Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 585–602

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Effects of biodiesel from different feedstocks on engine performance

and emissions: A review
Wan Nor Maawa Wan Ghazali a, Rizalman Mamat a,n, H.H. Masjuki c, Gholamhassan Najafi b
a
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang (UMP), 26600 Pekan, Pahang, Malaysia
b
Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
c
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper analyzes the performance and emissions of biodiesel from different feedstocks. The main goal
Received 10 November 2014 of this paper is to provide information to the engineers, industrialists and researchers who are interested
Received in revised form on biodiesel and to emphasise biodiesel as a promising alternative replacement for fossil fuels. A
25 March 2015
substantial number of literatures from highly rated journals in scientific indexes were cited preferen-
Accepted 17 June 2015
tially since 2000. The performance and emissions indicators such as brake torque, brake power, BTE, EGT,
Available online 14 July 2015
BSFC NOx, PM, CO, CO2, HC and smoke density have been evaluated in comparison to pure diesel. The
Keywords: results showed that different sources of biodiesel feedstocks give different results to engine performance
Biodiesel and emissions. Surprisingly some of the research yielded favourable results towards the biodiesel as
Production
compared to pure diesel. The study concluded that biodiesel can be used in compression ignition engine
Performance
as a replacement of diesel fuel to fulfil the global energy demand. However, further research on about
Combustion
Emissions optimisation, cost-effectiveness and availability of biodiesel needs to be carried out to help ensure that
biofuel will be able to fully replace fossil fuel.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
1.1. Objective of this paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
2. Different feedstocks for biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
3. Biodiesel production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
3.1. Direct use and blending of oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
3.2. Micro-emulsification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
3.3. Pyrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
3.4. Transesterification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
4. Characteristic of biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
4.1. Oil yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
4.2. Oil composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
5. Fuel properties of various biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
5.1. Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
5.2. Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
5.3. Flash point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
5.4. Cetane number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
5.5. Cloud and pour point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
5.6. Calorific value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
5.7. The effect of FAME on fuel properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
6. Biodiesel production techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rizalman.mamat@yahoo.com (R. Mamat).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.06.031
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
586 W.N.M. Wan Ghazali et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 585–602

6.1. Catalytic biodiesel production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591

6.2. Non-catalytic biodiesel production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
7. Engine performance and emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
7.1. Engine performance parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
7.2. Engine emission parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
8. Combustion characteristics of CI engine fuelled with biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
9. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
Acknowledgement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599

1. Introduction
Since the commencement of industrial revolution in the late
18th and early 19th century, global energy consumption has been
increasing multi-fold due to rapid population growth and eco-
nomic development. Fig. 1 shows the world energy consumption
by source from year 1800 to 2013 [1,2]. In 2013, the most
consumed energy came from fossil fuels which accounted for
82.67% among other energy sources in which crude oil consisted of
30.92%, coal 28.95% and natural gas 22.81%, respectively. The
petroleum fuels play a vital role in the development of industrial
growth, agricultural sector, domestic needs, transportation, and to
meet many other basic human needs. Globally, 11 billion tons of
fossil fuel was consumed every year. At this rate, these sources will
soon be exhausted [3] and this may contribute to soaring fossil
fuel. As the demand of energy has arisen, so have the undesirable
environmental effects of its production. Emission of smoke,
particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide,
(CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and unburnt hydrocarbon (UBHC)
from fossil fuel combustion are the primary causes on both
atmospheric pollution and human health [4–6].
Developing alternative energy is an unavoidable choice for
harmonious coexistence of human and environment as well as for
sustainable economic growth in human society. Many renewable
energy sources have drawn the attention of researchers. Among the
renewable energy sources that have drawn the attention of
researchers, biofuel is the most popular choice. Recently, the devel-
opment of biofuel is being considered to be a major substitute for
fossil diesel worldwide with particular referring to the biodiesel.
According to the International Energy Agency's (IEA), biodiesel
industry has developed rapidly in the recent years and the global
biodiesel production has increased tenfold from 2000 to 2008 [7].
Biodiesel can provide a number of technical and environmental
Biofuels
Natural Gas
Global Energy Consumption (Exajoules)
benefits over fossil-based fuels such as the improvement in combus-
tion properties and the most notably a reduction in greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions [8–10].
Biodiesel can be defined as a fuel comprised of mono-alkyl
esters of long chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oils or
animal fats [11]. Theoretically, any vegetable oil or animal fat
which essentially comprises triglycerides of long chain saturated
and unsaturated fatty acid can be used in diesel engines. How-
ever, the initial research using straight vegetable oils as a fuel in
diesel engine resulted in various engine problems such as
problem in pumping, gumming, atomisation, injectors fouling,
carbon deposits on piston and head of engine, excessive engine
wear and contamination of lubricating oil in the long run
operation [12–14]. This phenomena is maybe due to high visc-
osity, density, iodine value and poor non-volatility. Hence, it has
been recommended by many researchers to transesterify vege-
table oils to reduce the high viscosity of the oil. Transesterifica-
tion is a process to convert vegetable oil to biodiesel so that it can
be used in diesel engines [15–17].
The performance and emissions indicators such as brake torque,
brake power, BTE, EGT, BSFC NOx, PM, CO, CO2, HC and smoke
density have been evaluated in comparison to pure diesel by many
researchers. The results of these studies showed that different
sources of biodiesel feedstocks give different results to engine
performance and emissions. Surprisingly some of the research
yielded favourable results towards the biodiesel as compared to
pure diesel. A large number of the studies reported that biodiesel
can improve the combustion in the engine. Most of the studies
reported that the brake power for biodiesel blends is slightly lower
than pure diesel. The trend implies that higher the percentage of
biodiesel in the blends, the lower brake power generated. The same
applies to the torque. The torque values are reduced when increas-
ing the blending ratio of biodiesel. However, several research show
that the blended fuels with higher cetane number will improve the
Coal Crude Oil combustion and thus, give higher values of torque. Most of the
Hydro Electricity Nuclear Electricity authors reported that the increase of BSFC when using biodiesel
may be contributed by higher density, viscosity and calorific value

600
of the biodiesel compared to pure diesel. It is reported by most of
500 the authors that using biodiesel as a fuel in diesel engines signi-
ficantly reduces PM, HC, and CO emissions. This is occurred due to
the higher cetane number and higher oxygen contents in biodiesel
400
compared to diesel fuel. Moreover, advance injection timing
obtained by engine fuelled with biodiesel also favoured to lower
300
the total hydrocarbon emissions. Many authors concluded that the
result of increase in NOx emissions when using biodiesel is because
200
of higher oxygen contents of biodiesel. The higher oxygen contents
will contribute to complete combustion and therefore higher
100 combustion temperature [106–167].

0 1.1. Objective of this paper

1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2010 2013
Year
This paper presents a comprehensive review on the potential of
Fig. 1. World energy consumption by source 1800–2013 [1,2]. biodiesel from different feedstocks and its effects on engine
 W.N.M. Wan Ghazali et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 585–602 587

performance and exhaust emissions including details of engine the need of their disposal, in addition to their contribution to the
and operating condition. The main goal of this paper is to provide supply of biodiesel [36]. However, there is a limited amount of
information to the engineers, industrialists and researchers who animal fats available, so they will never be able to meet the world's
are interested on biodiesel and to emphasise biodiesel as a fuel needs. Besides, biodiesel production from animal fats is
promising alternative replacement for fossil fuels. A substantial difficult process since they tend to be predominantly solid wax
number of literatures from highly rated journals in scientific at room temperature because of their high content of saturated
indexes were cited preferentially since 2000. fatty acids (SFA) [34] and [37]. The animal fats have not been
studied for biodiesel production as extensively as vegetable oils
because of their high fatty acids content in fats and the various
2. Different feedstocks for biodiesel distributions of fatty acids [38].
The third category of biodiesel feedstock is comprised of recycled
The production of biodiesel starts with the choice of feedstock. oil and grease from restaurants, households and food processing
The feedstocks for biodiesel production are primarily categorised plants. The use of recycled oil and grease is often attracting attention
into four main groups; vegetable oils (edible and non-edible), because it utilises waste products that can eliminate the needs of
animal fats, used cooking oil and algae [8,18]. disposal problems. The major challenges, especially for waste stream
feedstock, such as waste cooking oil and grease, are the collection
(1) Vegetable oil logistics and infrastructure. This is because the collection system for
Edible vegetable oil: sunflower, rapeseed, rice bran, soybean, the waste cooking oil could be a hurdle as the sources are generally
coconut, corn, palm, olive, pistachia palestine, sesame seed, scattered and without any quality control. This challenge has been
peanut, opium poppy, safflower oil, etc. taken by the city of Kyoto by producing enough biodiesel to fuel their
Non-edible vegetable oil: jatropha, karanjaorpongamia, neem, city buses from waste vegetable oils collected from general house-
jojoba, cottonseed, linseed, mahua, deccan hemp, kusum, holds, restaurants and cafeterias [39,40]. However, recycled oils
orange, rubberseed, sea mango, algae, halophytes etc. contain large amount of free fatty acids (FFA) and have many
(2) Animal fats: tallow, yellow grease, chicken fat and by-products impurities that require pre-treatment to produce high quality
from fish oil etc. biodiesel. A pre-treatment step to reduce the FFA content can be
(3) Waste or recycled cooking oil. done via esterification reaction with methanol in presence of
(4) Algae. sulphuric acid [41]. Pre-treatment also makes the biodiesel produc-
tion process more complicated and costly.
The use of vegetable oils as biodiesel fuel was started by Rudolf Recently, a high interest has arisen towards producing biodiesel
Diesel when he first used peanut oil for demonstration of his from microalgae. The interest is growing based on the study reporting
newly developed compression ignition (CI) engine in year 1910 that microalgae biodiesel has higher yield than non-edible oil produc-
[19]. Today, there are more than 350 potential vegetable oil crops, tion, and does not require farmland or fresh water [42–44]. Oil content
depending upon the climate and soil conditions, are being used as in microalgae can exceed 80% by weight of dry biomass [45]. It is
the main conventional feedstocks for biodiesel production such as reported that microalgae appears to be the only source of renewable
soybean and canola in Canada, sunflower oil in Europe, soybean oil biodiesel that can meet the global demand for transport fuels.
in US, palm oil in Malaysia and Indonesia, coconut oil in Philip- According to Benemann [46] total world commercial microalgae
pines, etc.[20–22].There are two types of vegetable oils; edible and biomass production is about 10,000 tons per year. Microalgae have
non-edible oils. The use of edible vegetable oils for biodiesel much higher growth rates and productivity when compared to
production has recently been of great concern because they conventional forestry, agricultural crops, and other aquatic plants,
compete with food materials in the long-term. Therefore, non-
edible vegetable oils which are known as the second generation
Table 1
feedstocks will always be considered as potential substitutions for
Non-edible and edible vegetable oils production country.
traditional edible food crops for the production of biodiesel. The
advantages of non-edible oils as a diesel fuel are liquid nature Oil crops Production/origin country
portability, ready availability, renewability, lower sulphur and
aromatic contents and biodegradability, while their disadvantages
Non-edible oils
are higher viscosity, lower volatility and higher percentage of Cotton seed China, India
carbon residue as well as reactivity of unsaturated hydrocarbon Jatropha China, India, Philippine, Thailand, Indonesia
chains [23].Table 1 shows the availability of edible and non-edible Jojoba USA
vegetable oils all over the world [24–33]. Karanja South Asia
Linseed Canada, China, Russia
Another group of feedstock for biodiesel production is fats
Mahua India
derived from animals. Vegetable oils and animal fats are of two Neem South Asia
types of biological lipid materials, made up mainly of triacylgly- Polanga India
cerols (TAGs) and less of diacylglycerols (DAGs) and monoacylgly- Rubberseed Malaysia
cerols (MAGs) [34]. Compared to plant crops, animal fats such as Tobacco China, India, Brazil
Kapok Mexico, Central America, Africa, Indonesia
tallow (beef tallow from domestic cattle and mutton tallow from Silk cotton Asia
sheep), white grease or lard (rendered pork fat), chicken fat and Sandalwood Australia, India, Sri Lanka
yellow grease are often priced favourably for conversion into Edible oils
biodiesel, providing an economic advantage [35]. The fatty acid Corn USA, China
Canola Canada
compositions of some common animal fats are presented in
Coconut Philippine, Thailand
Table 2. Fats and oils have similar physical properties and chemical Groundnut China, India
structures such as water-insolubility, hydrophobicity and solubility Mustard Europe, China, Canada
in nonpolar organic solvents [34]. Some of the advantages that Palm Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia
animal fat methyl ester has include high cetane number, non- Rapeseed Finland, France, Germany, Russia, Sweden, UK, Italy
Soybean China, Argentina, Brazil, Russia, USA
corrosive, clean and renewable properties. Moreover, the use of Sunflower Russia, Spain, Russia, EU, Ukraine
waste animal fats as feedstock for biodiesel production eliminates
588 W.N.M. Wan Ghazali et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 585–602

Table 2
Fatty acid compositions of some animal fats: xx:y (xx-number of C atoms, y-number of double bond) [34] and fatty acid compositions of various non-edible feedstock [65].

Feedstock % (by weight)

12:0 (lauric) 14:0 (myristic) 16:0 (palmitic) 16:1 (palmitoleic) 18:0 (stearic) 18:1 (oleic) 18:2 (linoleic) 18:3 (linolenic)

FAC of animal fats

Chicken fat – 0.5 24 5.8 5.8 38.2 23.8 1.9
Duck tallow – – 17 – 4 59.4 19.6 –
Mutton fat 0.2 3 27 2 24.1 40.7 2 –
Lard – 1.7 23.2 2.7 10.4 42.8 19.1 64.7
Yellow grease – 2.43 23.24 23.24 12.96 44.32 6.97 0.67
Brown grease – 1.66 22.83 22.83 12.54 42.36 12.09 0.82
FAC of non-edible feedstock
Meliaceae – – 23.1 - 12.8 21.5 29.0 13.6
Milkweed – – 5.9 6.8 2.3 34.8 48.7 1.2
Neem – 0.2–0.26 14.9 0.1 20.6 43.9 17.9 0.4
Ethiopian mustard – – 4–6 – 1.3 10–17 17–25 10–17
Babasu 48.8 17.2 9.7 – 4 14.2 1.8 –
Niger – – 9.2 – 9 71.7 – –
Rubber – 2.2 10.2 – 8.7 24.6 39.6 16.3
Linseed – – 4.4 0.3 3.8 20.7 15.9 54.6
Mahua – – 16–28.2 – 20–25.1 41–51 8.9–13.7 –
Tobacco o0.01 0.09 10.96 0.2 3.34 14.54 69.49 0.69
Karanja – – 3.7–7.9 – 2.4–8.6 44.5–71.3 10.8–18.3 –
Castor – – 1.1 0 3.1 4.9 1.3 0.6
Stillingia 0.4 0.1 7.5 3.71 2.3 16.7 31.5 41.5
Sesame – – 11 7 43 35 – –
Field pennycress – 0.1 3.1 – 0.5 11.1 22.4 11.8

requiring much less land area than other biodiesel feedstocks of
agricultural origin, up to 49 or 132 times less when compared to
rapeseed or soybean crops, for a 30% (w/w) of oil content in algae
biomass [47]. The main obstacle for the commercialisation of algae-
based biodiesel is its high production cost required for high-oil-
yielding algae strains and effective large-scale bioreactors [48].
3. Biodiesel production
Researchers and industrialists had developed several generally
accepted technologies that have been well established for production
of biodiesel from different feedstock. To be used in conventional
diesel engines without modifications, vegetable oils must undergo
certain processes and procedures to convert it into biodiesel. There
are several processes and procedures to produce a better quality of
biodiesel such as direct use and blending, micro-emulsions, pyrolysis
of vegetable oil and transesterification. In this section, a brief review
of these procedures has been presented here.
3.1. Direct use and blending of oils
The direct use of vegetable oils in diesel engines is unfavour-
able to the engine. The major problems occurred after a long
operation include coking and trumpet formation on the injectors,
carbon deposits, oil ring sticking and thickening and gelling of the
lubricant [49]. The problems associated with the use of pure
vegetable oils with high viscosities in CI engines can be solved
by directly mixing crude vegetable oils with diesel fuel [50].
Another proven solution is by preheating the vegetable oil which
will decrease the viscosity and improve the atomisation and
Fig. 2. Transestrification reaction of triglycerides with alcohol [63].
mixing process, which results in better combustion [51]. Fukuda
et al. [52] found that for short term use, it is operative to use ratios
of 1:10 to 2:10 biodiesel oil to diesel fuel. In 1983, Adams et al [53]
tested the mixtures of degummed soybean oil and diesel fuel in
the ratios of 1:2 and 1:1 in a six-cylinder direct injection engine
and found that for the 1:1 blend, the lubricating oil thickening and
potential gelling existed while this did not occur for 1:2 blend.
Thus, they conclude that 1:2 blend should be suitable to be used in
diesel engine without major modification but further study is
needed on the long term effect on engine.
3.2. Micro-emulsification
Another potential solution for solving the problem of high
viscosity of vegetable oils is by microemulsion. Micro-emulsion is
defined as transparent thermodynamically stable colloidal equili-
brium dispersion of optically isotropic fluid microstructures with
dimensions generally in the 1–150 nm range formed spontaneously
from two normally immiscible liquids and one or more ionic or non-
ionic amphiphiles [49]. Microemulsions are clear, stable isotropic
fluids with three components, namely an oil phase, an aqueous
phase and a surfactant. Micro-emulsion-based fuels are frequently
called “hybrid fuels”, although blends of pure diesel fuel with
vegetable oils have also been called hybrid fuels [54].The common
solvents used are ethanol and methanol. All micro-emulsions with
butanol, hexanol and octanol can meet the maximum viscosity
limitation for diesel engines [55]. A microemulsion prepared by
blending soybean oil, methanol, 2-octanol and cetane improver in
the ratio of 52.7:13.3:33.3:1.0 has passed the 200 h EMA test [56].
3.3. Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is the process of conversion of one substance into
another by means of heat or with the aid of catalyst in the absence
of air or oxygen [57]. The process is simple, wasteless, pollution
free and effective compared with other cracking processes. The
aim of pyrolysis is the optimisation of high-value fuel products
from biomass by thermal and catalytic means [58]. Vegetable oils,
animal fats, wood, bio-waste, natural fatty acids and methyl ester
of fatty acids are among the materials that can be used for
 W.N.M. Wan Ghazali et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 585–602 589

pyrolysis. Conversion of vegetable oils and animal fats composed Table 3

mostly of triglycerides using thermal cracking reactions represents Oil yield for major non-edible and edible oil sources [64,65,33].
a promising technology for the production of biodiesel [59]. Many
Type of oils Oil yield (kg oil/ Oil yield (wt%) Prices (USD/
researchers have reported the pyrolysis of triglycerides to obtain ha) ton)
products suitable for diesel engines [59–62].
Non-edible oil
Jatropha 1590 Seed: 35–40, Kernel: N/A
3.4. Transesterification
50–60
Rubber seed 80–120 40–50 N/A
The most advanced and promising technology of biodiesel Castor 1188 53 N/A
production is transesterification of oils (triglycerides) with alcohol Pongamiam 225–2250 30–40 N/A
which gives biodiesel (fatty acid alkyl esters, FAAE) as main pinnata
Sea mango N/A 54 N/A
product and glycerine as by product. Neem 2670 Seed: 20–30, kernel: 25– N/A
The transesterification reaction of triglycerides is illustrated in 45
Fig. 2 [63]. Transesterification, also called alcoholysis, is exchanging of Edible oil
alcohol from an ester by another alcohol in a process similar to Soybean 375 20 684
Palm 5000 20 478
hydrolysis, except that an alcohol is used instead of water [55].
Rapeseed 1000 37–50 683
Generally, in order for the reaction to be completed in a shorter Coconut 2689 63–65 N/A
reaction time, a catalyst is used to enhance and improve the reaction Canola N/A 43 N/A
rate. Reaction temperature, reaction time, reaction pressure, ratio of Sunflower 952 Seed: 25–35, kernel: 45– N/A
alcohol to oil, concentration and type of catalyst, mixing intensity 55
Hemp N/A 30–35 N/A
and kind of feedstock are among the most relevant operating Sesame N/A 41 N/A
variables affecting the transesterification process. Moringa 250 35–40 N/A
Mustard N/A 30 N/A
Peanut 1059 45–55 N/A
4. Characteristic of biodiesel Olive 1212 45–70 N/A
Castor 1413 45–50 N/A

4.1. Oil yield

The key factor in deciding the suitability of a feedstock for biodiesel
production is always the oil yield from the crops itself. It is favourable
for the oil crops with higher oil yield in the biodiesel industry because it
can reduce the production cost. Generally the cost for the raw materials
itself accounts about 70–80% of the total production cost of biodiesel.
Table 3 shows the oil yield in terms of kg/ha and wt% and also the price
for various types of edible and non-edible oils worldwide [64,65,33].
From the table we can see that palm oil leads with 5000 kg of oil per
hectare which is far higher than other oils which are only in the range
of hundreds to 2000 kg oil per hectare. Higher oil yield will always give
lower cost. The costs of some of the non-edible oils could not be
obtained as they are currently not traded in the open market. Among
the various non-edible oils shown in Table 3, jatropha has the highest
yield, followed by Pongamiapinnata and castor. According to Demirbas
and Demirbas [66] the oil yield from algae is about 20,000 to 80,000 l
per acre per year which is 7–31 times better than oil palm. Bhatti et al
[67] investigated the effect of temperature on the yield of biodiesel
between chicken tallow and mutton tallow. The maximum yield of
biodiesel from chicken tallow and mutton tallow happened at different
temperatures due to the difference in their fatty acid composition.
4.2. Oil composition
Composition of the oil is another important criterion to determine
the suitability of oil as a raw material for the production of biodiesel.
Fatty acid composition, such as the type and percentage will subse-
quently determine the fuel properties of biodiesel obtained. The
composition for various types of edible and non-edible oils is shown
in Table 4 [64]. From the table we can see that non-edible-based
biodiesel mainly contains C16 and C18 acids. However, some feed-
stocks have a significant amount of fatty acids other than C16 and C18
acids [68]. The common fatty acids content in both non-edible and
edible oils are oleic acid (C18:1), linolenic acid (C18:3), linoleic acid
(C18:2), stearic acid (C18:0) and palmitic acid (C16:0) [69]. The fatty
acids in the oils are further categorised into saturated (stearic, palmitic
and dihydroxystearic) and unsaturated (oleic, linoleic, ricinoleic, pal-
mitoleic, linolenic and eicosenoic) fatty acids. It has been found that
the ignition quality, fuel flow properties, and fuel stability may
improve with the presence of monounsaturated fatty acid in a
biodiesel blend at low temperature [70]. Castor oil has the most
unique composition with approximately 89.5% ricinoleic acid. Ricino-
leic acid also known as castor oil acid, is an unsaturated fatty acid
which is soluble in most organic solvents. According to previous
studies, the presence of capric acid will increase the biodiesel
oxidation stability and fuel flow properties [71,72]. However, fuel
CN, cloud point, and stability will increase with the presence of
saturated fatty acid alkyl ester in fuel blend [73].Chemical structures
and physical properties such as water-insolubility, hydrophobicity and
solubility in nonpolar organic solvents are similar between oils and
fats. However, the main differences between them are the very high
fatty acids content in fats and the various distributions of fatty acids.
Most of animal fats have high percentage of saturated compounds
(myristic, palmitic and stearic acid) which makes them tend to be solid
at room temperature. Table 2 shows the fatty acid composition of
some common animal fats.
5. Fuel properties of various biodiesel
5.1. Density
All biodiesel fuels regardless of feedstock type are denser and less
compressible than the diesel fuel [72]. One of the factors that
contribute to the increase in biodiesel density is molecular weight
of biodiesel [74]. The density of biodiesel is measured using ASTM
standard D1298 and EN ISO 3675 test methods [75]. Density of a fuel
has direct effects on the engine performance characteristics. Like
viscosity, the density and compressibility have very important
influences on the engine fuel injection system. The injected timing,
injection spray pattern and injection fuel amount are directly affected
by these parameters [76]. The higher density will increase the
diameter of the fuel droplets. Since the inertia of the big droplets is
big, their penetrations in the combustion chamber will be higher, as
well [77]. On the other hand, a fuel with lower density and viscosity
will improve the efficiency of atomisation and air–fuel mixture
formation. Thus, the change in fuel density will affect the engine
output power due to the different mass of injected fuel [78,79]. Fuel
590 W.N.M. Wan Ghazali et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 585–602

Table 4
Oil composition of various non-edible and edible oils [64].

Fatty acid composition (%) Molecular formula Non-edible oil Edible oil

Jatropha Rubber seed Castor Pongamiapinnata Soybean Palm Rapeseed

Oleic C18H34O2 43.1 24.6 3.0 44.5–71.3 23.0 40.0 64.1

Linoleic C18H32O2 34.3 39.6 4.2 10.8–18.3 51.0 10.0 22.3
Palmitic C16H32O2 14.2 10.2 1.0 3.7–7.9 10.0 45.0 3.5
Stearic C18H36O2 6.9 8.7 1.0 2.4–8.9 4.0 5.0 0.9
Linolenic C18H30O2 – 16.3 0.3 – 7.0 – –
Eicosenoic C20H38O2 – – 0.3 9.5–12.4 – – –
Ricinoleic C18H34O3 – – 89.5 – – – –
Dihydroxystearic C18H36O4 – – 0.7 – – – –
Palmitoleic C16H30O2 – – – – – – 0.1
Others – 1.4 – – – – – 9.1

density also induces the exhaust emissions. The density can be
correlated with particulate matter (PM) and NOx emission. The fuel
which has high density generally causes an increase in PM and NOx
emission in diesel engines [80,81].
5.2. Viscosity
The viscosity of an engine fuel is one of the most important
properties as it plays a dominant role in the fuel spray, mixture
formation and combustion process. Generally, kinematic viscosity
is determined using the ASTM D445 and EN ISO 3104 test methods
[82]. Similar to density, viscosity also affects the atomisation
quality, the size of fuel drop and the penetration. Therefore, it
influences the quality of combustion [83]. Low viscosity can cause
leakage in the fuel system while high viscosity causes poor flow of
fuel in the engine combustion chamber during intake stroke and
takes a long time to mix with air [75,84]. This scenario will result
to delayed combustion. Besides, high viscosity will increase the
engine deposits due to the incomplete combustion. High viscosity
also causes more problems in cold weather because viscosity
increases as the temperature decreases [71].
5.3. Flash point
The flash point is defined as the temperature at which the fuel
will start to burn when it comes to contact with fire [81]. At this
temperature, vapor stops burning if the source of ignition is
removed. It is used in shipping and safety regulations that define
flammable and combustible materials. Although this property does
not affect the combustion directly, it is important when regard with
storage, fuel handling and transportation. The common method for
measuring the flash point of biodiesel is by using the ASTM D93 and
EN ISO 3697 tests. The flash point of biodiesel will always be far
higher than diesel fuel regardless of whether the biodiesel is from
high-quality vegetable oils or from low-cost feedstocks, reflecting
the in volatile nature of the fuel [41]. There are several factors that
affect the change in biodiesel flash point, with residual alcohol
content being one of them [85]. In addition, the flash point is also
influenced by the chemical compositions of the biodiesel; including
the number of double bonds, number of carbon atoms, and so on
[86]. The flash point of biodiesel will be reduced after transester-
ification [87].
5.4. Cetane number
The cetane number is a very important property which acts as
the major indicator for fuel ignition quality. It can also be defined as
the measure of knock tendency of a diesel fuel. The lower cetane
number implies longer ignition delay. Long ignition delay is not
acceptable since it causes diesel knocking. Besides, the low cetane
number will increase gaseous and particulate exhaust emissions
(PM), due to incomplete combustion [88]. The cetane number of
biodiesel is higher than that of pure diesel due to its longer fatty
acid carbon chains and the presence of saturation in molecules
[70,89,90]. Generally, the higher the chain length, the higher the
cetane number value [91]. The higher value in cetane number is
considered to be a significant advantage in terms of engine
performance and emissions, allowing biodiesel-fuelled engines to
run more smoothly and with less noise [92]. On the other hand, too
high cetane number will make the fuel ignite in a short distance to
the injector and cause excessive heating of the injector. As the result
of the intense heating, cooked fuel particles inside the injector may
plug the injector nozzle [71].
5.5. Cloud and pour point
Pour points can be defined as the lowest temperature at which
the fuel can still flow and can be pumped, before it turns into a
cloud of wax crystals when cooled [81,93,94]. These formed crystals
may cause problems to the operation because they can plug the fuel
lines and filters. Regardless of its source all biodiesel have higher
cloud and pour points than conventional diesel fuel due to having
higher amount of saturated fatty acids, and this pour and cloud
point property is one of the most crucial obstacles against the
widespread biodiesel usage, especially in cold climate conditions
[95–97]. Generally, vegetable oil based biodiesel has lower cloud
and pour point than that of the biodiesel from fats and greases [72].
One alternative way to overcome the low-temperature problems of
biodiesel is to blend it with diesel fuel.
5.6. Calorific value
Calorific value is a very important fuel's feature, which represents
the amount of heat transferred into the chamber by means of a
chemical reaction during the combustion and indicates the available
energy in fuel [98,99]. The higher the calorific value, the higher is the
yield of the fuel and it is desired to have high calorific value because
it releases higher heat and consequently improves engine perfor-
mance during combustion [75]. Generally, the calorific value is
obtained experimentally using a calorimetric bomb. The calorific
value of biodiesel is lower (39–41 MJ/kg) compared with other liquid
fuels such as petrol (46 MJ/kg), diesel fuel (43 MJ/kg) or oil (42 MJ/
kg), but higher than coal (32–37 MJ/kg) [100]. The calorific value is
divided in inferior calorific power (ICP) and superior calorific power
(SCP). The difference between these two is that in the ICP water
becomes steam and in the SCP water is still liquid; this difference
between both is in the heating amount required to evaporate the
water in exhaustion gases [99]. The study shows that there is a direct
relationship between the calorific value and the size of the carbon
 W.N.M. Wan Ghazali et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 585–602 591

chain of ethyl esters. The longer the carbon chain of the ethyl ester
the higher calorific value [100].
Table 5 shows the fuel properties of various biodiesels from
different feedstocks
5.7. The effect of FAME on fuel properties
Fatty acid composition is an important property for any
biodiesel feedstock as it determines the efficiency process to
produce biodiesel. The percentage and type of fatty acids compo-
sition relies mainly on the plant species and their growth condi-
tions. The fatty acid composition and distribution of some oils are
generally aliphatic compounds with a carboxyl group at the end of
a straight chain. The most common fatty acids are C16 and C18
acids. However, some feedstock contain significant amount of fatty
acids other than the typical C16 and C18 acids [65].
The fuel properties of biodiesel are strongly influenced by the
properties of the individual fatty acid methyl esters in biodiesel. Both
moieties, the fatty acid and alcohol, can have considerable influence
on fuel properties such as cetane number with relation to combus-
tion and exhaust emissions, cold flow, oxidative stability, viscosity
and lubricity. Generally, cetane number, heat of combustion, melting
point and viscosity of neat fatty compounds increase with increasing
chain length and decrease with increasing unsaturation. It therefore
appears reasonable to enrich (a) certain fatty ester(s) with desirable
properties in the fuel in order to improve the properties of the whole
fuel. For example, iso-propyl esters have better fuel properties than
methyl esters. The major disadvantage is the higher price of iso-
propanol in comparison to methanol, besides modifications needed
for the transestrification reaction. It may be possible in the future to
improve the properties of biodiesel by means of genetic engineering
of the parent oils, which could eventually lead to a fuel enriched with
(a) certain fatty acid(s), possibly oleic acid, that exhibits a combina-
tion of improved fuel properties [173].
There is growing consensus regarding the fatty acid (FA)
profiles of vegetable oils and animal fats commonly used to
produce fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). Clear difference in carbon
chain length and degree of unsaturationare apparent from one
feedstock to the next. These differences influence the properties
and performance of biodiesel (FAME) and biodiesel blends. The
compositional profiles of common vegetable oils are dominated by
five fatty acid species: palmitic (16:0), stearic (18:0), oleic (18:1),
linoleic (18:2) and linolenic (18:3). The physical and chemical
properties of a biodiesel are determined by its chemical composi-
tion. Due to its considerable oxygen content, biodiesel has lower
carbon and hydrogen contents compared to petroleum diesel. This
results in a reduction in mass energy content of about 10%, but a
reduction in volumetric energy of only 5–7%. Two properties that
greatly influence the overall behaviour and suitability of FAME as a
diesel blendstock are: (1) the size distribution of the fatty acid (FA)
chains and (2) the degree of unsaturation within these FA chains.
Variations in biodiesel produced from different feedstocks can be
explained largely by these two properties. Some of the specifica-
tions are directly related to the chemical compositions of the
FAME, such as viscosity, cetane number, cloud point, distillation,
and iodine value. An increase in average unsaturation leads to
lower cetane number and poorer oxydation stability, but improved
low temperature performance [174,175]. in summary, properties
such as density, kinematic viscosity, iodine value, cetane number,
higher heating value and cold filter plugging point depend largely
on the unsaturation degree of biodiesel, i.e., on its methyl esters
distribution, or the fatty acids distribution of raw materials [176].
6. Biodiesel production techniques
The transesterification reaction proceeds with catalyst or with-
out any catalyst by using primary or secondary monohydric
aliphatic alcohols having 1–8 carbon atoms. Generally, alcohol
and triglycerides (vegetable oil and animal fat) are not miscible to
form a single phase of mixture. Hence, the poor surface contact
between these two reactants causes transesterification reaction to
proceed relatively slow. Introduction of catalysts improves the
surface contact and consequently reaction rates and biodiesel yield
as it is able to solve the problems of two-phase nature between
triglycerides and alcohol. However, without the presence of
catalysts, the reaction rate is too slow for it to produce consider-
able yield of biodiesel. Hence, researchers around the world have
been developing numerous alternative technologies which can
solve the problems facing catalytic reaction by using non-catalytic
processes [63].
6.1. Catalytic biodiesel production
Vegetable oils can be transesterified by heating them with an
alcohol and a catalyst. Catalysts used in biodiesel production are
divided in two general categories, homogenous and

Table 5
Fuel properties of different feedstocks [34,33,101–105].

Density (kg/l) Viscosity (mm2/s) Flash point (1C) Cetane Number Cloud Point (1C) Pour point (1C) Calorific value (MJ/kg)

Chicken fat 0.869 2.8 74 48
7 – N/A

Mutton fat 0.856 8.15 N/A 59
4
5 N/A
Beef tallow 0.832 4.89 152 N/A N/A 15 N/A
Lard 0.877 4.84 143.5 N/A N/A 7 36.5
Neem oil 0.912–0.965 20.5–48.5 34–285 51 N/A N/A 33.7–39.5
Jatropha 0.864–0.880 3.7–5.8 163–238 46–55 N/A 5 38.5–42
Rubber seed oil 0.860 5.81 130 37 4
8 36.5
Karanja 0.890 4.85 180 58 13–15
3 34–38
Palm oil 0.856 4.56 167.3 61 N/A N/A 39.8
Calophylluminophyllum 0.896 71.98 221 N/A N/A N/A 39.25
Cotton 0.912 50 210 41.2–59.5 N/A N/A 39.6
Pongamiapinnata 0.913 27.84 205 45–67 N/A N/A 34
Castor (Ricinuscommunis) N/A 297 260 N/A N/A N/A 39.5
Sunflower (Helianthus annus) N/A 37.1 274 37.1 N/A N/A 39.575
Rice bran 0.872–0.877 4.81–5.6 153 51.6 N/A N/A 36–39.6
Corn oil 0.884–0.890 4.17–4.21 88–192 60.9 N/A N/A 37.5
Mohr oil based 0.870 N/A N/A 56 N/A N/A 37.5
Canola oil 0.837–0.886 4.2–4.5 94–183 49–52.9 N/A N/A 36.55–40.5
Honge oil 0.870 5.84 170 N/A N/A N/A 36.1
Rapeseed oil 0.882 4.439 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
592 W.N.M. Wan Ghazali et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 585–602
heterogeneous types. If the catalyst remains in the same (liquid)
phase to that of the reactants during transesterification, it is
homogeneous catalytic transesterification. On the other hand, if
the catalyst remains in different phase (i.e., solid, immiscible liquid
or gaseous) to that of the reactants, the process is called hetero-
geneous catalytic transesterification. In catalytic methods, the
suitable selection of the catalyst is an important parameter to
lower the biodiesel production cost. So, commercial biodiesel is
currently produced by transesterification using a homogenous
catalyst solution. Another factor affecting the selection of catalyst
type is the amount of free fatty acid (FFA) present in the oil. For
oils having lower amount of FFAs, base catalysed reaction gives a
better conversion in a relatively short time while for higher FFAs
containing oils, acid-catalysed esterification followed by transes-
terification is suitable. It has been reported that enzymatic reac-
tions are in sensitive to FFA and water content in oil. Hence,
enzymatic reactions can be used in transesterification of used
cooking oil. Various studies have been carried out using different
oils as raw material, different alcohols (methanol, ethanol, buta-
nol), as well as different catalysts, including homogeneous ones
such as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and sulphuric
acid, and hetero geneous ones such as lipases, CaO and MgO. These
methods are classified as follow [63]:
 Homogeneous catalytic transestrification
▪ Homogeneous base catalytic transesterification.
▪ Homogeneous acid catalytic transesterification.
 Heterogeneous catalytic transestrification
▪ Heterogeneous solid-base catalytic transesterification.
▪ Heterogeneous solid-acid catalytic transesterification.
 Bio catalytic transesterification
6.2. Non-catalytic biodiesel production
In a catalytic reaction to produce biodiesel through tranestrifi-
cation, several processes, such as purification of the esters,
separation and recovery of un reacted reactants and catalysts,
are involved. These process render production of biodiesel through
a conventional transesterification system complicated, thus giving
a reason to investigate the production of biodiesel from triglycer-
ides via non-catalytic reactions. Beside catalytic methods, there
are two non-catalytic transesterification processes. These are the
super critical alcohol process and BIOX process. These methods are
classified as follow [63]:
 Super critical alcohol transesterification.
 BIOX co-solvent transesterification.
7. Engine performance and emissions
7.1. Engine performance parameters
Air turbulence, air–fuel mixture quality, fuel injection pressure,
ignition delay, fuel spray pattern, and fuel properties are among
the factors that influence the engine performance with biodiesel
and its blends. In addition, it can vary depending on the quality
and origin of biodiesel as well as engine operating parameters like
speed, load, etc. The performance indicators such as brake torque,
brake power, brake thermal efficiency (BTE), exhaust gas tempera-
ture (EGT) and brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) have been
evaluated in the most studies by using different types of biodiesel
in CI engine.
Ong et al. [106] studied the performance and emission character-
istics of a four stroke single cylinder, direct injection using jatropha
oil methyl ester blends at different speeds and full load condition.
The result showed a slight increase in torque and a clear improve-
ment in power and BSFC for B10. The reason for reduction in BSFC
indicates the complete combustion for B10 and the author concluded
that the 10% blends produce the best engine performance compared
to other blends. Therefore, jatropha biodiesel can be used as an
effective alternative fuel in diesel engines.
Ramadhas et al. [107] investigated the engine performance and
emissions of a naturally aspirated four stroke single cylinder Canon
engine with 5.5 kW rated power using methyl ester of rubber seed
oil. They found that the maximum BTE achieved by B10 is about 28%
compared to diesel which is only 25%. In addition, the BSFC of the
engine for lower percentage of biodiesel in biodiesel–diesel blends
was observed to be lower than that of diesel for all loads. As a
conclusion, the unrefined rubber seed oil can be a prospective fuel
or performance improving additive in CI engines.
An et al. [108] evaluated the performance and emission of a
common-railed diesel operated engine with waste cooking oil
using B100 (100% waste cooking oil), B50 (50% blend), B20 (20%
blend) and B10 (10% blend) at different rpm (1200–3600). There is
a slight improvement in maximum torque for B10 compared to
diesel. At higher load conditions, it is found that B100 has higher
BTE than diesel. The average BTE value of B100 increases by 5.1% at
100% load, but decreases by 10.7% at 10% load, leaving 50% load as
a transition where no increase or decrease in average BTE is
observed. The test results shows that with the increase in biodiesel
blend ratio, the exhaust gas temperature value decreases. The
same trend was reported by Muralidharan and Vasudevan [109]
that the exhaust gas temperature decrease for waste cooking oil
and diesel blends when compared to that of diesel.
Sureshkumar et al. [110] studied the effect of pongamiapinnata
methyl ester and its blend on engine performance by using single
cylinder, four-stroke Kirloskar engine at a constant speed (1500 rpm).
The author found that the BSFC for the blends B20 and B40 is lower
than and equal to that of diesel, respectively. From the experiment,
the author concludes that blends of PPME with diesel up to 40% by
volume (B40) could replace the diesel for diesel engine applications
providing less emissions and better performance and will thus help
in achieving energy economy and environmental protection.
Panwar et al. [111] investigated the effect of castor methyl ester
(CME) on combustion and performance characteristic using three
types of blends B5, B10 and B20. At maximum load, i.e., 145.29 kN,
B10 generated 1.5%, 1.76%, and 0.75% more brake power when pure
diesel, B5, and B20 blends were used respectively. B10 also showed
a promising alternative for diesel because it gives lower BSFC than
that of diesel for all loads.
Aydin and Bayindir [112] compared the engine performance and
emission of a single cylinder, four-stroke direct injection constant
speed CI diesel engine (Rainbow-186) using cottonseed oil methyl
ester (CSOME). The result showed that the torque for B5 was obtained
slightly higher than other fuels including diesel. As the percentage of
the blends increased, the torque decreased. This most likely attributed
to the higher viscosity and lower heating value of CSOME [113]. It was
observed that at lower engine speed the BSFC of B20 were lower than
those of other fuels. The experimental results concluded that the lower
contents of CSOME in the blends can partially be substituted for the
diesel fuel without any modifications in diesel engines.
Buyukkaya [114] analysed the effect of turbocharger on the
performance and exhaust emissions of a four-stroke six cylinder
direct injection engine fuelled with biodiesel from rapeseed oil
and its blend (B5, B20, B70, B100) at full load condition and speeds
ranging between 1000 rpm to 2100 rpm. At 2000 rpm, the BTE
values are 0.427, 0.425, 0.425, 0.424 and 0.423 for B20, B5, B70,
B100 and diesel fuels, respectively. It was observed that the BTE for
all biodiesel blends were higher than that of diesel. That may
attributed to the additional lubricant provided by biodiesel.
 W.N.M. Wan Ghazali et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 585–602 593

Similarly, a study done by Labeckas and Slavinskas [115] on 4750
cc engine using same biodiesel obtained higher BTEs with 5–10%
blends.
Pal et al. [116] evaluated the performance and exhaust emission
characteristics using petrol diesel as the baseline fuel and several
blends (B10, B20, B30) of biodiesel from thumba oil in four cylinder
diesel engine. For all blends variation of biodiesel, BTE is higher as
compared to pure diesel for wide range of engine speed. The maxi-
mum thermal efficiency achieved by using B30 blend is around 26.5%
at 2000 rpm which is 5% higher as compared to pure diesel. The BSFC
for B-30 of Thumba oil is lowest between the rpm range of 2000–4500
which is between 0.33 kg/kW h and 0.38 kg/kW h. In case of all
Thumba biodiesel blends BSCF values are significantly lower as com-
pared to pure diesel for a wide range of engine speed. This trend

Table 6
Performance and emissions of different sources of biodiesel fuel engine compared to diesel fuelled engine increased/decreased % (vs. diesel).

Biodiesel Blends Ref. Power Torque BSFC BTE EGT NOx CO CO2 HC

Neem oil B5, 10, 20, 50, B100 [31] ↑ – ↓4.8% ↑12.2% – ↑52% ↓16% – ↓33%
Jatropha oil B10, 20, 30, B50 [106] ↑4.5% ↑8.8% ↓13% ↑2.97% ↑24% ↑27.25% ↓16.3% ↑13.08% ↓7.4%
Kapok seed oil (Ceibapentandra) B10, 20, 30, B50 [106] ↑5% ↑10% ↓15% ↑9.8% ↑20% ↑27% ↑14% ↓ ↓
Rubber seed oil B10, 20 50, 75, [107] ↑ – ↑14% ↑12% ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓ ↓
B100
Waste cooking oil B10,20, B50 [108] ↑ ↓1.9% ↑2.1% ↑5.1% ↓16.7% ↑ ↑ 10.2%↓ ↓
Pongamiapinnata B20–B100 [110] – – ↓25.57 – – ↓ ↓ ↑ ↓
Castor seed oil [111] ↑1.5% ↑ ↓15% ↑14.14% ↑
Cottonseed oil B5, 20, 50, 75, B100 [112] ↓ ↓10.4% ↑3.57% – ↓15.8% ↓ ↓ – ↓
Rapeseed oil B5, 20, B70 [114] ↓8% ↓4% ↑7.5% ↑10% ↑ ↑12% ↓25% – ↓
Thumba oil B30 [116] ↑16.7% ↑20.8% ↑39% ↑27% – – – – –
Tall oil B50, 60, B70 [117] – – ↑3.08% ↑ ↑ ↑ 38.9%↓ – –
Algal oil B5, 10, B15 [118] ↑2.67% ↑1.5% ↓ ↑4% – ↑15% ↓10% – ↓16%
Canola oil–hazelnut soapstock B5, B10 [119] ↑ – ↑11.7% ↑7.69% – ↑ ↓ – ↓
mixture
Palm oil and coconut oil mixture B30 [120] ↓3.89% ↓3.96% ↑8.58% ↓5.03% – 5.6%↑ 17.9%↓ – 31.2↓
Crude Calophylluminophyllum oil B10, 20, 30 B50 [121] – – ↓3.4% ↑3.55% ↑2% ↑43% ↑15.3% – –
Fish oil B100 [122] – – ↑8% ↑16% – ↑ ↓25% ↓57% ↓
Jojoba oil B100 [123] ↑9.8% ↑ ↓8.2% ↑ – ↓14% ↑ – ↑
Tobacco oil B20 [124] ↑2.5% ↑ ↓1.5% ↑3% – ↓9.5% ↓10% ↑ ↓
Linseed oil B5, 10, 15, B20 [125] ↑ ↑ ↓4–6% ↑10– – ↑ ↓ ↓ ↓
12%
Soybean oil B10, 20, B30 [126] ↑1.15% ↑ ↓1.73% ↑4.16% – – – – –
Sunflower oil B100 [127] ↑2.6% ↑1.5% ↑13% ↑ ↓2.4% – – – –
Rice bran oil B25, 35,B45 [128] ↓14.3% – ↓12.2% ↑16.03% – ↓ ↓ – ↓
Camelinasativa oil B100 [129] ↑3.3% ↑1.5% ↑20.8% ↑15.6% – ↑30% ↑40% – ↑5.26%
Croton oil (Croton megalocarpus) B20, B100 [130] – – ↑14.24% ↓2.1% – ↑11% ↑ – ↓
Apricot seed kernel oil B5, 20, 50, B100 [131] ↑10% ↑ ↑ ↑4.8% – ↑ ↓ ↑ ↓
Deccan hemp oil B25, 50, 75, B100 [132] ↑ – ↑ ↓0.04% – – ↑71.4% – ↑33.3%
Paradise oil and eucalyptus oil B20, B40 [133] ↑ – – ↑2% ↑11% ↑7.4% – – ↑12%
Karanja oil B20, 40, B60 [134] ↑14.81% – – ↑17% – – – – –
Mahua oil B5, 10, 15 B20 [135] ↑ – ↓25% ↑20% – ↓ ↓30% ↑ ↓
Radish oil (Raphanussativus) B20, B100 [136] ↑ – ↑20% – – – – – –
Moringaoleifera B5, B10 [138] ↓4.22% – ↑5.13% – – ↑8.46% ↓23.5% ↑ ↓18.42%
Soybean crude oil B10, 20, 30, B40 [139] ↓5% – ↑12% – – 5%↓ 27%↓ – 27↓
Sunflower oil B10, B20 [144] – – ↑4.35% ↑4.45% – ↑ ↓ – ↓
Jojoba oil B20 [145] ↓20% ↓16.66% ↑11.5% ↓15% – ↓ ↑ ↑ –
Citrus sinensis B5, 10, B20 [146] ↓12% ↓12.3% – – – ↑ ↓ – –
Tallow methyl ester B5, 20, 50, B100 [147] ↓4% – ↑15% ↓12.7% – 11.5%↓ ↓14.5% – ↓
Mahua oil B85, 90, 95, B100 [148] – – ↑6% ↓2% ↑2.7% ↑ ↓ – ↓,
Jatropha oil B100 [149] ↓ ↓ ↑ ↓ – ↑ – ↑ ↓
Alexandrian laurel oil B10, B20 [150] ↓2.1% ↓1.81% ↑1.78% – – 8.32%↑ ↓ – ↓,
Microalgae B20 [151] ↓5% ↓2.7% ↑10.9% – – ↑ ↓ – ↓
Mustard oil B10, B20 [152] ↓7% ↓11% ↑8–13% – – 12%↑ 40%↓ – 42%↓,
Animal fat residue B100 [153] ↓9% ↓ – ↓ – ↑ ↓ – 32–
45%↓
Palm oil B20, B100 [154] ↓0.68– ↓ ↑4.03– – – 9.8– 8.6– – 9.1–
1.02% 4.71% 12.6%↑ 12.3%↓ 12%↓
Karanja oil B5, 10, 20, 50, B100 [155] ↑↓ ↑0.7%–↓1.4% ↓↑ – – ↑ ↓ – ↓
Terebinth oil B10, B50 [156] ↓13% ↓18% ↑14% – – ↑ ↓ ↓ ↓
Eucalyptus oil B25, 50, B75 [157] ↓ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓
Waste anchovy fish oil B25, 50, B75 [158] ↓5.16% ↓4.14% ↑4.96% – ↑ 29.37%↑ 21.30%↓ 4.58%↓ 33.42%↓
Pistacia chinensis Bunge seed oil B10, 20, B30 [159] – – – – – ↓ ↓ – ↓
Tobacco oil B2, B5 [160] – – ↑4–8% ↓ – 35%↓ – ↓ ↑
Shea butter B5, 10, 20, B100 [161] ↓ ↓ ↑14.34% ↓1.15% – ↑ ↓ – ↓
Sunflower oil B20, B40 [162] – – ↑10–15% ↑4% ↓ 25%↓ ↓ – ↓
Corn oil, Olive oil B10, B20 [163] ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ – ↑ ↑ – ↑
Cashew nut shell liquid B25 [164] – – ↑ ↑ – ↓ ↑ – ↑
Rice bran oil B10, B100 [165] – – ↑27.63% ↑2.91% ↓6.93% ↑ ↓ ↑ ↑
Chicken fat B20, 40, B100 [166] ↑ – ↑ ↑ – ↑ ↓ – ↓
Croton oil B10, B15 [167] – – ↑ – – – – ↓ ↑
594 W.N.M. Wan Ghazali et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 585–602
encourages the possibility of further investigations to increase in the
percentage of biodiesel blending during experimentation.
Altiparmak et al. [117] investigated the performance and exhaust
emissions using 50%, 60% and 70% tall biodiesel blends with diesel
fuel on an unmodified diesel engine. The experimental results show
that engine performance with biodiesel of tall oil and its blends
were comparable to the performance of diesel fuel. A slight increase
in torque (6.1%) and engine power (5.9%) was achieved at higher
speed for blended biodiesel compared to pure diesel. The author
concludes that tall oil blend can be used as alternative fuel in
conventional diesel engines without any major modification. Har-
iram and Mohan [118] studied engine performance and emission on
a single cylinder, naturally aspirated, four-stroke direct injection
diesel engine operating with diesel and algal oil methyl ester. The
results indicated that the BTE for all blends (B5, B10, and B15) were
clearly higher than diesel.
Öztürk [119] tested the 5% and 10% mixture of canola oil and
hazelnut soapstock blends with pure diesel on a direct injection,
naturally aspirated, air-cooled single cylinder. He found that the
injection and ignition delays and the maximum heat release rates
decreased with the biodiesel addition while the injection and
combustion durations increased. Habibullah [120] concluded that
the combined blend of palm and coconut oil shows superior
performance in term of BTE over individual coconut and palm
biodiesel blends.
An experiment was conducted by Ong et al. [121] on a single
cylinder direct injection diesel engine using Calophylluminophyl-
lum biodiesel blends. The 10% Calophylluminophyllum biodiesel
blends (B10) gave a satisfactory result in diesel engines as the BTE
increased by 2.30% and fuel consumption decreased by 3.06%
compared to diesel. Kapok seed (Ceibapentandra) oil was blended
with diesel fuel (B10, B20, B30 and B50) to be used as fuel in a
diesel engine in a series of experiments conducted by Ong et al.
[106]. The general BSFC was found to decrease in B10 compared to
diesel fuel. Dhar et al. [31] evaluated the performance and exhaust
emission characteristics using petrol diesel as the baseline fuel and
several blends (B5, B10, B20, B50 and B100) of biodiesel from
neem oil in single cylinder diesel engine. BTE was observed to
have increased for all blends compared to pure diesel. Presence of
oxygen in the biodiesel molecules improve the combustion effi-
ciency of biodiesel hence its BTE increases with respect to pure
diesel.
Swaminathan and Sarangan [122] compared the performance
and exhaust emissions using fish oil biodiesel on an unmodified
diesel engine. The experiments showed that the BTE is higher for
all loads when operated with biodiesel fish oil when compared
with diesel. A series of experiments has been conducted by Saleh
[123] to study the effect of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) on
diesel engine operating with jojoba oil methyl ester. The results
showed that the BTE was slightly higher than diesel fuel with the
increase of engine speed. In addition, BSFC is 8.2% and 9.8% lower
than diesel fuel when operating at 1200 and 1600 rpm speed.
Parlak et al. [124] investigated the effects of steam injection on
performance and emissions of a diesel engine fuelled with tobacco
seed oil methyl ester and found that steam injection into the
engine fuelled with B20 fuel improved torque, effective power,
effective efficiency and BSFC. Jindal and Salvi [125] reported that at
full load, blends with 10% of linseed oil (B10) give higher indicated
thermal efficiency (10% to 12%) and lower specific fuel consump-
tion (4% to 6%) compared to pure diesel fuel.
Bueno et al. [126] analysed the effect of turbocharger on the
performance and exhaust emissions of a four-stroke six cylinder
direct injection engine fuelled with biodiesel from soybean oil and
its blend (B5, B10, B15, B20, B30) at full load condition and speeds
ranging between 1400 rpm to 3200 rpm.With respect to diesel
fuel and in full load conditions, average reductions of 1.16%,1.73%,
0.55% and 0.36% were observed in the BSFC for B5, B10, B15 and
B20 blends, respectively. For the torque, the following average
variations were observed for the analysed blends with relation to
diesel fuel: B5 (þ 0.40%); B10 (þ1.15%); B15 (
0.37%); B20
(
1.67%); B25 (
2.83%); B30 (
4.76%). Haşimoğlu et al. [127]
investigated the performance characteristic of a low heat rejection
(LHR) diesel engine operating with sunflower biodiesel. The
results showed that BSFC and the BTE were improved and exhaust
gas temperature before the turbine inlet was increased for both
fuels (biodiesel and diesel) in the LHR engine. Narasimha and
Rajesh [128] studied the performance and emission characteristics
of diesel engine fuelled with rice bran oil and concluded that the
BTE increased and BSFC decreased with all blends (B25, B35, B45)
when compared to pure diesel fuel. Kruczyński [129] evaluated the
performance and emission of CI engine fuelled with camelinasa-
tiva oil. The engine speed characteristics show that it is possible to
obtain higher torque for the engine fuelled with camelinasativa oil.
However, the results of the measurements of fuel consumption
show that the engine specific fuel consumption is much higher for
this fuel.
Kivevele et al. [130]analysed the effect of antioxidant added to
Croton megalocarpus methyl ester fuel blends on a turbocharged
direct injection four-cylinder diesel engine. They found that the
BTE for blends B20 is slightly lower than pure diesel. Gumus and
Kasifoglu [131] conducted a series of experiments using apricot
seed kernel oil blends as fuels. They found that lower percent of
blends (B5, B20) give a good improvement in the engine power.
Hebbal et al. [132] investigated the performance and exhaust
emissions using 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% deccan hemp oil blends
with diesel fuel on an unmodified diesel engine. The experimental
results show that engine performance with biodiesel of deccan
hemp oil and its blends were comparable to the performance of
diesel fuel. BSFC of 50% blend closely matches with pure diesel,
followed by 25% blend. In a recent study by Devan and Maha-
lakshmi [133], various proportions of paradise oil and eucalyptus
oil were prepared on a volume basis and used as fuels in a single
cylinder, four-stroke DI diesel engine, to study the performance
and emission characteristics of these fuels. The results showed
that the BTE of the 50% paradise oil and 50% of eucalyptus oil
blend was better than that of other blends including diesel fuel.
Based on the above literature a comprehensive table is pre-
pared showing the work done by various researchers on engine
performance using biodiesel from different sources as the engine
fuel (Table 6).
7.2. Engine emission parameters
A lot of studies have been done to investigate the effect of the
biodiesel and its blends on exhaust emissions as compared to
diesel. Table 7 shows the effect of different types of biodiesel
blends on exhaust emissions as compared to diesel.
Exhaust emissions and durability characteristics using coconut
oil methyl ester and its blends with diesel was tested by Habi-
bullah et al. [120] by using single cylinder TF 120 M direct
injection naturally aspirated engine. They found that the average
HC emissions was reduced by 31.21% and this results may
attributed to the better conversion of HC resulting from higher
CN together and oxygen content. The lower carbon content of
biodiesel compared to diesel fuel is the main reason to the
significant decrease in CO emissions [137]. The presence of oxygen
in biodiesel blends also enabled complete combustion, which
ensured the formation of less CO compared with that in diesel.
An et al. [108] reported that the use of waste cooking oil
generally resulted in lower CO2 and HC emissions due to the
presence of oxygen atom and biodiesel had a lower carbon to
hydrogen ratio. Sureshkumar et al. [100] studied the effects of
 W.N.M. Wan Ghazali et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 585–602 595

Table 7
Engine combustion parameters using compared to diesel fuelled engine.

Biodiesel Engine type Fuel type Reference Increased/decreased % (vs. diesel)

Cylinder pressure Peak cyl. Start of Ignition Heat Combustion

pressure combustion delay release duration
diesel–rice bran oil Mahindra 4 cyl. DI B20 Sinha, Agarwal. 2%↑ ↑4.5% – – – –
biodiesel blend diesel engine [168]
Methyl ester–eucalyptus Single cylinder 4– B10, B20 Devan, ↑ due to lower Cetane ↑ ↑ – – –
Blends and diesel stroke Kirloskar engine Mahalakshmi Number of biodiesel
[133]
Hazelnut Kernel ME Direct Injection CI B0,20 B100 (Gumus, 2010) ↓6% ↓ ↑22% ↓9.4% ↓11.87% ↓10.3%
engine [169]
rapeseed oil biodiesel DI diesel engine B0,5,20 70 Ekrem ↓4.98% ↓ ↑20.37% ↓32.3% ↓11.87% ↓14%
B100 Buyukkaya
[170]
waste cooking oils Euro IV diesel engine B0, 10 50 An et al. [171] ↓1.6% ↓5.8% – ↓4.2% ↓4.2% ↓1.8%
biodiesel B100
waste oil, rapeseed oil 4–cyl., DI turbo–charg. B0, 10 20, 50 Tesfa et al. ↑1.3% ↑2% – ↑3.5% ↑4% ↑
and corn oil biodiesel diesel engine 75 B100 [172]

exhaust emissions characteristics of a CI engine fuelled with
Pongamiapinnata methyl ester (PPME) and its blends with diesel.
They found that the reduction of NOx for B40 and B60 was
remarkable and the HC emissions are almost nil for all PPME
blends. Besides, they also found that the CO concentration is
totally absent for the blends of B40 and B60 for all loading
conditions.
The Moringaoleifera methyl ester (MOME) and diesel blend in
multi cylinder engine was tested by Mofijur et al. [138]. They
concluded that B5 and B10 blends reduced the average CO
emissions of diesel by 5.37% and 10.60% respectively, and reduced
the HC emissions of diesel fuel by 3.94% and 9.21%, respectively.
However, B5 and B10 have a slight increase in NOx than diesel fuel
by 3.99% and 8.46%, respectively, and also a slight increase in CO2
emissions of diesel fuel by 2.25% and 4.96%, respectively.
Qi et al. [139] tested the use of soybean oil methyl ester (SOME)
in diesel engine and observed reduction of about 5.00% in NOx,
27.00% in CO, 27.00% in HC and 52.00% in smoke production.
Another study done by Scholl and Sorenson [140] using SOME
obtained the similar results. They reported that CO, NOx, and
smoke emissions were slightly lower than diesel whereas HC
emissions showed 50% reduction compared to diesel. In addition,
Schumacher et al. [141] tested a heavy-duty engine exhaust by
using SOME blends and concluded that fuelling an engine with
biodiesel/diesel fuel blends reduced particulate matter (PM),
hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO), while increasing
oxides of nitrogen (NOx).
The cottonseed oil methyl ester (CSOME) and diesel blend in a
single cylinder air-cooled diesel engine was tested by Aydin and
Bayindir [112]. They reported that the CO emissions decreased
with biodiesel usage. Karabektas et al. [142] experimented with
preheated CSOME and obtained similar results.
Ramadhas et al. [107] studied the effect of exhaust emission on
a four stroke, direct injection, naturally aspirated single cylinder
using rubberseed oil methyl ester and its blends with diesel and
found that the engine emits more CO using diesel as compared to
that of biodiesel blends under all loading conditions. By using the
same fuel blends, Nabi et al [143] found that besides CO, there was
also the reduction in particulate matter (PM) and smoke.
Rakopoulos et al. [144] carried out a series of tests on a six-
cylinder, turbocharged and after-cooled, direct injection (DI)
Mercedes-Benz mini-bus diesel engine with blends of sunflower
oil and diesel fuel as fuel. The reduction in smoke density and soot
density was reported with the use of all biodiesel blends with
respect to that of the pure diesel. Shehata and Razak [145]
analysed the emission characteristics on a CI engine fuelled with
jojoba oil methyl ester blends with diesel. They observed the CO
concentration with pure diesel fuel is less than biodiesel blends.
On contrast NOx concentrations for pure diesel fuel is higher than
jojoba oil blends.
The citrus sinensis biodiesel was blended with conventional
diesel fuel with volumetric ratios of 5%, 10% and 20% and was
tested on a four cylinder, naturally aspirated, direct injection diesel
engine by Tuccar et al. [146]. They observed the reduction in CO
emissions whereas NOx values increased with citrus sinensis
biodiesel. Altiparmak et al. [117] studied the use of tall oil methyl
ester blends as alternative fuel and affirmed that the fuel blends
had the advantage of decreasing CO emissions up to 38.9%.
Oner and Altun [147] investigated the emission characteristics
of a diesel engine operating on tallow methyl ester and its 5%, 20%
and 50% blends with diesel fuel. They found that the exhaust
emissions from biodiesel and its blends, at the range of tests, are
lower than that of pure diesel fuel. The lowest CO and NOx
emissions were obtained for B20 among all other fuels. The
reductions in exhaust emissions made biodiesel and its blends a
suitable alternative fuel for diesel and thus could help in control-
ling air pollution. By using the mixture of canola oil and hazelnut
soapstock, Öztürk [119] reported that the CO, HC and smoke
emissions is decreased while NOx emission is increased. Nayak
and Pattanaik [148] investigated the emissions characteristics of
mahua biodiesel using additive and it is seen from the results that
both HC and CO missions tend to decrease with increase in
additive percentage in biodiesel while the smoke and NOx emis-
sions are increased when compared to diesel fuel.
Paul et al. [149] did an experimental and numerical investiga-
tion of the performance, combustion and emission characteristic
of a diesel engine fuelled with jatropha biodiesel. In respect of
emission characteristics, NOx emission is found to increase with
load as well as use of biodiesel in both experimental and
simulation study. Rizwanul Fattah et al. [150] investigated the
performance and emission study using 10% and 20% blends of
Alexandrian laurel (Calophylluminophyllum) in a 55 kW, 2.5 L,
four-cylinder indirect injection diesel engine and found that the
exhaust emissions of HC, CO and smoke were much better than
pure diesel but not for NOx emission. NOx emission was increased
by 2.12–8.32% compared to diesel. Tüccar et al. [151] compared
the emission characteristics between pure diesel and 20% of
microalgae blend together with 80% of pure diesel. They claimed
that the smoke emitted using the B20 blends fuel is reduced by
3.1% compared when using pure diesel. A 2.5 L four-cylinder
Mitsubishi Pajero diesel engine was used by Ahmed et al. [152] by
using mustard oil (Brassica juncea) blends as fuel. They found that
the engine emissions and noise tests showed 9–12% higher NO,
24–42% lower HC, 19–40% lower CO and 2–7% lower noise
596 W.N.M. Wan Ghazali et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 585–602
emission for mustard oil blends compared to diesel fuel. Ong
et al. [106] found that 10% blends of kapok seed oil (Ceibapentan-
dra)can reduce HC, CO2, and smoke emissions but increase the
percentage of NOx and CO emissions.Awad et al. [153] investi-
gated the exhaust emissions of animal fat residue (AFR) on a
single cylinder naturally aspirated air-cooled diesel engine and
reported that PM and HC emissions were reduced drastically as
the load increased. The NOx emissions were increased at low
loads by 20%.
Rizwanul Fattah et al. [154] investigated the effect of antiox-
idant on the performance and emission characteristics of a diesel
engine fuelled with palm biodiesel blends. When using the palm
oil blends as fuel, the NOx emission increased with regard to pure
diesel but antioxidant addition to the blends has shown a positive
impact on reducing NOx emission. The karanja oil methyl ester
(KOME) and diesel blend in multi cylinder engine was tested by
Dhar and Agarwal [155]. They observed the reduction in HC, CO
and smoke emissions but not in NOx. The engine experimental
results conducted by İlkılıç et al. [156] by using terebinth oil blends
as fuel showed that exhaust emissions including carbon monoxide
(CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and hydrocarbons (HC) were reduced
for all biodiesel fuel mixtures. However, a slight increase in oxides
of nitrogen (NOx) emission was experienced for biodiesel mixtures.
A series of experiments was carried out by Dhar et al. [31] to
study the performance, emission and combustion characterisa-
tion of neem oil blends as fuel. At lower engine loads, CO
emissions for all biodiesel blends are close to pure diesel. At
higher engine loads, all the biodiesel blends except 50% blend
show significant reduction in CO emissions. Increase in the
emission of NO was observed in comparison with pure diesel
for all biodiesel fuelled engines. Tarabet et al. [157] studied
eucalyptus biodiesel as an alternative to diesel fuel. In the
studies, they found that neat eucalyptus biodiesel and its blends
present significant improvements of carbon monoxide, unburned
hydrocarbon, and particulates emissions especially at high loads
with equivalent performances to those of diesel fuel. However,
the NOx emissions are slightly increased when the biodiesel
content is increased in the blend.
Behçet [158] evaluated the performance and emission of a
single-cylinder diesel operated engine with waste anchovy fish oil
using B25 (25% blend), B50 (20% blend) and B75 (75% blend) at
different rpm (1000–2500). There has been average reduction as
4.576%, 21.3%, and 33.42% in CO2, CO, HC, respectively; on the other
hand, there has been increase as 9.63%, 29.37% and 7.54% in O2,
NOx and exhaust gas temperature has been observed. A study on
emissions of a direct injection diesel engine fuelled with Pistacia
chinensis Bunge seed biodiesel–diesel blend (B10, B20 and B30)
has been done by Zhihao et al. [159]. It is reported that CO, HC and
exhaust smoke emissions with the increase of the proportions of
biodiesel in the blends. The NOx emissions are reduced as the
engine operating with B10 and B20, but slightly increased with
B30. Murthy [160] analysed the performance of tobacco oil based
biodiesel in a single-cylinder direct injection engine and observed
a remarkable decrease in NOx emissions compared to pure diesel
fuel. Jindal and Salvi [125] reported that by using linseed oil
blends, the emission of CO and hydrocarbon and opacity were
reduced but there was slight increase in CO2 and NO emissions.
Enweremadu et al. [161] carried out a series of experiments on
shea butter methyl ester and found that the NOx emissions
increased with increase in biodiesel content in the fuel blends
while the emissions of CO, HC and smoke opacity decreased. Rajan
and Senthilkumar [162] studied the effect of EGR on the perfor-
mance and emission characteristics of diesel engine with sun-
flower oil methyl ester (SFME). The results showed that for a
7.5 kW power output, B20 SFME with 15% EGR rate produce 25%
less NOx emissions compared to diesel fuel for the same level
smoke emissions.
Rakopoulos et al. [163] compared the environmental behaviour
of a turbo-charged direct injection six-cylinder bus engine operat-
ing on blends of diesel fuel with corn oil and olive oil. The series of
tests are performed using both fuel blends, with the engine
working at two speeds and three loads. The results showed that
other than emitted smoke which was reduced, all emissions such
as NOx, HC and CO were slightly increased with the use of all
vegetable oil blends with respect to those of the conventional
diesel fuel. A series of experiments were conducted by Vedharaj
et al. [164] to study the effect of a coated diesel engine fuelled by
cashew nut shell liquid biodiesel. They founded that the CO, HC,
and smoke emissions were increased while NOx emissions were
reduced compared to pure diesel fuel.
Based on the above literature a comprehensive table is pre-
pared showing the work done by various researchers on engine
emissions using biodiesel from different sources as the engine fuel
(Table 6).
The reasons for the decrease/increase of parameters have been
extracted from all references of Table 6, and has been described as
follow:
Brake power ↑:
 The output power increase with blending of biodiesel with
diesel fuel, indicating an improved combustion with the addi-
tion of biodiesel.
Brake power ↓:
 The measured engine power for diesel–biodiesel blends is
lower than that of the diesel fuel. Lower heating value of the
biodiesel is responsible for this reduction.
Torque ↑:
 This is mainly due to the lower calorific values of biodiesel and
blend fuels.
Torque ↓:
 The higher viscosity of biodiesel, which may affect the engine
brake effective power and engine torque especially in full-load
conditions, increases the mixture momentum and conse-
quently penetration depth in-cylinder. On the other hand, the
higher viscosity and surface tension of biodiesel prevent
sufficient breaking of the biodiesel during injection process.
Various reasons, most of them related to viscosity, have been
reported in the literature to explain the torque and power
recovery (with respect to the loss of heating value).
BSFC↑:
 The Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) of biodiesel is
higher than that of diesel fuel due to the lower LHV and higher
viscosity of biodiesel. The higher BSFC of biodiesel blends could
be due to the lower calorific values compared to petroleum
diesel. Therefore, the amount of fuel introduced to the cylinder
for a desired energy input has to be greater with the biodiesel.
 The higher fuel consumption of the biodiesel and their blends
could be primarily related to lower heating value of the
biodiesel. Another reason for the increase in bsfc with biodiesel
may be a change in them combustion timing caused by the
biodiesel's higher cetane number as well as injection timing
changes.
 W.N.M. Wan Ghazali et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 585–602
 This could be due to the significantly advanced fuel injection
timing.
 With relatively lower injection pressure, the higher kinematic
viscosity of biodiesel may predominate the fuel evaporation
process, resulting in a poorer fuel atomisation and mixing with
air, thereby a poorer combustion process and reduced thermal
efficiency. Biodiesel contains oxygen causes a lean combustion
process. the extra lean combustion environment created by
biodiesel worsens the engine efficiency and leads to a further
increase in BSFC.
BSFC↓:
 This is mainly due to the increase in brake thermal efficiency
with the biodiesel–diesel blends.
BTE ↑:
 The possible reason for the increase of brake thermal efficiency
with using biodiesel–diesel blends compared to neat diesel fuel
is due to additional lubricity provided by the biodiesel. This
improved efficiency was explained by authors with increased
lubricity of these blends as compared to diesel fuel.
BTE ↓:
 The reason for brake thermal efficiency decrease is insufficient
air causing incomplete combustion of the fuel.
 Brake thermal efficiency (BTE) is a parameter to represent how
efficiently an engine transforms the chemical energy of the fuel
into useful work. This parameter is the ratio determined by
brake power in the output shaft divided by the amount of
energy delivered to the system. The biodiesel blends BTE are
higher than that of D100. The higher viscosity and density of
the biodiesels and the lower cetane number of the biodiesel
compared to petroleum diesel could induce a higher ignition
delay and higher fuel consumption, and therefore reduce the
BTE for biodiesel.
 The fuel/air equivalence ratios of biodiesel–diesel blended fuels
are very low such that the oxygenated nature of biodiesel is not
an advantage any more. However, the higher kinematic visc-
osity of biodiesel predominates the fuel atomisation and mix-
ing with air, resulting in a poorer combustion process and
reduced brake thermal efficiency.
EGT ↑:
 Biodiesel fuel and its blends give higher exhaust gas tempera-
tures (EGT) than diesel fuel. The increase in exhaust gas
temperature is due to complete combustion of biodiesel.
EGT ↓:
 At some studies it was found that diesel fuel have the highest
temperature and the temperatures for the different blends
showed a downward trend with increasing concentration of
biodiesel in the blends. This is due to the improved combustion
provided by the biodiesel due to its dissolved oxygen content.
NOx ↑:
 It is known that NOx formation is dependent upon volumetric
efficiency, combustion duration and especially temperature
arising from high activation energy needed for the reactions
involved. Although the exhaust gas temperatures increased, the
597
NOx emissions were observed to increase. The increase in NOx
emissions was proportional to the amount of biodiesel.
 In addition, biodiesels contain higher oxygen component com-
pared to diesel fuel. So it is evident that there is higher oxygen
content to react with the nitrogen component in the surround-
ing air, resulting in a larger amount of NOx formation.
 Formation of NOx depends on in-cylinder temperature, ignition
delay and oxygen content in the fuel. Longer chain length and
higher amounts of unsaturated fatty acids in biodiesel have
been reported to correlate with increases in NOx emissions.
 Thermal NOx formation of biodiesels could be the result of
lower cetane numbers increasing ignition delay, resulting in an
increased rate of premixed combustion and peak heat release.
In addition, adiabatic flame temperature increases with the
increase in biodiesel carbon chain length, also favouring NOx
formation. Furthermore, biodiesels contain oxygen, which
improves combustion and subsequently raises the in-cylinder
temperature, thereby enhancing NOx formation.
NOx ↓:
 Decrease of NOx primarily is due to the increase in volumetric
efficiency and gas flow motion within the engine cylinder,
leading faster mixing between fuel and air, and shorter ignition
delay. The reaction time of each engine cycle was thereafter
reduces so that the residence time of the gas temperature within
the cylinder was shortened. This led to lower NOx emissions.
CO ↑:
 This may attribute to the higher viscosity of biodiesel.
 CO exhaust emissions increase with increased chain length of
fatty acid methylesters. This effect is clearer when pure
compounds are tested. This trend can be explained by the
higher oxygen content in the shorter fatty acid molecules,
which leads to a more complete and cleaner combustion.
Moreover, methyl esters with longer chain length have higher
boiling and melting points, so they are less likely to be
completely vaporised and burnt, thereby increasing CO
emissions.
CO ↓:
 Decrease of CO may be due to the oxygen content of the blends
and pure biodiesel. Poor atomisation and uneven distribution
of small portions of fuel across the combustion chamber, along
with a low gas temperature, may cause local oxygen deficiency
and incomplete combustion. Reduced CO emissions were
maintained, probably, thanks to the oxygen inherently present
in the biofuel, which makes it easier to be burnt at higher
temperature in the cylinder.
CO2 ↑:
 Biodiesel gave a more complete combustion and hence more
CO were transformed into CO2.
CO2 ↓:
 Biodiesel was a lower carbon fuel compared to diesel due to the
presence of oxygen atom and biodiesel has a lower carbon to
hydrogen ratio, so the total CO2 emission was found to be lower
with the use of biodiesel.
HC ↑:
598 W.N.M. Wan Ghazali et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 585–602
 HC exhaust emissions increase with increased chain length of
fatty acid methylesters. This effect is clearer when pure
compounds are tested. This trend can be explained by the
higher oxygen content in the shorter fatty acid molecules,
which leads to a more complete and cleaner combustion.
Moreover, methyl esters with longer chain length have higher
boiling and melting points, so they are less likely to be
completely vaporised and burnt, thereby increasing HC
emissions.
HC ↓:
 The increased gas temperature and the higher cetane number
as responsible for this decrease may be explained. Because
higher temperature of the burned gases pre-vented condensa-
tion of the heaviest hydrocarbons in the sampling line, suggest-
ing proper conditions for HC emission analysis. The higher
cetane number of biodiesel causes a decrease in HC emissions
due to the decrease in combustion delay.
 An in ability to reach the ignition temperature of fuel to be
oxidised or a lack of oxygen have been reported for the
presence of HC in the exhaust gases.The oxygen content in
biodiesel has been shown to pre-oxidise the air fuel mixture
leading to a reduction of HC emissions. Furthermore, an inverse
correlation between chain length and HC emissions has been
demonstrated.
 The use of biodiesel generally results in lower HC emissions
due to its cleaner combustion.
8. Combustion characteristics of CI engine fuelled with
biodiesel
Investigation of combustion parameters like cylinder pressure,
peak pressure, ignition delay, heat release and cumulative heat
release rate of biodiesel blends and diesel shows that the differ-
ence in in-cylinder peak pressure between diesel and diesel–
biodiesel blends is not significant and is within 1%. The ignition
of the biodiesel is earlier than that of diesel by about 1–211CA.
Both diesel and biodiesel fuels experience rapid premixed burning
followed by diffusion combustion as it is typical for naturally
aspirated engines. The instantaneous and cumulative heat release
rates of both fuels are quite close to each other. In general, the
combustion characteristics of biodiesel fuel blends and neat
biodiesel have resulted in the same characteristics as for normal
diesel combustion [177]. Combustion of fuels is one of the most
important processes which affect the performance and emission
characteristics as well as the engine durability. The important
parameters that signify the combustion process effectiveness are
in-cylinder pressure, ignition delay, combustion duration, heat
release and cumulative heat release rate [169]. In-cylinder pres-
sure can be measured directly from the engine and the other
combustion parameters can be calculated from the in-cylinder
pressure. The heat release rate is estimated from the first law of
thermodynamics using the in-cylinder pressure and the geometry
of cranck and connecting rod [172]. The other important combus-
tion parameters can be easily estimated from the heat release rate
variation over an engine cycle (Table 7).
9. Conclusions
Biodiesel is indigenous. Therefore, the choice of feedstock for
biodiesel often depends upon domestic source. Even though the
properties of the biodiesel are similar to the diesel, they are
influenced by the nature of the feedstocks. The discrepancy in
the properties of the biodiesel causes the variation in the nature of
the performance and emissions of the diesel engine. According to
the analysis of the above literature following conclusions can be
drawn:
1. A large number of the studies reported that biodiesel can
improve the combustion in the engine and hence has higher
BTE. Some studies reported that the power of diesel engine
increases with using of biodiesel–diesel blends (1.15–16.7%).
Most of the studies reported that the brake power for
biodiesel blends is slightly lower than pure diesel (3.8–20%
less than diesel fuel). The trend implies that higher the
percentage of biodiesel in the blends, the lower brake power
generated. The same applies to the torque. The torque values
are reduced when increasing the blending ratio of biodiesel
(1.4–18%). However, several research show that the blended
fuels with higher cetane number will improve the combus-
tion and thus, give higher values of torque (0.7–20.8%).
2. Most of the authors reported that the increase of BSFC when
using biodiesel may be contributed by higher density, viscosity
and calorific value of the biodiesel compared to pure diesel (2.1–
39%). However, several research show that the blended fuels
with higher cetane number will increase brake thermal effi-
ciency and thus, give less values of BSFC (1.5–25.57%).
3. It is reported by most of the authors that using biodiesel as a
fuel in diesel engines significantly reduces HC (7.4–45%), and
CO emissions (8.6–40%). This is occurred due to the higher
cetane number and higher oxygen contents in biodiesel
compared to diesel fuel. Moreover, advance injection timing
obtained by engine fuelled with biodiesel also favoured to
lower the total hydrocarbon emissions. However, several
research show that the blended fuels, give higher values of
HC (5.26–33.3%) and CO (15.3–71.4%).
4. Many authors concluded that the result of increase in NOx
emissions (5.6–52%) when using biodiesel is because of higher
oxygen contents of biodiesel. The higher oxygen contents will
contribute to complete combustion and therefore higher
combustion temperature. However, several researches show
that the blended fuels, give less values of NOx (5–35%).
5. The difference in in-cylinder peak pressure between diesel
and diesel–biodiesel blends is not significant and is within
1%. The ignition of the biodiesel is earlier than that of diesel
by about 1–211CA. The instantaneous and cumulative heat
release rates of both fuels are quite close to each other. In
general, the combustion characteristics of biodiesel fuel
blends and neat biodiesel have resulted in the same char-
acteristics as for normal diesel combustion.
6. it can be concluded that biodiesel production from different
feedstocks have potential as an alternative energy and the
use of biodiesel can lower the dependency on fossil fuel. The
obtained results showed that the mixture of the feedstocks
biodiesels can be used in diesel engines without any mod-
ification at low blend ratios (5–10% in vol.). However, for
higher blend ratios, detailed studies with and/or without
modification should be investigated.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge Universiti Malaysia
Pahang for financial support and Universiti Malaya for financial
support under Program Rakan Penyelidikan Universiti Malaya
(CG054-2013).
 W.N.M. Wan Ghazali et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 585–602
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