REMOTE Sensing &

GIS
ASSIGNMENT

SUBMITTED BY-
HRISHI RAJ THAKUR
ROLL NO: 3012
B.A. (HONS.) GEOGRAPHY, SEMESTER-V
 REMOTE SENSING
INTRODUCTION:
Remote Sensing, also called earth observation, refers to obtaining information
about objects or areas, at the earth’s surface without being in direct contact with
the object or area. Humans accomplish this task with aid of eyes or by the sense
of smell or hearing; so, remote sensing is a day-to-day business for people.
Remote sensing uses a part or several parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. It
records the electromagnetic energy reflected or emitted by the earth’s surface.
The amount of radiation from an object is influenced by both the properties of
the object and the radiation hitting the object. The human eye registers the solar
light reflected by these objects and our brain interprets the colors, the grey tones
and intensity variations. In remote sensing various kind of tools and devices are
used to make electromagnetic radiation outside this range from 400 to 700nm
visible to human eye, especially the near infrared, middle-infrared, thermal
infrared and microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Remote sensing involves observation and recording radiation which is emitted
or reflected by sensors such as cameras, scanners, radiometers, etc. These
sensors are mounted on a platform which can be ground based, airborne or
spaceborne.
Remote sensing imagery has many applications in mapping land-use and
agriculture, soils mapping, forestry, city planning, archaeological investigations,
military observation, and geomorphological surveying, land cover changes,
deforestation, vegetation dynamics, urban growth etc.

DEFINITION:
Floyd Sabins (1978) defined Remote sensing as ‘the science of acquiring,
processing, and interpreting images that record the interaction between
electromagnetic energy and matter’
Lillesand and Kiefer (1979) defined Remote sensing as ‘the science and art of
obtaining information about an object area, or phenomenon through the
analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in contact with the object, area,
or phenomenon under investigation’
Remote Sensing means acquiring and measuring information about an object or
phenomenon via a device that is not in physical or direct contact with what is
being studied- Colwell (1983)
United States Geological Survey (USGS) defined it as- ‘the process of
detecting and monitoring the physical characteristics of an area by measuring
its reflected and emitted radiation at a distance (typically from satellite or
aircraft).’

PRINCIPLES OF REMOTE SENSING:

The principles of Remote Sensing are as follows:
All objects of the earth’s surface like soil, rock, vegetation, etc. above absolute
zero emit electromagnetic energy and so does the sun. Sun is the major source
of energy required for remote sensing purpose. The energy is transferred by the
electromagnetic radiation through the vacuum between the Sun and the earth at
the speed of light. It interacts with the atmosphere before coming in contact
with the earth’s surface. While returning, it interacts with the atmosphere once
again and finally reaches the remote sensor. The detectors or photographic film
system on board records this reflected or emitted energy in analog or digital
form.
Detection and discrimination of objects or surface features means detecting and
recording of radiant energy emitted by objects or surface material. Different
objects return different amount of energy in different bands of the
electromagnetic spectrum, incident upon it. This depends on the property of
material (structural, chemical and physical), surface roughness, angle of
incidence, intensity and wavelength of radiant energy.
Remote sensing is basically a multi-disciplinary science which includes a
combination of various disciplines such as optics, spectroscopy, photography,
computer, electronics and telecommunications, satellite launching etc. All these
technologies are integrated to act as one complete system in itself, known as
Remote Sensing System.
There are a number of stages in a Remote Sensing process, and each of them is
important for successful operation. The process involves an interaction between
incident radiation and the targets of interest. This is exemplified by the use of
imaging systems where the following seven elements are involved.
1) ENERGY SOURCE:
The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy source which
illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.
All passive remote sensing systems rely on energy that originates from
sources other than the sensor itself, typically in the form of either reflected
radiation from the sun or emitted radiation from the earth’s surface features.
The spectral distribution of reflected sunlight and self-emitted energy is far
from uniform. Solar energy levels vary with respect to time and location, and
different earth surface materials emit energy with varying degrees of
efficiency. While we have some control over the sources of energy for active
remote sensing systems such as radar and lidar, those sources have their own
particular characteristics and limitations. Whether employing a passive or
active system, the remote sensing analyst needs to keep in mind the
nonuniformity and other characteristics of the energy source that provides
illumination for the sensor.
2) THE ATMOSPHERE:

As the energy travels from its source to the target, it will come in contact
with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may
take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to the sensor.
A portion of the electromagnetic radiation is absorbed (by carbon dioxide,
ozone, moisture and dust) and reflected back while it passes through the
atmosphere. So, the balance of electromagnetic radiation reaches the earth’s
surface as sunlight.

The atmosphere performs normally compounds the problems introduced by

energy source variation. To some extent, the atmosphere always modifies the
strength and spectral distribution of the energy received by the sensor.
 Elimination of, or compensation for, atmospheric effects via some sort of
calibration is particularly important in those applications where repetitive
observations of the same geographic area are involved.

3) THE ENERGY MATTER INTERACTION AT THE

EARTH’S SURFACE:

Once the energy makes its may to the target through the atmosphere, it
interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and
the radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation has different wavelengths. A number of bands can
be identified based on the wave lengths. These bands of radiation fall on the
objects in the earth’s surface and get reflected and emitted back, differently
by different objects.

Remote sensing would be simple if every material reflected or emitted

energy in a unique, known way. Although spectral response patterns play a
central role in detecting, identifying, and analyzing earth surface materials,
the spectral world is full of ambiguity thus making identification difficult.

4) THE SENSOR:

After the energy has been scattered by, or emitted from the target, we require
a sensor to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.

Sensor is a device that records energy (EMR), converts it into signal and
presents it in a form (image) suitable for obtaining information about the
object under investigation.

An ideal sensor would be highly sensitive to all wavelengths, yielding

spatially detailed data on the absolute brightness from a scene as a function
of wavelength, throughout the spectrum, across wide areas on the ground.
However, no single sensor is sensitive to all wavelengths or energy levels.
All real sensors have fixed limits of spatial, spectral, radio-metric and
temporal resolution. Thus, choice of a sensor depends on the specific
purpose/ target of our investigation.
5) THE GROUND RECEIVING AND PROCESSING
STATION:

The energy recorded by the sensor has to be transmitted, often in electronic

form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are processed into
an image (hardcopy and/or digital).

The electrical pulses from the sensors are converted into ‘digital numbers’.
Each point or picture element gets different (pixel) digital numbers. Thus, a
satellite image is composed of different digital values or pixels.

The capability of current remote sensors to generate data far exceeds the
capacity to handle these data. Processing sensor data into an interpretable
format is an effort entailing considerable thought, hardware, time and
experience. Also, many data users like to receive their data immediately after
acquisition by the sensor in order to make timely decisions required in
certain applications. Fortunately, the distribution of remote sensing imagery
has drastically improved over the past two decades. Some sources now
provide in-flight data processing immediately following image acquisition,
with near real time data downloaded over the internet.

6) INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS:

The processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally or

electronically, to extract information about the target that was illuminated.

The data generated by remote sensing procedures become ‘information’ only

when someone understands their generation, knows how to interpret them,
and knows best how to use them. Thus, central to the successful application
of any remote sensing system is the person or persons using the remote
sensor data from that system. Also, no single combination of data acquisition
and analysis procedures will satisfy the needs of all the data users.

7) APPLICATION:

The final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when the end
user applies the information that has been extracted from the imagery about
 the target in order to better understand it, reveal some new information, or
assist in solving a particular problem.

Some of the important applications of Remote sensing data are Land

Use/Land Cover mapping, geologic and soil cover mapping, agricultural
applications, forestry applications, rangeland applications, water resource
applications, urban and regional planning applications, wetland mapping,
wildlife ecology applications, archaeological applications, environmental
assessment and protection, natural disaster assessment, military applications
etc.

REMOTE SENSING PLATFORMS:

Remote sensing platforms can be defined as the structure or vehicles on which

the remote sensing instruments (sensors) are mounted.
For remote sensing applications, sensors should be mounted on suitable
platforms. These platforms can be ground based, air borne or space borne based.
As the platform height increases, the spatial resolution and observational area
increases. Thus, higher the sensor is mounted; larger the spatial resolution and
synoptic view is obtained. The types and characteristics of platforms depend on
the type of sensor to be attached and its application. Platforms for remote
sensors may e situated on the ground, on aircraft or balloon ( or some other
platform within the earth’s atmosphere), or on a spacecraft or satellite outside of
the earth’s atmosphere.
Typical platforms are satellites and aircraft, but they can also include radio-
controlled aeroplanes, balloons, kites for low altitude remote sensing, as well as
ladder trucks or ‘cherry pickers’ for ground investigations.

TYPES OF PLATFORMS:
Remote sensing platforms can be broadly divided into three types based on their
altitude:
1) Ground Based 2) Air borne 3) Space borne

1) GROUND BASED PLATFORMS:

Ground based platforms are used to record detailed information about the
surface which is compared with information collected from aircraft or
satellite sensors i.e. for ground observation. Ground observation includes
both the laboratory and field study, used for both in designing sensors and
identification and characterization of land features.

Wide varieties of ground-based platforms are used in remote sensing.

Some of the common ones are hand held devices, tripods, towers,
cherry picker, vehicles and cranes. Ground based platforms are also
used for sensor calibration, quality control and for development of new
sensors.
For the field investigations, some of the most popular platforms have
been used are cherry picker platform, portable masts and towers. The
cherry picker can be extended to approx. 15m. Permanent ground
platforms like towers and cranes are used for monitoring atmospheric
phenomenon and long-term monitoring terrestrial features. Portable masts
are available in different forms and can be used to support cameras and
sensors for testing.
Crane as a Platform Tower as a platform

2) AIR BORNE PLATFORMS:

Air borne platforms were the sole non-ground-based platforms for early
remote sensing work. Aircraft remote sensing system may also be
referred to as sub-orbital or airborne, or aerial remote sensing system. At
present airplanes are the most common air borne platform. Other air
borne platforms include balloons, drones and high-altitude sounding
rockets. Helicopters are occasionally used.

BALLOONS:

Balloons are used for remote sensing observation (aerial photography)

and nature conservation studies. The first aerial images were acquired
with a camera carried aloft by a balloon in 1859. Balloon floats at a
constant height of about 30km. The balloon is governed by the wind at
the floating altitude. They are very rarely used today because they are not
very stable and the course of flight is not always predictable.

Balloons as platforms are not very expensive like aircrafts. They have a
great variety of shapes, sizes and performance capabilities. The balloons
have low acceleration, require no power and exhibit low vibrations. There
are three main types of balloon systems, viz. free balloons, Tethered
balloons and Powered Balloons. Free balloons can reach almost top of the
atmosphere; hence, they can provide a platform at intermediate altitude
between those of aircraft and spacecraft.

Balloon as a platform

DRONE:

Drone is a miniature remotely piloted aircraft. It is designed to fulfil

requirements for a low-cost platform, with long endurance, moderate
payload capacity and capability to operate without a runway or small
runway. Drone includes equipment of photography, infrared detection,
radar observation and TV surveillance. It uses satellite communication
link. An onboard computer controls the payload and stores data from
different sensors and instruments.
Drone was developed in Britain during World War-II, is the short sky spy
which was originally conceived as a military reconnaissance. Now it
plays important role in remote sensing. The unique advantage is that it
could be accurately located above the area for which data was required
and capable to provide both night and day data.
 Drone as a platform

AIRCRAFT:

Aerial platforms are primarily stable wing aircraft. Helicopters are also
occasionally used for this purpose. Generally, aircraft are used to collect very
detailed images. Special aircraft with cameras and sensors on vibration less
platforms are traditionally used to acquire aerial photographs and images of
land surface features. While low altitude aerial photography results in large
scale images providing detailed information on the terrain, the high-altitude
smaller scale images offer advantage to cover a larger study area with low
spatial resolution.
Aircraft platforms offer an economical method of remote sensing data collection
for small to large study areas with cameras, electronic imagers, across- track
and along-track scanners, and radar and microwave scanners.

Aircraft platform acquire imagery under suitable weather conditions. It controls

platform variables such as altitude. Time of coverage can also be controlled.
However, it is expensive, less stable than spacecraft and has motion blurring.
 Aircraft as a platform

SPACE BORNE PLATFORMS:

In space- borne remote sensing, sensors are mounted on-board a

spacecraft (space shuttle or satellite) orbiting the earth. Space-borne or
satellite platform are onetime cost effected but relatively lower cost per
unit area of coverage, can acquire imagery of entire earth without taking
permission. Space-borne imaging ranges from altitude 250 km to 36000
km.

Space-borne remote sensing provides the following advantages:

 Large area coverage
 Frequent and repetitive coverage of an area of interest
 Quantitative measurement of ground features using radiometrically
calibrated sensors
 Semi-automated computerised processing and analysis
 Relatively lower cost per unit area of coverage.

SATELLITES:
Remote sensing is also conducted from artificial satellites. Artificial satellites
are manmade objects, which revolve around another object. The 1960s saw
the primary platform used to carry remotely sensed instruments shifted from
airplanes to satellite. Satellite can cover much more land space than planes
and can monitor areas on a regular basis.
There are two types of well recognized satellite platforms- manned satellite
platform and unmanned satellite platform.
 Unmanned Satellite

Manned Satellite Platforms:

Manned satellite platforms are used as the last step, for rigorous testing of the
remote sensors on board so that they can be finally incorporated in the
unmanned satellites. Crew in the manned satellites operates the sensors as per
the program schedule. The International Space Station (ISS), Apollo etc. are
examples of manned satellite
Manned Satellite- International Space Station (ISS)
platforms.
Unmanned Satellite Platforms:
Landsat series, SPOT series and IRS series of remote sensing satellite, NOAA
series of meteorological satellites, the entire constellation of the GPS satellites
and the GOES and INSAT series of geostationary environmental,
communication, television broadcast, weather and earth observation satellites
etc are examples of unmanned satellite category.