound Navigation and Ranging
(SONAR)
– Source illuminates target with light.
– Some of this light is reflected back to
S f hi li h i fl db k
instrumentation where it is analysed.
– Changes in reflected light allow some properties
of the target to be classified.
– The travel time of light out to the target and back
determines the range.
Raw Results of LIDAR Survey Processed Results of LIDAR Survey
19
9/27/2010
Extracted Results from LIDAR Survey Input to SWING model for Coupled Spans
from LIDAR survey:
• Heights of conductor attachments
• Span lengths
• Height, Horizontal distances to features
SWING models:
SWING models:
• Conductor physical parameters (stress‐strain
description over temperature)
• Temperature at which insulators now hang
vertical (< stringing temperature)
• Validated in 1999 IEEE WG comparison
Conclusions
• It is practical to measure the conductor profile
using LIDAR / Differential GPS quickly, at a
constant temperature and state Appendix 2:
Predicting the Future Clearance of
Predicting the Future Clearance of
• The large data set can be filtered to provide the an Overhead Line based on
simple input data needed for the SWING
clearance model.
Available Real‐Time Data
Adjacent Clearance: Good Predictor
Looking into the Near Future
• Need to be able to predict the clearance of an
overhead line in ten to sixty minutes
• Evaluated three predictors:
– Clearance in Adjacent Circuit
Clearance in Adjacent Circuit
– Ambient Temperature
– Sonic wind speed
• Evaluated three time lags:
– 0, 10 minutes and 60 minutes
20
9/27/2010
How Quickly do Predictions Degrade? Ambient: Mediocre Predictor gets Worse
One Hour Ahead
Sonic Wind Speed: Poor Predictor on its Own Could Tension Predict Clearance?
Tension (kg)
Clearance (m)
(Nascimento et al)
Sources of Time Lag in Thermal Rating using
Mechanical Measures (Clearance, Sag, Tension)
• Wave velocity 120‐140 m/s
• In 30‐km span, travel time is 250 s
• Minimum three oscillations before lumped weight
settles to new position: 21 minutes
settles to new position: 21 minutes
• Mechanical time constant is different from
conductor thermal time constant:
– Longer
– Poorly Damped
W.A.Chisholm@ieee.org
21

Case Study: 230-kV Transmission Corridor Rating Using Mechanical Measurements

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Case Study: 230-kV Transmission Corridor Rating Using Mechanical Measurements

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

9/27/2010

Multiple Spans with Real Insulators Multiple Spans – Sag/Temperature Slope

Multiple Spans – Sag/Temperature Slope Multiple Spans – Sag/Temperature Slope

Multiple Spans – Sag/Temperature Slope Organization of Seminar (1)

2002 2003 2003/4 Permanent

Predictor of Clearance Pearson r2

You might also like