TE645 Optical Communication Lecture 2 PDF

University of Dar es Salaam
TE645: Optical Communication

Optical Fiber Structures and Waveguiding
Dr MM Kissaka
CoICT – ETE TE645

What is Light?
q Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum

that is visible to human eye
q In physics, the term light sometimes refers to

electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength,
whether visible or not
q The spectrum is the collection of all waves,

which include visible light, Microwaves, radio
waves ( AM, FM, SW ), X-Rays, and Gamma
Rays
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Wave/Particle Theory
q Is light made up of particles, or is it waves?
• Sir Isaac Newton theory: Light is made up of tiny

particles (particle Theory)
• Christian Huygens Theory: Light is made up of waves

vibrating up and down perpendicular to the direction
of the light travels (Wave Theory)
q Light is a wave motion, spreading out from a light

source in all directions
q Adopting a wave theory, Huygens was
able to derive the laws of Reflection and
Refraction
q The two theories are not appropriate when

dealing with interaction of light and matter
such as dispersion, emission and absorption of
light
q Quantum Theory is used which indicates

that optical radiation has particle as well as
wave properties
q The particle nature arises from the
observation that light energy is always
emitted or absorbed in discrete units called
quanta or photons
q As proposed by Einstein, light is composed of
photons, a very small packets of energy.
q The reason that photons are able to travel at

light speeds is due to the fact that they have
no mass
q Therefore, Einstein's equation E=mC2 cannot

be used.
q Another formula devised by Planck, is used to describe the
relation between photon energy and frequency - Planck's Constant
(h) = 6.62607015x10-34 Joule.second = 4.14x10-15eV.s
q In 1900 Max Planck proposed the existence of a light

quantum, a finite packet of energy which depends on the
frequency and velocity of the radiation given by:
E = hf or E = hc/λ
E is the photonic energy in Joules-second, h is Plank’s constant, f

is the frequency in Hz, λ is wavelength
q In a vacuum, or other uniform mediums, the
light waves are spherical, and these wave
surfaces advance or spread out as they
travel at the speed of light
q This theory explains why light shining through

a pin hole or slit will spread out rather than
going in a straight line (diffraction).
q Diffraction is ability light is a wave "bend

around corners".
Polarization of Light
q Light has properties both as a particle and as

a electromagnetic wave. Its electromagnetic
wave properties allow it to become polarized
q Light when considered by physics it has

properties of a particle and of a wave.
q The basic unit of light is the photon, and it is

this that gives it its particle properties
q On the other hand, because the photon is so small, it

can also be described by quantum physics as being a
wave, which causes it to behave like an energy beam that
can oscillate in many directions
q Light is a transverse electromagnetic wave
q Therefore a light wave traveling forward can vibrate up

and down (in the vertical plane), from side to side (in the
horizontal plane), or in an intermediate direction
q Ordinarily a ray of light consists of a mixture of waves vibrating in
all the directions perpendicular to its line of propagation
q Light that has oscillations in all directions is known as un-

polarized light
q Polarization is a property of certain types of waves that describes

the orientation of their oscillations.
q Electromagnetic waves, such as light exhibit polarization;

q In a beam of electromagnetic radiation the vectors of electric

field E and magnetic field H are perpendicular to the direction of
the light propagation
q The state of the direction perpendicular to the wave

propagation can be described by any of these two vectors.
q By convention, the polarization of light is described by

specifying the orientation of the wave's electric field (E) at a point
in space over one period of the oscillation.
q The waves are

moving in the
direction
indicated by
vector k
q When light travels in free space, in most cases it propagates as

a transverse wave, the polarization is perpendicular to the wave's
direction of travel
q In this case, the electric field may be oriented in a single

direction (linear polarization), or it may rotate as the wave
travels (circular or elliptical polarization)
Fresnel Equations
q In 1815, Augustin Fresnel supported Young's experiments with
mathematical calculations (Fresnel Equations)
He extended the wave theory of light by

discoverying mathematical deductions, building on
experimental work by Thomas Young,
The Fresnel equations describe the ratios of the

reflected and transmitted waves' electric fields to
Augustin-Jean Fresnel the incident wave's electric field
1788 - 1827
Fresnel Equations
q Fresnel's equations describe the reflection and transmission of

electromagnetic waves at an interface
q The equations relate the amplitude, phase, and state of

polarization of reflected and refracted light waves that arise when
light passes through a surface boundary between two transparent
dielectrics to the corresponding characteristics of the incident
wave.
Fresnel Equations
q In general, when a wave reaches a boundary
between two different dielectric constants,
part of the wave is reflected and part is
transmitted
q The sum of the energies in these two waves

equal to that of the original wave
q Since electromagnetic waves are transverse,

there are separate coefficients in the
directions perpendicular to and parallel to the
surface of the dielectric
Fresnel Equation
Maxwell’s Equations
q Conceptually, Maxwell's equations describe how

electric charges and electric currents act as
sources for the electric and magnetic fields.
q It also describes how a time varying electric

field generates a time varying magnetic field
and vice versa
q The four equations include Gauss's law, Gauss's

law for magnetism, Faraday's law and Ampere's
law with Maxwell's correction
q Gauss's law describes the relationship

between an electric field and the generating
electric charges
q Gauss's law for magnetism: magnetic field

lines never begin nor end but form loops or
extend to infinity
q Faraday's law describes how a time varying

magnetic field creates (induces) an electric field.
(electromagnetic induction)
q Ampere's law with Maxwell's correction
states that magnetic fields can be generated in
two ways:
q by electrical current (this was the original
Ampere's law)
q by changing electric fields (this was Maxwell's
correction)
q A changing magnetic field creates an electric
field, and a changing electric field creates a
magnetic field. Therefore, these equations allow
self-sustaining "electromagnetic waves" to travel
through empty space
q In electromagnetics, there are four fundamental
constitutive relationships to describe the
response of a medium to a variety of
electromagnetic input
q Two of them describe the relationship between

the electric field E and the conductive current J,
and the electric displacement D,
q The other two describe the relationship between

the magnetic field H and the magnetic induction
B, and the magnetic polarization M
q Quantitatively, these four relationships are:
where σ is the electric conductivity, ε the

dielectric permittivity, µ the magnetic
permeability, and χ the magnetic susceptibility.
James Clerk Maxwell

(1831-1879)
q The speed calculated for electromagnetic waves,
exactly matches the speed of light
q The equations yielded a prediction for the speed

of an electromagnetic wave in the ether that
turned out to be the measured speed of light,
suggesting its electromagnetic character
q From then on, light was viewed as a particular

region of the electromagnetic spectrum of
radiation
Wave Theory
q Light can exhibit both a wave theory, and a
particle theory at the same time
q Much of the time, light behaves like a wave
q Light waves are also called electromagnetic

waves because they are made up of both
electric (E) and magnetic (H) fields
q Electromagnetic fields oscillate

perpendicular to the direction of wave
travel, and perpendicular to each other
Wave Theory …..
q Waves have two important characteristics -
wavelength and frequency.
q Wavelength (λ): Distance between peaks of

a wave measured in meters. When dealing
with light, wavelengths are in the order of
nanometres (1 x 10-9)
q Frequency (f): This is the number of peaks

that will travel past a point in one second
measured in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz)
q The waveforms are always in the time domain and go on for infinity.
q When dealing with light waves, we refer to the sine wave
q The relationship of frequency and the period is given by the

equation: T = 1/f
Wave Theory ……
q The speed of a wave can be found by multiplying wavelength
and frequency. The wave's speed is measured in units of length
(distance) per second and is given by:
c= fλ
q The light wave speed in a vacuum is a universal constant,
about 300,000 km/s or 186,000 miles per second.
q The exact speed of light is: 299,792.458 km/s

Reflection and Refraction of plane waves
q When light moves from a medium of a given refractive index
n1 into a second medium with refractive index n2, both reflection
and refraction of the light may occur
Incident Ray
θi n1 > n2
Normal Line
θr θt
Reflected Ray Transmitted Ray
n1 n2
q When a light ray encounters a boundary separating two

different media, part of the ray is reflected back into the first
medium and the reminder is bent (refracted) as it enters the
second medium
q As shown in the figure above, where n1 > n2
q The bending of light ray at the interface is a result of the

difference in the speed of light in two materials that have
different indices
q When a light ray encounters a boundary separating two different

media, part of the ray is reflected back into the first medium and the
reminder is bent (refracted) as it enters the second medium
q The refractive index of a medium is a measure of how much the

speed of light is reduced inside the medium
q For example, typical glass has a refractive index of 1.5, which

means that in glass, light travels at 1/1.5 = 0.67 times the speed of
light in a vacuum
q Two common properties of glass and other
transparent materials are directly related to
their refractive index
(i) Light rays change direction when they

cross the interface from air to the
material
(ii) Light reflects partially from surfaces that

have a refractive index different from that
of their surroundings
q The refractive index, n, of a medium is defined as the ratio of the

velocity, c, of a wave phenomenon such as light in reference medium
to the phase velocity, v, in the medium itself:
c
n=
v
q The phase velocity is defined as the rate at which the crests of
the waveform propagate; that is, the rate at which the phase of the
waveform is moving
University
Wave Theoryof
……Dar es Salaam
q In the case of light
n = ε r µr
where εr is the material's relative permittivity, and μr is its relative
permeability.
q For most materials, μr is very close to 1 at optical frequencies, therefore

n is approximately
n = εr
q According to law of reflection

θi = θr
q The incident ray and the reflected ray all lie in the same plane
q When light travelling in a certain medium is reflected off an
optically less denser material is called Internal Reflection
q The relationship at the interface is known as Snell’s law given
by:
n1sinθi = n2sinθt
q As the angle of incidence θi in an optically denser material

becomes larger, the refracted angle approaches pi/2
q Beyond this point no refraction is possible and the light rays
become totally internally reflected
q When the refracted angle becomes pi/2, the transmitted light
ray will be parallel to the interface. The corresponding incident
angle is known as Critical Angle of Incidence θc
q The critical angle is the angle of incidence above which total
internal reflection occurs.
q The angle of incidence is measured with respect to the

normal at the refractive boundary. The critical angle θc is given
by:
⎛ n2 ⎞
θc = arcsin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ n1 ⎠
where n2 is the refractive index of the less dense medium, and n1
is the refractive index of the denser medium.
q For any angle of

incidence larger than the
critical angle, Snell's law
will not be able to be solved
for the angle of refraction
Characteristics of Optical Fibers
An optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or plastic fiber that carries

light along its length
Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which

permits transmission over longer distances and at higher
bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communications.
Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along
them with less loss, and they are also immune to electromagnetic
interference.
Light is kept in the core of the optical fiber by total internal

reflection. This causes the fiber to act as a waveguide.
Fibers which support many propagation paths or transverse

modes are called multi-mode fibers (MMF),
while those which can only support a single mode are called
single-mode fibers (SMF).
Although fibers can be made out of transparent plastic, glass, or a

combination of the two, the fibers used in long-distance
telecommunications applications are always glass, because of the
lower optical attenuation.
Both multi-mode and single-mode fibers are used in communications,

with multi-mode fiber used mostly for short distances, and single-
mode fiber used for longer distance links.
Because of the tighter tolerances required to couple light into and

between single-mode fibers, single-mode transmitters, receivers,
amplifiers and other components are generally more expensive
than multi-mode components.
Fibers are widely used in illumination applications. They are used

as light guides in medical and other applications where bright light
needs to be shone on a target without a clear line-of-sight path.
In some buildings, optical fibers are used to route sunlight from the
roof to other parts of the building
Optical fiber illumination is also used for decorative applications,

including signs, art, and artificial Christmas trees.
Fibers have many uses in remote sensing. In some applications, as

sensors. In other cases, fiber is used to connect a non-fiber-optic
sensor to a measurement system.
An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (nonconducting

waveguide) that transmits light along its axis, by the process of total
internal reflection.
The fiber consists of a core surrounded by a cladding layer, both of

which are made of dielectric materials.
To confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the
core must be greater than that of the cladding.
Structure of Optical Fiber Cable
Typical optical fibers are composed of core, cladding and buffer

coating.
The core is the inner part of the fiber, which guides light.
The core is a thin strand of very pure glass about the diameter of a
human hair
The cladding surrounds the core completely.
Buffer coating provides mechanical protection and bending flexibility

for the fiber.
The primary
A typical
buffer
size of
diameter is a
fiber
standard size
of many fibers
For the most common optical glass fiber types, which includes the
core diameter ranges from 8 to 62.5 µm (OFC dimensions are given
in µm)
The most common cladding diameter is 125 µm.
The material of buffer coating usually is soft or hard plastic such as

acrylic, nylon and with diameter ranges from 250 µm to 900 µm.
There are two Basic Fiber Structures: Tight Buffered fibers and
Coated fibers (also called bare fibers)
Two Basic Fiber Structures
Most of the fibers used in these OFCs have two basic

configurations:
900um tight buffered fibers
250um coated fibers
Tight buffered fibers the coating is soft plastic with a thick

layer of harder plastic, making it easier to handle and
providing physical protection.
The structure of a 250um coated fiber
Core (9um for standard single mode fibers, 50um or 62.5um for
multimode fibers)
Cladding (125um)
Coating (soft plastic, 250um is the most popular, sometimes
400um is also used)
The structure of a 900um tight buffered fiber
Core (9um for standard single mode fibers, 50um or 62.5um for
multimode fibers)
Cladding (125um)
Coating (soft plastic, 250um) Tight buffer (hard plastic, 900um)
Fiber Optic Cable Construction
Based on 900um tight buffered fiber and 250um coated fiber there
are two basic types of fiber optic cable constructions:
Tight Buffered Cable
Loose Tube Cable
Structure of Tight Buffered Cable
Multiple colour coded 900um tight buffered fibers can be packed

tightly together in a compact cable structure, an approach widely
used indoors, these cables are called tight buffered cables.
Elements in a tight buffered fiber optic cable
q Multiple 900um tight buffered fibers (around the central

strength member)
q Central strength member (in the center of the cable)
q Aramid Yarn (trade name Kevlar, Kevlar is wrapped around
the fibers, for physical protection and cable pulling)
q Ripcord (for easy removal of outer jacket)
q Outer jacket (also called sheath, PVC is most common for
indoor cables because of its flexible and fire-retardant)
q Tight buffered cables are mostly built for indoor applications,
although some tight buffered cables have been built for
outdoor applications too.
Structure of a Loose Tube Cable
Elements in a loose tube fiber optic cable:
• Multiple 250um coated bare fibers (in loose tube)

• One or more loose tubes holding 250um bare fibers.
• Moisture blocking gel in each loose tube for water blocking and
protection of 250um fibers
• Central strength member
• Aramid Yarn as strength member
• Ripcord (for easy removal of outer jacket)
• Outer jacket (Polyethylene)
The Outer jacket is

made of Polyethylene for
outdoor cables because
of its moisture resistant,
abrasion resistant and
stable over wide
temperature range
characteristics
Indoor Cables
Simplex Fiber Cables
A single cable structure with a single fiber

Duplex Fiber Optic Cable
Duplex-zip. This cable contains two optical fibers

in a single cable structure. Light is not coupled
between the two fibers
Ribbon Fiber Cables
Consists of up to 12 fibers contained side

by side within a single jacket. Often used
for network applications and data centers.
Outdoor Fiber Cable
Indoor/outdoor Tight Buffered Fiber Cables
Indoor/outdoor rated tight buffered cables are flexible, easy to

handle and simple to install.
Since they do not use gel, the connectors can be terminated

directly onto the 900um fiber without difficult-to-use kits. This
provides an easy and overall less expensive installation.
Outdoor Loose Tube Fiber

Optic Cables
Tube encloses multiple coated

fibers that are surrounded by a
gel compound that protects the
cable from moisture in outside
environments. Cable is
restricted from indoor use
Indoor/Outdoor Dry Loose Tube Fiber Optic Cable
This cable is suitable for both indoor and outdoor applications. One
advantage of this cable is that it eliminates the need for a splice or
connector at the point where the cable transitions between an outdoor
and indoor environment
Aerial/Self-Supporting
Figure 8 Fiber Optic Cables
Figure 8 (aerial/self-supporting) fiber cables are designed to be

strung from poles outdoors and can also be installed in underground
ducts.
They have internal stress members of steel of steel or aramid yarn

that protect fibers from stress.
Aerial cable provides ease of installation and reduces time and cost
Figure 8
Fiber Optic
Cables
Armoured
Fiber Optic
Cable
Direct-buried
Armoured Fiber Optic Cable
Armoured cables are similar to outdoor cables but include an outer

armor layer for mechanical protection and to prevent damage
They can be installed in ducts or aerially, or directly buried

underground.
Armor is surrounded by a polyethylene jacket.

Armored cable can be used for rodent protection in direct burial if
required. This cable is non-gel filled and can also be used in aerial
applications.
Submarine Fiber Optic Cable (Undersea Fiber Optic Cable)
Submarine cables are used in fresh or salt

water.
To protect them from damage by fishing

trawlers and boat anchors they have
elaborately designed structures and
armours.
Long distance submarine cables are

especially complex designed.
Overview of Optical Fiber Manufacture Processes
The primary material in optical fibers is silica glass (SiO2).

Impurities called dopants are purposely added to modify the
physical properties of the fiber, primarily the index of refraction.
The index of refraction is typically lowered by adding germanium

(Ge) or phosphorus (P) in glass form, that is GeO2 and P2O5,
respectively, and is typically raised by adding fluorine (F) in
elemental form or boron(B) in glass form as
B2O3
70
Other chemical compounds such as germanium
tetrachloride (GeCl4 ) and phosphorus
oxychloride (POCl3 ) can be used to produce
core fibers and outer shells, or claddings, with
function-specific optical properties
There are three main steps in the process of

converting raw materials into optical fiber
1. Manufacturing of the pure glass
preform
2. Drawing and Spooling of the preform
3. Test and Measurement
71
The first step in manufacturing glass optical fibers
is to make a solid glass rod, known as a preform
There are several methods used to manufacture

preforms.
§Double Crucible Method

§Vapor Phase Oxidation
§Outside Vapor-Deposition
§Vapor Phase Axial Deposition
§Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition
§Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition
72
The most common methods for manufacturing optical

fibers are classified as vapour deposition (VD).
The raw materials are heated to gas form (vapors). The hot
vapors combine with oxygen gas and solidify (deposition)
into the glass compounds
73
Modified Chemical Vapour Deposition (MCVD)
In this process a pure silica tube is mounted on a lathe equipped
with a special heat torch.
A gaseous stream of pure oxygen combined with various chemical

vapours is applied to the tube.
As the gasses flow inside the tube, they react to the heat by
forming solid submicron particles, called soot, in the vicinity of the
heat zone.
Once the soot is formed, it is deposited on the inner wall of the

tube. 74
As the burner traverses

over the deposited soot,
the heat transforms
these solid white
particles into pure,
transparent glass, in a
process called
vitrification. The
deposited material will
form the core region of
the optical fiber
75
Modified Chemical Vapour Deposition (MCVD)
The heating drives out any moisture and bubbles trapped in the
soot layers.
During heating, the substrate tube and internal soot layers

solidify to form the boule or preform of highly pure silicon
dioxide.
76
Drawing and Spooling
The process of converting the preform rod to

the final optical fiber is called drawing.
The solid preform is then automatically

transferred to a vertical fiber drawing system.
The machines that make up a typical vertical

drawing system can be two stories high and are
able to produce continuous fibers up to 300
kilometres long.
77
Drawing and ……
This system consists of a furnace to melt the end of the
preform, sensors to monitor the diameter of the fiber being
pulled from the preform, and coating devices to apply
protective layers over the outer cladding.
The preform first passes through a furnace, where it is heated
to 21000C (melting temperature of silica approximately
19000C).
Next, a drop of molten glass called a "gob" forms at the end of
the preform, The gob then falls away, and the single optical
fiber inside is drawn out of the preform.
78
Drawing and ……
As the optical fiber is pulled from the preform, the material in

the original substrate tube forms the cladding, and the silicon
dioxide deposited as soot forms the core of the optical fiber
As the fiber is drawn out, measuring devices monitor its

diameter and its concentricity, while another device applies a
protective coating
79
Drawing and ……
A primary plastic coating is applied to the fiber immediately
after drawing. This coatings is cured by ultraviolet lamps
The coating prevents dust and moisture from adhering to the

fiber, and reduces the effect of microbending loss. Additional
coatings may be applied later.
The fiber then passes through a curing furnace and another

measuring device that monitors diameter, before being wound
on a spool.
80
Drawing and …..
Since compression and microbends and kinks in the fiber are

extremely undesirable, it is important to wrap the fiber around
a drum by a precisely controlled process called spooling.
These two processes are performed at the same time by a

single machine
Fibers can be drawn from a preform at the rate of 10 to 20

meters per second
81
Future Optical Fiber
Future optical fibers will come from ongoing research into
materials with improved optical properties.
Currently, silica glasses with a high fluoride content hold the

most promise for optical fibers, with attenuation losses even
lower than today's highly efficient fibers.
Experimental fibers, drawn from glass containing 50 to 60

percent zirconium fluoride (ZrF4), now show losses in the
range of 0.005 to 0.008 dB/km
82
83
Test and Measurement
The drawn fiber is next tested, where all optical and geometrical
parameters are checked to ensure that they meet stringent
requirements.
First, the tensile strength of the fiber is tested. Each spool of drawn
fiber subjected to loads to ensure that the fiber has the minimal
tensile strength specified.
The fiber is then spooled onto shipping reels and cut to specified
lengths.
84
Test and Measurement…….
The fiber is tested for point defects with an Optical Time Domain
Reflectometer (OTDR), which uses scattered light to indicate the
location of any anomalies along the length of the fiber.
The spooled fiber is automatically tested for transmission

paramters including: attenuation, bandwidth, numerical aperture,
cut-off wavelength, mode field diameter, chromatic dispersion, etc
85
In addition, both multimode and single-mode fibers are

measured for many geometrical parameters including:
cladding diameter
cladding non-circularity
coating outer diameter
coating outer non-circularity
coating concentricity error
core-clad concentricity error
core non-circularity
core diameter
86
Environmental and mechanical testing is also performed
periodically to ensure that the product maintains its optical and
mechanical integrity. These tests include:
coating strip force
operating temperature range
temperature dependence of attenuation
temperature-humidity cycling
accelerated aging
water immersion
Finally, the tested fiber is ready for cabling to protect the fiber
87
Optical Fiber Modes and Configurations
The propagation of light along a waveguide can be described

in terms of a set of guided electromagnetic waves called the
Modes of the waveguides
Only a certain number of modes are capable of propagating

along the guide
Two types of optical fiber modes are used:

multi-mode (MM)
Single-mode (SM)
Multi Mode Optical Fiber
Fibers that carry more than one mode are called multimode
fibers
Fiber with large core diameter (greater than 10 micrometers) may be

analyzed by geometrical optics. Such fiber is called multi-mode fiber
The refractive index of the core is higher than that of the cladding, so
light in the core that strikes the boundary with the cladding at an angle
greater than critical angle will be reflected back into the core by total
internal reflection.
Multi-mode fibers are described by their core and cladding

diameters. Thus, 62.5/125 µm multimode fiber has a core size of
62.5 µm and a cladding diameter of 125 µm
For many years 62.5/125 µm and conventional 50/125 µm multi-

mode fiber were widely deployed in premises applications
because of their relatively large core size, were ideal for use with
LED transmitters. Newer deployments often use laser-optimized for
50/125 µm multi-mode fiber
The equipment used for communications over multi-mode optical fiber

is much less expensive than that for single-mode optical fiber.
Typical transmission speeds/distances limits are 100 Mbit/s up to 2

km (100BASE-FX), 1 Gbit/s for distances up to 500–600 meters
(1000BASE-SX), and 10 Gbit/s for distances up to 300 meters
(10GBASE-SR).
Because of its high capacity and reliability, multi-mode optical fiber

generally is used for backbone applications in buildings
Optical Fiber Index Profile
Index profile is the refractive index distribution across the core and the
cladding of a fiber.
There are two types of index profiles:

Step index profile and Graded index profile
Step Index Profile: The core has one uniformly distributed index and the
cladding has a lower uniformly distributed index.
Graded index Profile: The refractive index varies gradually as a function

of radial distance from the fiber center.
Index Optical
Profile Fiber
n2
n1
Step
Core Cladding
Index
n2
n1
Graded
Index Core Cladding
For graded index, the profile is very close to a parabolic

relationship between the index and the distance from the axis
Index Optical
Profile Fiber
n2
n1
Step
Core Cladding
Index
n2
n1
Graded
Index Core Cladding
For graded index, the profile is very close to a parabolic

relationship between the index and the distance from the axis
Comparison of
single mode and
multimode fibers
Different distances
travelled by different
modes
Same distances
travelled by different
modes
Refracted
Numerical Aperture Acceptance Ray
Cone nc Cladding
φ Reflected
θ Ray
Air na θ0
nf Core
nc Cladding
Entrance
na < nf
Rays
nc < nf
Numerical Aperture
The light ray enters the fiber core from a medium of
refractive index na at an angle θ0 with respect to the fiber
axis and strikes the core-cladding interface at a normal
angle φ
According to Snell’s law the minimum angle φmin that
supports total internal reflection is given by:
nc
sin φmin =
nf
Rays striking the core-cladding interface at an angle less
that φmin will refract out of the core and lost in the cladding
Numerical Aperture
The By applying Snell’s law at the air-fiber face boundary, the condition
of Snell’s law can be related to the maximum entrance angle θ0max
through the relationship:
1
⎛π ⎞
na sin θ0max = n f sin ⎜ − φc ⎟ = ( n f 2 − nc )
2 2
⎝2 ⎠
Thus, those rays having entrance angle less than θ0max will be
totally internally reflected at the core-cladding interface
Numerical Apeture
The above equation also defines the Numerical Aperture
(NA) of a step index of optical fiber
1
NA = na sin θ 0max = ( n f 2 − nc )
2 2
= n f 2Δ
Where parameter Δ is called the core-cladding index difference
or simply index difference defined by:
nc = n f (1 − Δ)
Δ Should be much less than 1 for the NA expression to hold
Typical values 0.001 to 0.02
Numerical Aperture
The Since Numerical Aperture is related to the maximum acceptance
angle, it is commonly used to describe the light acceptance or
gathering capacity of a fiber and to calculate source-to-fiber optical
coupling efficiencies
The NA is a dimensionless quantity which is less than 1 with values
normally ranging from 0.14 to 0.5
Multimode optical fiber will only propagate light that enters the fiber
within a certain cone, known as the acceptance cone of the fiber. The
half-angle of this cone is called the acceptance angle
How to Calculate Number of Modes in a Fiber
Modes are sometimes characterized by numbers.
Single mode fibers carry only the lowest-order mode, assigned the
number 0.
Multi-mode fibers carry higher-order modes.
The number of modes that can propagate in a fiber depends on the

fiber’s NA, its core diameter and the wavelength of the light.
For a step-index multimode fiber, the number of such modes,
Nm, is approximated by:
2
⎛ π D × NA ⎞
N m = 0.5 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ λ ⎠
Where:
D is the core diameter
λ is the operating wavelength
NA is the numerical aperture
Note: this formula is only an approximation and does not

work for fibers carrying only a few modes.
When the fiber core is so small that only light ray at 0°

incident angle can stably pass through the length of fiber
without much loss, this kind of fiber is called single mode
fiber.
The basic requirement for single mode fiber is that the core
be small enough to restrict transmission to a singe mode.
This lowest-order mode can propagate in all fibers with

smaller cores (as long as light can physically enter the fiber).
Unlike multi-mode optical fibers, single mode fibers do not exhibit

modal dispersion resulting from multiple spatial modes.
Single mode fibers are therefore better at retaining the fidelity of

each light pulse over long distances than multi-mode fibers.
For these reasons, single-mode fibers can have a higher

bandwidth than multi-mode fibers.
Equipment for single mode fiber is more expensive than

equipment for multi-mode o fiber
The most common type of single mode fiber has a core

diameter of 8 to 10 µm
designed for use in the near infrared, the most common are
1310nm and 1550nm
The mode structure depends on the wavelength of the light

used
Reducing the core diameter sufficiently can limit transmission

to a single mode.
The typical core diameter of communication single mode
fibers is from 8~10um for operating wavelength 1.31um
to 1.5um.
Fiber with a core diameter less than about ten times the
wavelength of the propagating light cannot be modelled
using geometric optics used in the explanation of step-
index multimode fiber.
Instead, it must be analyzed as an electromagnetic

structure, by solution of Maxwell's equations as reduced to
the electromagnetic wave equation.
Another parameter connected with cutoff condition of

optical fiber is the Normalized Frequency Parameter of a
fiber, also called the V number
It is a dimensionless number that determines how many

modes can be supported
Many fiber parameters can be expressed in terms of V,

such as: the number of modes at a given wavelength,
mode cut-off conditions, and propagation constants.
For example, the number of guided modes in a
step index multimode fiber is given by:
2
V
Nm =
2
But Nm is also given by:
2
⎛ π D × NA ⎞
N m = 0.5 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ λ ⎠
Therefore:
π D × NA
V=
λ
A step index fiber becomes single-mode for a given
wavelength when V<2.405.
The following formula defines the

maximum core diameter, D, which
limits transmission to a single mode
at a particular wavelength, λ :
Advantages of Single Mode Fiber
Single mode fiber doesn’t have modal dispersion, modal noise, and
other effects that come with multimode transmission
single mode fiber can carry signals at much higher speeds than
multimode fibers.
They are standard choice for high data rates or long distance span
which use laser diode based fiber optic transmission equipment.
Disadvantages of Single Mode Fiber
Since single mode fiber’s core is so much smaller than a multimode

fiber’s core, coupling light into single mode fiber requires much tighter
tolerances than coupling light into the larger cores of multimode fiber.
Single mode fiber components and equipment are also more

expensive than their multimode counterparts, so multimode fibers are
widely used in systems where connections must be made
inexpensively and transmission distances and speeds are modest.

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University of Dar es Salaam

TE645: Optical Communication

CoICT – ETE TE645

q Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum

q In physics, the term light sometimes refers to

q The spectrum is the collection of all waves,

• Sir Isaac Newton theory: Light is made up of tiny

• Christian Huygens Theory: Light is made up of waves

q Light is a wave motion, spreading out from a light

q The two theories are not appropriate when

q Quantum Theory is used which indicates

q The reason that photons are able to travel at

q Therefore, Einstein's equation E=mC2 cannot

q In 1900 Max Planck proposed the existence of a light

E is the photonic energy in Joules-second, h is Plank’s constant, f

q This theory explains why light shining through

q Diffraction is ability light is a wave "bend

q Light has properties both as a particle and as

q Light when considered by physics it has

q The basic unit of light is the photon, and it is

q On the other hand, because the photon is so small, it

q Light is a transverse electromagnetic wave

q Therefore a light wave traveling forward can vibrate up

q Light that has oscillations in all directions is known as un-

q Polarization is a property of certain types of waves that describes

q Electromagnetic waves, such as light exhibit polarization;

q In a beam of electromagnetic radiation the vectors of electric

q The state of the direction perpendicular to the wave

q By convention, the polarization of light is described by

q The waves are

q When light travels in free space, in most cases it propagates as

q In this case, the electric field may be oriented in a single

He extended the wave theory of light by

The Fresnel equations describe the ratios of the

q Fresnel's equations describe the reflection and transmission of

q The equations relate the amplitude, phase, and state of

q The sum of the energies in these two waves

q Since electromagnetic waves are transverse,

q Conceptually, Maxwell's equations describe how

q It also describes how a time varying electric

q The four equations include Gauss's law, Gauss's

q Gauss's law describes the relationship

q Gauss's law for magnetism: magnetic field

q Faraday's law describes how a time varying

q Two of them describe the relationship between

q The other two describe the relationship between

q Quantitatively, these four relationships are:

where σ is the electric conductivity, ε the

James Clerk Maxwell

q The equations yielded a prediction for the speed

q From then on, light was viewed as a particular

q Much of the time, light behaves like a wave

q Light waves are also called electromagnetic

q Electromagnetic fields oscillate

q Wavelength (λ): Distance between peaks of

q Frequency (f): This is the number of peaks

q When dealing with light waves, we refer to the sine wave

q The relationship of frequency and the period is given by the

q The exact speed of light is: 299,792.458 km/s

q When a light ray encounters a boundary separating two

q As shown in the figure above, where n1 > n2

q The bending of light ray at the interface is a result of the

q When a light ray encounters a boundary separating two different