MODERN SURVEYING - 20CE32P (Session – 2) 2021-22

DEPARTMENT OF COLLEGAITE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION

STUDY MATERIAL
REMOTE SENSING
SESSION 2
MODERN SURVEYING – 20CE32P

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MODERN SURVEYING - 20CE32P (Session – 2) 2021-22

REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing is a terminology which refers to any method adopted for gathering information
about an object without actually coming in contact with it. In a broader sense, the term ‘remote
sensing’ is used more commonly to denote identification of earth features by detecting their
characteristics with the help of electromagnetic radiations either reflected or emitted by the earth
surface features. The advent of satellites for weather forecasting, for communications, for
studying the earth and for studying the space, is one of the most exciting developments of the
modern times with an extensive application of remote sensing for resource management.

The United Nations has defined the remote sensing on December 3, 1986 as under:
Remote sensing means seeing the earth’s surface by making use of the properties of
electromagnetic waves emitted, reflected or diffracted by the sensed objects for the purpose of
improving the natural resource management, land use and protection of the environment. The
remote sensing techniques by aeroplanes and satellites in combination with the ground surveys,
has revolutionised topographical surveys. The technique of remote sensing has made available to
man visible to naked eye macroscopic, affording a comprehensive mental synoptic visualized
view for time, in several bands to electromagnetic spectrum.

The technical term ‘remote sensing’ was first used in the United States in the 1960s. Technical
terms like encompassed photogrammetry, photo-interpretation and photo-geology also were
emerged with remote sensing. Since Landsat-1, the first earth observation satellite was launched
in 1972; remote sensing has become widely used. The characteristics of an object can be
determined using reflected or emitted electromagnetic radiation from the object. That is, each
object has unique and different characteristics of reflection or emission, depending upon different
environmental conditions.

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MODERN SURVEYING - 20CE32P (Session – 2) 2021-22

Remote sensing includes aerial photography and satellite imagery. Today, most natural resource
mapping is done using remote sensing. Aerial photography has been used to produce virtually all
topographic maps such as forest maps, geological maps, land use maps and soil maps. Aerial
photography is used to prepare detailed city maps.

Satellite-based systems can now measure phenomena that change continuously over time and
cover large and inaccessible areas. Satellite based systems are used to estimate chlorophyll levels
near the sea surface, which is an indicator of the availability of the food on which commercial
fish stock depend.

Space instruments and remote sensing tools are used to look at the earth with new eyes. Both the
types of tools have helped the man to an extended vision of the earth’s surface. In simple
language remote sensing is a technology for sampling the electromagnetic radiations to acquire
and interpret geospatial data to extract and develop information about features, objects and
classes on the surface of the earth, and oceans and also in atmosphere.
Detection and measurement of electromagnetic energy emanating from distant objects made of
various materials to identify and categorize these objects by either class or type, is the prime job
of the remote sensing.

Remote sensing is a technology to identify and understand the object or the environmental
condition, through the uniqueness of the reflection or emission. The remote sensing data will be
processed automatically by computer and manually interpreted by humans, and finally utilized in
agriculture, land use, forestry, geology, hydrology, oceanography, meteorology and environment.

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MODERN SURVEYING - 20CE32P (Session – 2) 2021-22

PRINCIPLES OF REMOTE SENSING

All objects on the surface of the earth have spectral signatures. A spectral signature of an object
or ground surface feature is a set of values for the reflectance or radiance of the feature, each
value corresponding to the reflectance or radiance arranged over a different and well-defined
wavelength interval.

Spectral signature is the distinctive set of distinguishable characteristics. The response of ground
surface materials to incident radiation is the reflectance, and the energy emitted by all objects as
a function of their temperature and structure is the emittance. The reflectance and emittance
determine the signatures. The knowledge of spectral signature is essential for exploiting the
potential of the remote sensing technique. This knowledge enables one to identify and classify
objects. It is also required for interpretation of all remotely sensed data, whether the
interpretation is carried out visually or using digital techniques.

Evaluation of the spectral signature implies a basic understanding of the interaction of

electromagnetic radiation with various earth surface objects. When radiation is incident on a
surface, it is reflected, absorbed, scattered and transmitted. All the processes are strongly
dependent on the wavelength of the incident radiation, as well as the atomic and molecular
structure of the material.

In view of these facts, one can identify the material constituting the object from a spectral plot,
multiband photograph or any other record, which shows enough details of its spectral reflection,
absorption, scattering or transmission properties. The absorption of radiation by an object leads
to thermal activity, which results in the emission of radiation at a different wavelength. The
spectral emission from the object depends on the surface characteristics, as well as the molecular
structure. Hence the spectral emission pattern can identify an object. Practically, the remote
sensing technique is based on the observation of the reflectance of incident radiation and the
emittance of radiation by the objects. Hence, spectral reflectance and emittance are the most
important characteristic studies done by remote sensing techniques.

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MODERN SURVEYING - 20CE32P (Session – 2) 2021-22

COMPONENTS OF REMOTE SENSING

The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy source to illuminate the target
(unless the sensed energy is being emitted by the target). Radiant energy emitted from ground
features is transmitted to the sensing instrument in the forms of waves. Remote sensing of land
surface features is based on detection of radiant energy called electromagnetic radiation or EMR.
Electromagnetic radiation, which is reflected or emitted from an object, is the usual source of
remote sensing data. Most remote sensing instruments detect and record electromagnetic
radiation. However, any media such as gravity or magnetic fields can be utilized in remote
sensing.

Remote sensing instruments detect and record the energy photons in the band or bands of which
the sensor is sensitive. The amount of energy deflected depends upon the inherent energy of the
photons and the number of photons reaching the detector during the short-term interval of energy
collection. The number of photons (energy intensity) reaching the detector varies according to the
amount of energy emitted by the illumination source, the amount of energy absorbed by the
atmosphere and the degree to which ground objects reflect and emit energy. The range of
possible electromagnetic radiation wavelengths and frequencies is termed as an electromagnetic
spectrum. A remote sensing system primarily consists of the following stages:

A. Emission of electromagnetic radiation

 The Sun or an EMR source located on the platform
B. Transmission of energy from the source to the object
 Absorption and scattering of the EMR while transmission
C. Interaction of EMR with the object and subsequent reflection and emission

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D. Transmission of energy from the object to the sensor

E. Recording of energy by the sensor
 Photographic or non-photographic sensors
F. Transmission of the recorded information to the ground station
G. Processing of the data into digital or hard copy image
H. Analysis of data

Hence the four basic components of a remote sensing system include a target, an energy source, a
transmission path and a sensor. The target is the object or material that is being studied.

The components in the system work together to measure and record information about the target
without actually coming into physical contact with it. There must also be an energy source,
which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target.

The energy interacts with the target, depending on the properties of the target and the radiation,
and will act as a medium for transmitting information from the target to the sensor. The sensor is
a remote device that will collect and record the electromagnetic radiation. Sensors can be used to
measure energy that is given off (or emitted) by the target, reflected off the target, or transmitted
through the target. Once the energy has been recorded, the resulting set of data must be
transmitted to a receiving station, where the data is processed into a usable format, which is most
often as an image. The image is then interpreted in order to extract information about the target.
This interpretation can be done visually or electronically with the aid of computers and image
processing software.

Weather satellite imaging of the earth is a familiar example of a remote sensing system. The
target in such a system is the earth’s surface, which gives off energy in the form of infrared
radiation or heat energy. This energy travels through the atmosphere and space and reaches the
sensor, which is mounted on a satellite platform. Varying levels of this energy are recorded,
transmitted to ground stations on the earth, and converted into images that depict differences in
temperature across the planet’s surface. In a similar manner, other weather satellite sensors
measure the visible light energy from the sun as it is reflected off the earth’s surface, transmitted
through space to the satellite sensor, and recorded and sent to earth for processing.

Another familiar form of remote sensing that occurs on a relatively smaller scale is medical
imaging technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), sonograms, and X-ray
imaging.

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These technologies all forms of energy to produce images of the human body internally. In each,
various forms of energy are produced by a machine and directed at the target object. The sensors
measure how this energy is absorbed, reflected, or transmitted through the target object, and the
results are compiled into an image. These technologies provide the obvious benefit in that they
allow observation and measurement of the internal systems in the human body without
potentially dangerous invasive surgery.

PASSIVE / ACTIVE REMOTE SENSING

Depending on the source of electromagnetic energy, remote sensing can be classified as passive
or active remote sensing.

In the case of passive remote sensing, source of energy is that naturally available such as the Sun.
Most of the remote sensing systems work in passive mode using solar energy as the source of
EMR. Solar energy reflected by the targets at specific wavelength bands are recorded using
sensors onboard air-borne or space borne platforms. In order to ensure ample signal strength
received at the sensor, wavelength / energy bands capable of traversing through the atmosphere,
without significant loss through atmospheric interactions, are generally used in remote sensing

Any object which is at a temperature above 0o K (Kelvin) emits some radiation, which is
approximately proportional to the fourth power of the temperature of the object. Thus the Earth
also emits some radiation since its ambient temperature is about 300o K. Passive sensors can also
be used to measure the Earth’s radiance but they are not very popular as the energy content is
very low.

In the case of active remote sensing, energy is generated and sent from the remote sensing
platform towards the targets. The energy reflected back from the targets are recorded using

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sensors onboard the remote sensing platform. Most of the microwave remote sensing is done
through active remote sensing.

As a simple analogy, passive remote sensing is similar to taking a picture with an ordinary
camera whereas active remote sensing is analogous to taking a picture with camera having built-
in flash.

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION (EMR)

In physics, electromagnetic radiation (EMR) consists of waves of the electromagnetic (EM) field,
propagating through space, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy. It includes radio waves,
microwaves, infrared, (visible) light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. All of these waves
form part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

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MODERN SURVEYING - 20CE32P (Session – 2) 2021-22

Classically, EM radiation consists of electromagnetic waves, which are synchronized oscillations

of electric and magnetic fields. EM radiation or EM waves are created due to periodic change of
electric or magnetic field. Depending on how this periodic change occurs and the power
generated, different wavelengths of electromagnetic spectrum are produced. In a vacuum, EM
waves travel at the speed of light. In homogeneous, isotropic media, the oscillations of the two
fields are perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave
propagation, forming a transverse wave. The wave front of EM waves emitted from a point
source (such as a light bulb) is a sphere.

The position of an EM wave within the EM spectrum can be characterized by either its frequency
of oscillation or its wavelength. EM waves of different frequency are called by different names
since they have different sources and effects on matter. In order of increasing frequency and
decreasing wavelength these are: radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light,
ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays.

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MODERN SURVEYING - 20CE32P (Session – 2) 2021-22

EM waves are emitted by electrically charged particles undergoing acceleration and these waves
can subsequently interact with other charged particles, exerting force on them. EM waves carry
energy, momentum and angular momentum away from their source particle and can impart those
quantities to matter with which they interact. Electromagnetic radiation is associated with those
EM waves that are free to propagate themselves without the continuing influence of the moving
charges that produced them, because they have achieved sufficient distance from those charges.
Thus, EMR is sometimes referred to as the far field. In this language, the near field refers to EM
fields near the charges and current that directly produced them, specifically electromagnetic
induction and electrostatic induction phenomena.

The EM spectrum is the range of frequencies of EM radiation and their respective wavelengths.
The frequency of EM spectrum range is divided into separate bands, and the electromagnetic
waves within each frequency band are called by different names; beginning at the low frequency
(long wavelength) end of the spectrum these are: radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light,
ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays at the high-frequency (short wavelength) end.

The electromagnetic waves in each of these bands have different characteristics, such as how
they are produced, how they interact with matter, and their practical applications. There is no
known limit for long wavelengths, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the
vicinity of the Planck length. Extreme ultraviolet, soft X-rays, hard X-rays and gamma rays are
classified as ionizing radiation as their photons have enough energy to ionize atoms, causing
chemical reactions.

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MODERN SURVEYING - 20CE32P (Session – 2) 2021-22

ENERGY INTERACTION WITH THE EARTH SURFACE

When electromagnetic energy is incident on earth surface some of it is absorbed and

transmitted. The rest is reflected. Applying the principle of conservation of energy, it can be
expressed as:

Where, EIl = Incident energy

ERl = Reflected energy

EAl =Absorbed energy

And, ETl = Transmitted energy

( )

( )

( )

Thus, reflectance is a measure of how much electromagnetic radiation is reflected from the

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surface. It ranges from zero to one, depending upon the object on the surface. Reflectance
‘zero’ means no energy is reflected and reflectance is 1, which means entire incident energy is
reflected.

Since almost all features on the earth (snow, water, land, forest, etc.) are opaque in nature, the
transmittance γl is negligible. According to Kirchhoff’s law of physics, the absorbance αl is
taken as emissivity (x). Hence, equation can be expressed as

( )

Based on equation, the concept of remote sensing is built.

If xl=0, l= 1. It means total energy incident on the object is reflected and is recorded by
sensor. Example of this object is snow (white object).

If xl=1, l= 0. It means no energy incident on the object is picked up by the sensors.

Example of such object on earth is smoke (black object). The other objects like water body,
forest, concrete jungle and barren land, etc. are have different reflectance. These differences
give due to difference between features of an image. The reflectance for the waves of different
wavelengths is different for the same object. Hence, the two objects which cannot be
distinguished in one spectral range, exhibit a marked contrast in another spectral range. Hence,
study of reflectance in different spectral ranges helps in clearly distinguishing between the
various objects.

ADVANTAGES OF REMOTE SENSING

1. Large area coverage: Remote sensing allows coverage of very large areas which enables
regional surveys on a variety of themes and identification of extremely large features.
2. Accessibility: Some areas may not be accessible for ground survey whereas by remote
sensing all regions on the earth can be accessed.
3. Time saving: Remote sensing data can produce information about land use, natural
hazards, etc. In very short time.
4. Multidisciplinary: Remote sensing data can be used by various departments in civil
engineering. Such as geologists, forest departments, revenue department, etc.
5. Remote sensing allows repetitive coverage which comes in handy when collecting data on
dynamic themes such as water, agricultural fields and so on.

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6. A single image captured through remote sensing can be analyzed and interpreted for use
in various applications and purposes. There is no limitation on the extent of information
that can be gathered from a single remotely sensed image.
7. Remotely sensed data can easily be processed and analyzed fast using a computer and the
data utilized for various purposes.
8. Data collected through remote sensing is analyzed at the laboratory which minimizes the
work that needs to be done on the field.
9. Remote sensing allows for map revision at a small to medium scale which makes it a bit
cheaper and faster.
10. Colour composite can be obtained or produced from three separate band images which
ensure the details of the area are far much more defined than when only a single band
image or aerial photograph is being reproduced.
11. It is easier to locate floods or forest fire that has spread over a large region which makes it
easier to plan a rescue mission easily and fast.
12. Remote sensing is a relatively cheap and constructive method reconstructing a base map
in the absence of detailed land survey methods.

DISADVANTAGES OF REMOTE SENSING

1. Remote sensing is a fairly expensive method of analysis especially when measuring or

analyzing smaller areas.
2. Remote sensing requires a special kind of training to analyze the images. It is therefore
expensive in the long run to use remote sensing technology since extra training must be
accorded to the users of the technology.
3. Collection of data tends to introduce human errors.
4. Powerful active remote sensing systems such as radars that emit their own
electromagnetic radiation can be intrusive and affect the phenomenon being investigated.
5. The instruments used in remote sensing may sometimes be un-calibrated which may lead
to un-calibrated remote sensing data.
6. Sometimes different phenomena being analyzed may look the same during measurement
which may lead to classification error.
7. The information provided by remote sensing data may not be complete and may be
temporary.
8. Sometimes large scale engineering maps cannot be prepared from satellite data which
makes remote sensing data collection incomplete.

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REFERENCES

1. Satheesh Gopi, R. Sathikumar, N. Madhu - Advanced Surveying_Total Station, GIS and

Remote Sensing, Published by Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd., licensees of Pearson
Education in South Asia.
2. A textbook of surveying and levelling by R. Agor. Khanna Publishers operational office,
New Delhi.
3. Surveying Volume I by B.C. Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain & Arun Kumar Jain.16th Edition,
Laxmi publications.
4. Surveying and Levelling by S.S. Bhavikatti, I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum

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