Henry James

Henry James was a true cosmopolite. He was a citizen of the world and moved freely in and
out of drawing rooms in Europe, England, and America. He was perhaps more at home in
Europe than he was in America, but the roots of his life belong to the American continent.
Thus, with few exceptions, most of his works deal with some type of confrontation between
an American and a European.

Among the guests in the James household were some of the most famous minds of the
mid-nineteenth century. Henry James was able to hear his father converse with people like
Ralph Waldo Emerson, Bronson Alcott, and George Ripley.

In Boston, Henry James enrolled briefly in the Harvard Law School but soon withdrew to
devote himself to writing. His older brother, William James, the most famous philosopher and
psychologist America had yet produced, was also a student at Harvard, where he remained
after graduation to become one of the most eminent lecturers in America.

James' life and background were ideally suited for the development of his artistic
temperament. Even though he was not extremely wealthy, he did have sufficient
independent means to allow him to live a leisured life. His father's house provided all the
intellectual stimulation he needed. The visitors were the most prominent artists of the day,
and James was able to follow the latest literary trends. In his travels, he moved in the best
society of two continents and came into contact with a large variety of ideas.

Henry James has had a tremendous influence on the development of the novel. Part of this
influence has been through the type of realism that he employs.

James explained his own realism in terms of its opposition to romanticism. For James the
realistic represents those things which, sooner or later, in one way or another, everyone will
encounter. But the romantic stands for those things that, with all the efforts and all the wealth
and facilities of the world, we can never know directly. Thus, it is conceivable that one can
experience the same things that the characters are experiencing in a James novel, but one
can never actually encounter the events narrated in the romantic novel.
When James, therefore, creates a certain type of character early in the novel, this character
will act in a consistent manner throughout the entire book. The character will never do
anything that is not logical and acceptable to his realistic nature, or to our conception of what
that character should do.

“Work such as ‘Daisy Miller’ is very uncommon. It has no air of difficulty about it… So well
depicted is she, so cleverly has every accessory been put in around her, so cunningly has
she been placed in just the right distance for survey, that she becomes a real personage,
and, thought we do not remember whether her voice is anywhere spoken of or described, we
are quite certain that we know what her voice was like, and in what delicate modulation she
uttered her little Americanisms”. (HILL, F.H. Critics on Henry James. London. George Allen
& Unwin Ltd.)
A man who lived to write and wrote to live. This phrase could have been Henry James’
epitaph. Henry James was born on 15 April 1843 at 21 Washington Place in New York City
as the second out of five children of Henry James Sr. and Mary Walsh. Born into this famous
and well-educated family , Henry James developed into the kind of artist that we still regard
as the prototypical image of a “man of letters”.

He has left us a considerable legacy of his diverse writings: novels, short stories, travel
books, notes, letters, autobiographies and literary and cultural criticisms.

Nonetheless, he was also aware that he had to produce to afford a living: he had to hand in
his instalments ‘in due time’.

The attraction that Europe had on James. James had come to know Europe through the
many visits overseas with the family. He and his brother William had even attended
European schools. Eventually, James left America behind him and settled in Great Britain
where he became a naturalized subject in 1915, one year before his death.

Henry James‟s fictional writings, his novels as well as his short stories, have become part of
our cultural heritage over the years and can now be regarded as part of our common
knowledge. His other writings, however, including his non-fictional reviews, criticisms,
biographies and travel writing, are often unknown and, to some extent marginalized by the
general public.

https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Henry_James

The Turn of the Screw

The Turn of the Screw by Henry James has been the object of a large number of critical
studies since its publication in 1898. It is an example of the genre novella, defined as being
"too short to be a novel and too long to be a short story", and in which Henry James was
particularly successful. From the beginning, it was a huge success of both public and critic
and was one of the greatest literary triumphs of James, and perhaps his most controversial
and enigmatic work.

The beginning of the story finds several vacationing families telling ghost tales as
entertainment.​ The reader is not led to believe that any of these tales being told are factual.
However, when Douglas offers his story, the reader is expected to understand that the
governess is narrating a true account. What makes this story different from the others being
told? Is it because the story is narrated by an unknown individual or is it because the story is
read from her ​written​ statement? (The fact that the ghost tale is put down in words seems to
give it more credibility.) Douglas could have easily used the way in which the story was told
to convince the listeners that this was one ghost story that was more than just entertainment.

While determining whether or not the governess is credible, the reader can find many quotes
where the governess is described by others or – mostly – by herself. The narrator at the
beginning of the novel describes how many of the vacationers “draw the inference” that
Douglas was in love with the much older governess, a situation very similar to the
governess’s relationship with Miles (James 24).

We are given a number of oblique glimpses into the young woman’s home and early
environment. From the confinement of her provincial home this young and inexperienced
woman comes up to London to answer an advertisement for a governess.
The young woman falls instantly and passionately in love with the man who has inserted the
advertisement. The object of her affection is one socially out of her sphere.
The unexplained death of the former governess, her predecessor, was enough to suggest
some mysterious danger connected with the position offered, especially in view of the
master’s strange stipulation: that the incumbent should assume all responsibility even to the
point of cutting off all communication with him - never writing, never reporting.
She goes down to Bly and finds herself no longer a poor person’s daughter but the head of a
considerable country establishment.

“The Ambiguity of Henry James.”

The Turn of the Screw​‘s characters contain the generic surface elements of a majority of
other ghost stories, including the characterization of the heroine and the villain. The
unnamed governess, the primary narrator, is inducted as the seeming good in the story.
James, however, writes into her characterization, questionable behavior. Described as a
young 20-year old, intelligent, charming individual to the audience, there are two opposing
ways of viewing her character – either as a normal, coherent heroine or an insane
anti-heroine. The repressed insane state of mind is by far the most popular interpretation of
the character for most readers of this ghost story. Edmund Wilson, an influential literary critic
presented this psychological perspective in his 1939 essay “The Ambiguity of Henry James.”
In the essay, Wilson carefully lays out a multitude of examples in which he sees signs of
Freudian symbolism in the story; the Governess stands out as a “neurotic, sexually
repressed woman whose hidden desires drive her mad” (Shmoop: Governess).” Wilson
explores more into this idea of how the Governess is telling the story; “Observe that there is
never any evidence that anybody but the governess sees the ghosts. She believes that the
children see them but there is never any proof that they do. The housekeeper insists that
she does not see them; it is apparently the governess who frightens them.” (Wilson 170) On
the other hand, the presumed and traditional way of reading the novella has the Governess
be in full control of her mental state, as well as having the supernatural actually happen in
reality. This portrayal of the Governess places her in the role of the classical heroine and
assumes that she really has good intentions and is just looking out for the children. This view
also assumes that Miles and Flora are troublesome children and are in fact, connected to the
apparitions of Peter Quint and Miss Jessel.
The interpretation that the Governess is a traditional heroine is counteracted in many ways
in her characterization, including the fairly apparent obsession with the children, “But it was a
comfort that there could be no uneasiness in a connexion with anything so beatific as the
radiant image of my little girl, the vision of whose angelic beauty had probably more…”
(James 124). The Governess acknowledging Flora as “my little girl,” as she is just meeting
the children, indicates an obsession supporting the interpretation that the governess is an
anti-heroine. Yet looking at the character in a practical sense that she is a traditional heroine,
the governess is doing her job, looking out for Miles and Flora and combats evil apparitions
of Peter Quint and Miss Jessel. The Governess telling us that Miss Jessel is evil, “Another
person – this time; but a figure of quite as unmistakable horror and evil: a woman in black,
pale and dreadful – with such an air also, and such a face! – on the other side of the lake. I
was there with the child – quiet for the hour; and in the midst of it she came.” (James 156)
Just objectively looking at the text would indicate that the ghosts are malevolent forces in the
story. While on the other side of the spectrum, Edmund convincing uses the example of the
final scene where the governess confronts Miles about the ghosts, “From her point of view,
we see that he must have taken her ‘There, there!’ as an answer to his own ‘Where?’ She
has finally made him believe either that he has actually seen something or that he is on the
point of seeing something. He gives ‘the cry of a creature hurled over an abyss’. She has
literally frightened him to death.” (Wilson 172). The conflict between her actual narration of
the story and her actions and dialogue observed by audience creates the two-sided
characterization of the Governess that exudes the ambiguity of the true good and evil of the
novella.
The governess is not the only character that has been manipulated by the hand of Henry
James to produce ambiguity. The children of the Bly household, Miles and Flora, have also
been in question on where they land on the good and evil spectrum. Progressively
throughout the story, the children transition from sweet and innocent to being possessed and
evil as described by the governess. The governess initially adored the children (obsessively
perhaps), until their innocence was “corrupted” by the ghosts of Quint and Miss Jessel. This
brings the question to the audience: are the children evil through supernatural occurrences,
or if the children are just being children. Flora, at first glance of the governess, had been
described as angelic, beautiful, well mannered, perfect little girl, until much later into the plot
where the governess believes she has been talking to Miss Jessel, the governess accusing
and her she retorts, “Take me away – oh take me away from her!’ ‘From me?’ I panted.
‘From you – from you!’ she cried… The wretched child had spoken exactly as if she had got
from some outside source each of her stabbing little words… ‘Of course I’ve lost you: I’ve
interfered, and you’ve seen, under her dictation…I’ve done my best, but I’ve lost you.
Good-bye.'” (James 240). The governess herself describes Flora in this passage to be a
“wretched child,” insinuating that she is the evil in the story. Miles as well is introduced by
Mrs. Grose as good, “beautiful” child, “Oh miss, most remarkable. If you think well of this
one!'” (James 125) even if a bit of a troublemaker.

The Turn of the Screw, ​as a Henry James’s piece of work, is uniquely structured to convey
ambiguity over benevolence and malevolence. In Donald P. Costello’s ​Modern Language
Notes,​ Costello states that there is, in fact, a two-part structure in the novel. “This double
effect of The ​Turn of the Screw​ is a product of its structure, which is basically a double one:
scenes in which the governess represents the action usually result in horror; scenes in which
the governess interprets the action usually result in mystification.” (Costello 313). Costello is
essentially telling us that there are parts of the story where the governess “reports” to us
from her perspective that provides the horror of the “reality of the ghosts”, and the other part
of the plot’s structure where the audience interprets that part of the story. The theme of good
versus evil would be naturally deduced by the reader through interpretation. However the
representation of the text through the governess’ point of view conflicts with the
interpretation of the audience, producing the ambiguity. For instance, the actual literature
and perspective of the narrator induces the idea that the governess is good and the horror
stems from the children being possessed as well as the ghosts, while the interpretation and
observation of the governess make that opposing portrayal of someone losing their mind,
having hallucinations of the whole situation. This discrepancy of representation and
interpretation create the blurred line of what is truly good and evil.
The creation of illusion and ambiguity are rhetorical strategies that add a unique layer to
literature, making the audience take it upon themselves to assess the story determine what
is actually occurring. To the Victorian audience that this was written for to the audience
reading over a century later, James’s utilization of ambiguity on the timeless theme of good
vs. evil. continues to mystify readers today. Deciding on the good and evil in the story stems
from the reader’s analysis of James’s characterization, his framing of his text, as well as the
structure of the plot. But as much as we can analyze and connect the theme back to real life
Victorian age, or now, the idea of ambiguity is that it is supposed to remain that way.
Whether the governess or the children are evil or what truly happened in the end, it is up to
the audience to decide, and even then, the decisions might differ.

Pode-se portanto resumir o que foi discutido acima em termos de duas tendência de leitura
de TTOTS apontadas pela crítica, e que se manifestam em períodos diferentes: 1.
interpretação literal – TTOTS como uma história de fantasmas no melhor estilo gótico, e a
preceptora como heroína que tenta proteger duas crianças inocentes de entidades malignas
que pretendem corrompê-las e finalmente apossar-se de suas almas inocentes; coincide
com a corrente crítica de TTOTS tradicionalmente referido como “aparicionista”
(apparitionist), reunindo críticos como Edmund Wilson, Edna Kenton e Oscar Cargill (Siota,
2010: 207-211), para os quais as aparições em Bly são reais e justificam as ações da
protagonista; 2. interpretação freudiana – TTOTS como a história de como uma preceptora
é movida por seus desejos sexuais reprimidos a ponto de ter alucinações em que vê
fantasmas que assombram a casa, terminando por aterrorizar as crianças sob seus
cuidados e possivelmente causando a morte de uma delas; corresponde à vertente da
crítica denominada “não-aparicionista” (non-apparitionist),12 da qual fazem parte Edmund
Wilson, Robert Heilman e Charles Hoffman (Siota, ibid), segundo a qual a justificativa para
as atitudes tomadas pela preceptora não é do domínio do sobrenatural, mas na esfera do
(a) (falta de) equilíbrio psíquico da personagem.

a ​turn of the screw​. ​ an action that makes a bad situation worse, especially one that
forces someone to ​do​ something.

Summary
One Christmas Eve in the late 19th century, a group of friends in England gathers in an old
house to hear ghost stories. A member of the group, Douglas, whom the unknown narrator says
has since died, says he knows a horrible ghost story involving two children. He's never told the
story before. The events, Douglas claims, happened long ago to a woman he knew. The woman
was his sister's governess and a friend of his.
As the gathered group eagerly awaits the full tale, Douglas gives the story's background: The
governess was hired for her first job by a rich, polite London man, who needed her to teach his
orphaned niece and nephew. She'd live with the children in a country estate called Bly. The
governess, enchanted by the good-looking uncle, took the job but never saw the uncle again.
Douglas adds the children's former governess died, but he doesn't explain why. He tells the story
by reading the governess's written account.

The governess narrates the rest of the novella in the first person. When she arrives at Bly in
June, she immediately loves the sweet eight-year-old girl, ​Flora​, and the generous housekeeper,
Mrs. Grose​. But she's troubled when she receives a letter stating ​Miles​, the 10-year-old boy, has
been expelled from school for unclear reasons. When the governess meets Miles, she is so
impressed by him she thinks the school's made a mistake.

While the governess is enjoying summer with the children, she sees a strange man standing in a
tower at Bly. She's frightened and wonders if the house has a secret. On a rainy Sunday, while
she's in the dining room, she sees the man again. Shaken, she describes the man to Mrs. Grose.
The description resembles ​Peter Quint​, a former personal attendant to the children's uncle, who
has recently died. The governess and Mrs. Grose become convinced Quint's ghost plans to harm
the children, especially Miles. They resolve to protect the children.

One afternoon the governess is at a nearby lake with Flora when she sees someone, perhaps a
ghost, watching them. Flora appears to have seen the ghost too but says nothing. The governess
thinks the children know about the ghosts and keep quiet on purpose. She believes the second
spirit is ​Miss Jessel​, the children's former governess, also deceased. Mrs. Grose implies Peter
Quint and Miss Jessel had an affair when they were alive and are now working together to hurt
the children at Bly.

The governess wakes up one night and sees Peter Quint again on a staircase. This time she's
expecting him. She's shocked, however, to see Flora missing from her bed. Flora is hiding
behind the curtain in her room for reasons the young girl doesn't explain. The governess begins
to stay awake at night and wander the halls. One night she sees Miss Jessel sitting on a
staircase. Another night her bedside candle blows out and she thinks Flora is responsible. The
governess goes to a lower room in the tower to look for Miles and finds him outside on the lawn
in the dark, looking at a mysterious person in the tower. Miles explains he was only misbehaving
to show her he could be bad, and Flora had agreed to keep watch for him. The governess does
not believe it was a childish prank. She now believes the children are communicating with the
ghosts.

She explains her fears to Mrs. Grose, but when Mrs. Grose offers to write to the children's uncle,
the governess threatens to quit. Meanwhile the governess becomes increasingly uncomfortable
around the children and worried about what horrors they might see.

On a Sunday in early autumn the governess walks to church with the children. On the walk Miles
asks when he's going back to school. When the governess isn't sure how to answer him, Miles
says he'll talk to his uncle himself. The governess thinks Miles senses her fear and is
manipulating her to gain his freedom from Bly. Disturbed, the governess walks back to the house
and sees Miss Jessel sitting in the schoolroom at the writing table.
The governess is now certain Miles was expelled for "wickedness," and she changes her mind
about not writing to the children's uncle. Mrs. Grose offers to have a messenger deliver the letter
if the governess writes it.

Before Miles goes to bed the governess talks to him and asks how she can help him. Miles
replies he only wants to be left alone. She worries Miles has been talking to the ghost of Peter
Quint. A chill goes through Miles's bedroom, and Miles blows out the candle.

The next morning the governess and Mrs. Grose can't find Flora. They search the house and
grounds, afraid Flora is with the ghosts. When they find Flora outside by the lake, the governess
asks Flora where Miss Jessel is. Before Flora can answer the governess sees Miss Jessel on the
other side of the lake. Mrs. Grose reassures Flora no one is there. Flora says she's never seen a
ghost and screams for the governess to get away from her.

Flora becomes afraid of the governess and runs a fever. The governess tells Mrs. Grose to take
Flora to live with her uncle, so the governess can talk to Miles alone. Mrs. Grose reluctantly
agrees. Then she admits the letter the governess wrote to the children's uncle was never sent.
The governess suspects Miles of taking the letter.

Once they're alone, Miles and the governess talk. Miles confesses he took the letter and opened
it. He admits he was expelled from school because of inappropriate things he said to his
classmates. The governess tries to get him to confess the things he said, but she's stopped short
by another ghostly appearance of Peter Quint. Both Miles and the governess are shocked, and
Miles jerks backward into the governess's arms, where he dies.