REMOTE SENSING

What is Remote Sensing?

“Remote means far away.

Remote sensing means sensing
things from a distance. Of our five
senses we use three as remote
sensors when we:
a. Watch a cricket match from
stands (sense of sight)
b. Smell freshly baked bread in the
oven (sense of smell)
c. Hear a telephone ring (sense of
hearing)
What are our other two senses and
why aern’t they called remote
sensing?
CONCEPT OF REMOTE SENSING

Remote Sensing is defined as the science (and to some extent art)

of acquiring information about the objects of interest without
actually being in contact with it.
This is done by sensing
and recording reflected or
emitted energy and
processing, analyzing and
applying that information.

Data collection by remote sensing

OUTLINE

 Remote Sensing Fundamentals

 Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS)

 Remote Sensing (RS) System

 Active and Passive RS system

ENERGY SOURCES & ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

 Remote sensing of Electromagnetic energy is used for earth

observation.
 Remote sensing is detecting and measuring electromagnetic
energy emitted or reflected from distant objects made of
various materials, so that we can identify and categorize
these objects by class or type, substance and spatial
distribution.
 Surface parameters are inferred through the measurement
and interpretation of the electromagnetic energy / radiation
from the Earth’s surface.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
 Remote sensing is the measurement and recording of
electromagnetic radiation (EMR) reflected and/ or emitted
by the material on the Earth’s surface.
 EMR is composed of an electric wave and a magnetic wave
vibrating at right angles to each other, and is measured in
terms of wavelength or frequency.
h = Planck's constant (6.626 x 10-34 Joules-sec)
E = h.c.f or h.c / λ c = Speed of light (3 x 108 m/sec)
f = Frequency expressed in Hertz
λ = wavelength in micro meters (µm)

 Light from Sun is a major source of EMR, which travel at

the speed of light.
 EMS includes visible rays, gamma rays, X rays, ultraviolet
waves, infra red radiations, micro waves and radio waves.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

 The EMS is thus a continuum of energy that ranges

from nanometres to metres in wavelength and is
capable of propagation through vacuum such as outer
space.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM USED IN REMOTE SENSING
Near UV(ultra-violet): 0.3-0.4 m
Visible light: Blue: 0.4-0.5 m
Green: 0.5-0.6 m
Red: 0.6-0.7 m
Infrared (IR): Near IR: 0.7-1.3 m
Shortwave IR: 1.3-3 m
Thermal IR: 8-14 m
Microwave: 1 mm - 1 m
 The spectral range of near IR and Short wave infrared is sometimes
called the reflective infrared (0.7-3 μm) because the range is more
influenced by solar reflection rather than the emission from the ground
surface.

 In the thermal infrared region, emission from the ground surface

dominates the radiant energy with little influence from solar reflection.
 PRINCIPLES OF REMOTE SENSING

 Different objects reflect or emit different amount of energy in

different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum differently
 Depends on the properties of
– The target material
– The incident energy (angle of incidence, intensity and
wavelength)
 Uniqueness of the reflected or emitted electromagnetic radiation
is used to detect and discriminate the objects or surface features
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ELEMENTS INVOLVED IN REMOTE SENSING
1. Energy Source or
Illumination (A)
2. Radiation and the
Atmosphere (B)
3. Interaction with the
Object (C)
4. Recording of Energy by
the Sensor (D)
5. Transmission,
Reception and
Processing (E)
6. Interpretation and
Analysis (F)
7. Application (G)
PASSIVE/ ACTIVE REMOTE SENSING

A simple analogy:
 Passive remote sensing is similar to taking a picture
with an ordinary camera
 Active remote sensing is analogous to taking a picture
with camera having built-in flash
PASSIVE REMOTE SENSING

 Passive remote sensing: Source of energy is that naturally

available
– Solar energy
– Energy emitted by the Earth etc.

 Most of the remote sensing systems work in passive mode using

solar energy
– Solar energy reflected by the targets at specific bands are
recorded using sensors
– For ample signal strength received at the sensor,
wavelengths capable of traversing through the atmosphere
without significant loss, are generally used 16
PASSIVE REMOTE SENSING

 The Earth will also emit some radiation since its ambient
temperature is about 300o K.
– Passive sensors can also be used to measure the Earth’s
radiance
– Not very popular as the energy content is very low

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ACTIVE REMOTE SENSING

 Active remote sensing: Energy is generated and emitted from a

sensing platform towards the targets
 Energy reflected back by the targets are recorded
 Longer wavelength bands are used
 Example: Active microwave remote sensing (radar)
– Pulses of microwave signals are sent towards the target from
the radar antenna located on the air / space-borne platform
– The energy reflected back (echoes) are recorded at the
sensor
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 REMOTE SENSING PLATFORMS
 Ground level remote sensing
 Very close to the ground (e.g., Hand held camera)
 Used to develop and calibrate sensors for different
features on the Earth’s surface
 Aerial remote sensing
 Low altitude aerial remote sensing
 High altitude aerial remote sensing
 Space-borne remote sensing
 Space shuttles
 Polar orbiting/ Geo-stationary satellites 19
AIR-BORNE REMOTE SENSING
 Downward or sideward looking sensors mounted on aircrafts are
used to obtain images
 Very high spatial resolution images (20 cm or less) can be
obtained
 Drawbacks:
– Less coverage area and high cost per unit area of ground
coverage
– Mainly intended for one-time operations, whereas space-
borne missions offer continuous monitoring of the earth
features

LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), analog aerial

photography, thermal imagery and digital photography are
commonly used in airborne remote sensing
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SPACE-BORNE REMOTE SENSING
 Sensors are mounted on space shuttles or satellites orbiting the
Earth
– Geostationary and Polar orbiting satellites
– Example: Landsat satellites, IRS satellites, SPOT satellites,
AQUA and TERRA (NASA), and INSAT satellite series

 Advantages:
– Large area coverage, less cost per unit area of coverage
– Continuous or frequent coverage of an area of interest
– Automatic/ semi-automatic computerized processing and
analysis.
 Drawback: Lower resolution
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 AN IDEAL REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM
 Basic components of an ideal remote sensing system

i. A uniform energy source

ii. A non-interfering atmosphere v. A real-time data handling
iii. A series of unique energy/matter system
interactions at the Earth's surface vi. Multiple data users
iv. A super sensor
AN IDEAL REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM…

 Basic components of an ideal remote sensing system

i. A uniform energy source : Provides constant, high level of output

over all wavelengths
ii. A non-interfering atmosphere: Does not modify the energy
transmitted through it
iii. A series of unique energy/matter interactions at the Earth's
surface: Generates reflected / emitted signals that are
 Selective with respect to wavelength and
 Unique to each object or earth surface feature type

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AN IDEAL REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM…
Basic components of an ideal remote sensing system…

iv. A super sensor : Simple, accurate, economical and highly

sensitive to all wavelengths
 Yields data on the absolute brightness (or radiance) from a
scene as a function of wavelength.
v. A real-time data handling system: Generates radiance-
wavelength response and processes into an interpretable format
in real time

vi. Multiple data users : Possess knowledge in remote sensing

techniques and in their respective disciplines. Use the collected
information in their respective disciplines
REAL REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM
Energy Source
 Ideal system: Constant, high level of output over all
wavelengths
 Real system:

 Usually non-uniform over various wavelengths

 Energy output vary with time and space

 Affects the passive remote sensing systems

– The spectral distribution of reflected sunlight

varies both temporally and spatially
– Earth surface features also emit energy in varying
degrees of efficiency
 A real remote sensing system needs calibration for
source characteristics.
 REAL REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM…
The Atmosphere
 Ideal system: A non-interfering atmosphere
 Real system:
 Atmosphere modifies the spectral
distribution and strength of the
energy transmitted through it
 The effect of atmospheric
interaction varies with the
wavelength associated, sensor
used and the sensing application
 Calibration is required to
eliminate or compensate these
atmospheric effects
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 REAL REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM…

The Energy/Matter Interactions at the Earth's Surface

 Ideal system: A series of unique energy/matter
interactions
 Real system:
 Spectral signatures may be similar for different
material, making the differentiation difficult
 Lack of complete understanding of the energy/matter
interactions for surface features
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 REAL REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM…
The Sensor
 Ideal system: A super sensor

 Real system:

 Fixed limits of spectral sensitivity i.e., they are not

sensitive to all wavelengths.
 Limited spatial resolution (efficiency in recording
spatial details).
 Sensor selection requires a trade-off between spatial
resolution and spectral sensitivity.
– For example, photographic systems have very good
spatial resolution , but poor spectral sensitivity. Non-
photographic systems have poor spatial resolution.
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REAL REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM…

The data handling system

 Ideal system: A real-time data handling system

 Real system:

 Real time data handling almost impossible as human

intervention is necessary for processing sensor data

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REAL REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM…

The multiple data users

 Ideal system: Users having knowledge in their domain
and in remote sensing techniques
 Real system:

 Success of a remote sensing mission lies on the

user who transforms the data into information
 User should have
– Thorough understanding of the problem
– Wide knowledge in the data generation
– Knowledge in data interpretation
– Knowledge to make best use of the data 30
ADVANTAGES OF REMOTE SENSING
 Major advantages of remote sensing are
 Provides data for large areas

 Provide data of very remote and inaccessible

regions
 Able to obtain imagery of any area over a
continuous period of time
– Possible to monitor any anthropogenic or natural
changes in the landscape
 Relatively inexpensive when compared to employing
a team of surveyors
 Easy and rapid collection of data

 Rapid production of maps for interpretation

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 LIMITATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING

 Some of the drawbacks of remote sensing are

 The interpretation of imagery requires a certain skill level

 Needs cross verification with ground (field) survey data

 Data from multiple sources may create confusion

 Objects can be misclassified or confused

 Distortions may occur in an image due to the relative

motion of sensor and source

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 INTERACTIONS OF EMR WITH THE ATMOSPHERE

 Composition of the atmosphere

Component Percentage

78.08
The atmosphere also contains
N2
O2 20.94 particles with a range of sizes
Ar 0.93
0.0314
CO2 and sources which are of great
O3 0.00000004
importance in remote sensing.

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INTERACTIONS OF EMR WITH THE ATMOSPHERE

The most important source of energy is the Sun. Before

the Sun’s radiation reaches the Earth's surface it has to
travel through some distance of the Earth's atmosphere.

The composition of the atmosphere is thus of importance

in remote sensing because EMR must pass through it in
order reach the Earth’s surface.

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INTERACTIONS OF EMR WITH THE ATMOSPHERE

EMR interacts with particles and gases in the

atmosphere. Three processes serve to attenuate the

signal we are trying to detect

1. Scattering: Redirection of EMR from its original path

2. Absorption: Retention of EMR by molecules in the

atmosphere

3. Refraction: Passing of EMR through the atmosphere

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SCATTERING

Scattering occurs when particles or

large gas molecules present in the
atmosphere interact with and cause the
electromagnetic radiation to be
redirected from its original path.
Scattering depends on several factors including the

• Wavelength of the radiation,

• Abundance of particles or gases, and
• Distance the radiation travels through the atmosphere.

For visible wavelengths, 100 % (in case of cloud cover) to

5 % (in case of clear atmosphere) of energy received by
the sensor is directly contributed by the atmosphere. 36
SCATTERING
There are three types of scattering which take place:

• Rayleigh scattering

• Mie scattering and

• Non-selective scattering

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RAYLEIGH SCATTERING

Diameter of particles << wavelength of EMR (small specks of dust or

N2 and O2)
Rayleigh scattering causes shorter wavelengths of energy to be
scattered much more than longer wavelengths.
Rayleigh scattering is the dominant scattering mechanism in the
upper atmosphere.
The fact that the sky appears "blue" during the day is
because of this phenomenon.

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MIE SCATTERING

Diameter of particles
= wavelength of EMR (Dust, smoke and water vapor)
Dust, smoke and water vapour are common causes of Mie scattering
which tends to affect longer wavelengths than those affected by
Rayleigh scattering.
Mie scattering occurs mostly in the lower portions of the atmosphere
where larger particles are more abundant, and dominates when
cloud conditions are overcast.

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NONSELECTIVE SCATTERING

Diameter of particles >> wavelength of EMR (Water

droplets and large dust particles)

This occurs when the particles are much larger than the
wavelength of the radiation. Water droplets and large dust
particles can cause this type of scattering.

Nonselective scattering gets its name from the fact that all
wavelengths are scattered about equally.

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ABSORPTION

Absorption is the other main mechanism when electromagnetic

radiation interacts with the atmosphere.

In contrast to scattering, this phenomenon causes molecules in the

atmosphere to absorb energy at various wavelengths.
Three main atmospheric constituents which absorb radiation are-

1. Ozone (O3)

2. Carbon dioxide (CO2)

3. Water vapor (H2O)

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ABSORPTION

• Ozone absorbs the harmful (to most living things) ultraviolet

radiation from the sun.

• Carbon dioxide absorbs radiation strongly in the far

infrared portion of the spectrum - that area associated with
thermal heating - which serves to trap this heat inside the
atmosphere.

• Water vapor in the atmosphere absorbs much of the

incoming longwave infrared and shortwave microwave
radiation.
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ABSORPTION

Parts of the EM spectrum are heavily affected by

scattering and absorption and useless for remote sensing,
other parts are less affected and useful

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TRANSMISSION

The remaining amount of energy after being absorbed and

scattered by the atmosphere is transmitted

Atmospheric transmission expressed as percentage

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ATMOSPHERIC WINDOWS

It refers to the relatively transparent wavelength regions of

the atmosphere.
The wavelengths at which EMR are partially or wholly
transmitted through the atmosphere are known as
atmospheric windows.

Atmospheric windows Wavelength (m)

Upper UV – photographic IR 0.3 – 1(approx.)

Reflected IR 1.3, 1.6, 2.2
Thermal IR 3-5, 8-14
Microwave >5000

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‘Atmospheric windows’
INTERACTIONS OF EMR WITH THE EARTH’S SURFACE

Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered in the

atmosphere can reach and interact with the Earth's
surface.
What will happen when the EM energy reaches the Earth
surface? The answer is that the total energy will be broken
into three parts: reflected, absorbed, and/or transmitted.

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 INTERACTIONS OF EMR WITH THE EARTH’S SURFACE

When electromagnetic energy is incident on any given earth

surface feature, three fundamental energy interactions are
possible. These are :
 Absorption (A)
 Transmission (T)
 Reflection (R)
The proportions of each will depend on the
‒ wavelength of the energy,
‒ angle at which the radiation intersects with the surface and
‒ roughness of the material and condition of the feature. 49
 INTERACTIONS OF EMR WITH THE EARTH’S SURFACE

Reflection

Two types of reflection, which represent the two extreme

ends of the way in which energy is reflected from a target

1. Specular reflection

2. Diffuse reflection.

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 INTERACTIONS OF EMR WITH THE EARTH’S SURFACE

Specular or mirror like reflection,

typically occurs when surface is
smooth and all (or almost all) of
the energy is directed away from
the surface in a single direction.

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 INTERACTIONS OF EMR WITH THE EARTH’S SURFACE

Diffuse or Lambertian reflection

occurs when the surface is rough
and the energy is reflected
almost uniformly in all directions.

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INTERACTIONS OF EMR WITH THE EARTH’S SURFACE

Whether a particular target reflects specularly or diffusely, or

somewhere in between, depends on the surface roughness of the
feature in comparison to the wavelength of the incoming
radiation.

If the wavelengths are much smaller than the surface variations or

the particle sizes that make up the surface, diffuse reflection will
dominate.

For example, fine-grained sand would appear fairly smooth long

wavelength microwaves but would appear quite rough the visible
wavelengths 53
 SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE CURVE

The reflectance characteristics of

earth surface feature may be
quantified by measuring the portion of
incident energy (Irradiance) that is
reflected (Radiance).
This energy is measured as a
function of wavelength and is called
spectral reflectance. It is defined as:

Reflectance ranges from 0 to 1 or 0 to 100%. Equipment measure

reflectance is called spectrometer
A graph of spectral reflectance as a function of wavelength is termed as
spectral reflectance curve 54
 SRC OF HEALTHY VEGETATION

Vegetation: A chemical compound in

leaves called chlorophyll strongly
absorbs radiation in the red and blue
wavelengths but reflects green
wavelengths.

The internal structure of healthy leaves act as excellent diffuse

reflectors of near-infrared wavelengths.

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SRC OF HEALTHY VEGETATION

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 SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE OF BARE SOIL
The surface reflectance from bare soil depends on many factors such
as color, moisture content, presence of carbonate and iron oxide
content.

Refelectance spectra of surface samples of five mineral soils,

(a) organic dominated,
(b) minimally dominated,
(c) iron altered,
(d) organic affected and
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(e) iron dominated
 INTERACTIONS OF EMR WITH THE EARTH’S SURFACE

Water: Longer wavelength

visible and near infrared radiation
is absorbed more by water than
shorter visible wavelengths.

Water typically looks blue or blue-green due to stronger

reflectance at these shorter wavelengths, and darker if
viewed at red or near infrared wavelengths. 58
SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE OF WATER

Compared to vegetation and soils water has lower reflectance.

Vegetation may reflect up to 50%, soils up to 30-40% while water
reflect at most 10% of the incoming radiation.
Beyond 1.2 um, all energy is absorbed.

Typical effects of chlorophyll and sediment on water reflectance: (a) ocean

water, (b) turbid water and (c) water with chlorophyll 59
SRC FOR WATER AND VEGETATION

By measuring the energy that is Blue Green Red Infrared

reflected (or emitted) by targets on the

Earth's surface over a variety of
different wavelengths, it is possible to
build up a spectral response for that
object.

By comparing the response patterns

of different features we may be able to
distinguish between them.
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SRC FOR WATER AND VEGETATION

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