Remote Sensing

Dr. Thomas Mathew

Definition: Remote Sensing: is the collection of information relating to objects
without being in physical contact with them. Thus our eyes and
ears are remote sensors, and the same is true for cameras and
microphones and for many instruments used for all kinds of
applications

Or, said another way:

Remote sensing is the process of acquiring data/information about

objects/substances not in direct contact with the sensor, by
gathering its inputs using electromagnetic radiation or acoustical
waves that emanate from the targets of interest. An aerial
photograph is a common example of a remotely sensed (by camera
and film, or now digital) product.
According to General Assembly, United Nations Resolution, 1986:

“Remote Sensing means sensing of the earth’s surface from space by making use of the
properties of electromagnetic wave emitted, reflected or diffracted by the sensed
objects, for the purpose of improving natural recourse management, land use and the
protection of the environment.”
Source of energy
The sun is a source of energy or radiation, which provides a very convenient source of energy
for remote sensing. The sun's energy is either reflected, as it is for visible wavelengths, or
absorbed and then reemitted, as it is for thermal infrared wavelengths.

Principle of Remote Sensing

Interaction (or emission) of the electromagnetic radiation with (from) matter.
Principles and Process of Remote Sensing
i. Energy Source or Illumination (A) - The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy source which
illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.

ii. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) - As the energy travels from its source to the target, it will come in contact with
and interact with the atmosphere it passes through.

iii. Interaction with the Target (C) - Once the energy makes its way to the target through the atmosphere, it interacts
with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the radiation.

iv. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - After the energy has been scattered by, or emitted from the target, we
require a sensor (remote - not in contact with the target) to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.

v. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - The energy recorded by the sensor has to be transmitted, often in
electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are processed.

vi. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - The processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally or electronically, to
extract information about the target, which was illuminated.

vii. Application (G) - The final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we apply the information we
have been able to extract from the imagery about the target in order to better understand it, reveal some new information,
or assist in solving a particular problem.
Designation of various regions of the electromagnetic spectrum
of relevance to remote sensing and their wavelengths.
Optical Infrared (OIR) Region
Visible 0.4 – 0.7 µm
Near infrared (nIR) 0.7 – 1.5 µm
Shortwave infrared (SWIR) 1.5 – 3 µm
Mid – wave infrared (MWIR) 3 – 8 µm
Long wave infrared (LWIR)/ Thermal infrared (TIR) 8 – 15 µm
Far infrared (FIR) Beyond 15 µm
Microwaves
P band 0.3 – 1 GHz (30 – 100 cm)
L band 1 – 2 GHz (15 – 30 cm)
S band 2 – 4 GHz (7.5 – 15 cm)
C band 4 – 8 GHz (3.8 – 7.5 cm)
X band 8 – 12.5 GHz (2.4 – 3.8 cm)
Ku band 12.5 – 18 GHz (1.7 – 2.4 cm)
K band 18 – 26.5 GHz (1.1 – 1.7 cm)
Ka band 26.5 – 40 GHz (0.75 – 1.1 cm)
Types of Remote Sensing
(Methodology)
Passive remote sensing : One in which the
observation is made based on the
electromagnetic radiation from the sun
or self-emitted radiance.

Active remote sensing : The other in which

electromagnetic radiation of a specific
wavelength or band of wavelengths is
produced to illuminate the object or
terrain and the interaction of this
radiation is then studied by sensing the
scattered radiance from the target.
 Classes of Remote Sensing (Operational frequency)
(1) Visible Remote Sensing: Visible Light.

(2) Optical Remote Sensing: Solar radiation (visible and near infrared, VNIR to short wave
infrared, SWIR).

(3) Infrared Remote Sensing: Middle wave infrared (MWIR) and Long wave infrared (LWIR). SST
corrected for atmospheric effect.

(4) Microwave Remote Sensing: Microwave Energy. Transparent to presence of clouds.

The ultraviolet region is avoided in satellite remote sensing because of its strong absorption by
the ozone layer.

Major limitations on the use of visible, infrared, and thermal infrared spectrum for operational
estimation of oceanographic parameters is their inability to observe the sea surface through cloud
cover.
 Microwave Remote Sensing

When microwaves strike a surface, the proportion of energy scattered back to the sensor
depends on many factors:

• Physical factors such as the dielectric constant of the surface material which also depends strongly
on the moisture content;

• Geometric factors such as surface roughness, slopes, orientation of the objects relative to the radar
beam direction;

• The types of land cover (soil, vegetation or man-made objects).

• Microwave frequency, polarisation and incident angle.

Types of Remote sensing (Platform)
• Radar Remote Sensing

• Airborne Remote sensing

• Satellite Remote Sensing

Radar Remote Sensing: Radar works by sending out radio signals, and then waiting for them to bounce
off the ground and return. By measuring the amount of time it takes for the signals to return, it is possible
to create a very accurate topographic map. An important advantage to using radar is that it can penetrate
thick clouds and moisture.
Airborne Remote Sensing: Downward or
sideward looking sensors are mounted on an
aircraft to obtain images of the earth's surface.

Advantage: Capability of offering very high

spatial resolution images (20 cm or less).

Disadvantages: Low coverage area and high

cost per unit area of ground coverage. Not cost
effective to map large areas. One-time
operations and no continuous monitoring.
Satellite Remote Sensing: These remote sensing satellites are
equipped with sensors looking down to the earth.

Advantage

Satellite sensors record the intensity of electromagnetic radiation

(sunlight) reflected from the earth at different wavelengths. Energy
that is not reflected by an object is absorbed.
Interraction between matter and
electro magnetic radiation
Spectral Charateristics
 Spectral Characteristics
Unique characteristics of matter is spectral characteristics.

The type of inner state are classified into several classes:

• Ionization,

• Excitation,

• Molecular Vibration,

• Molecular Rotation.
Energy interaction with targets
Where EM energy is incident upon any object there are three fundamental energy interactions that are
possible. Various fractions of the incident energy are reflected, absorbed and/or transmitted.

EI = ER + EA + ET

Where EI denotes the incident energy, ER denotes the reflected energy, EA denotes the absorbed energy
and ET denotes the transmitted energy, and with all energy components being a function of wavelength.

ER, EA, ET will depend upon material type and condition, Wave length of the signal, Properties
(reflectance, absorption and transmittance) of the material.

All remote sensing systems measure the fraction of reflected energy for specific illumination and view
angles. The full term for a measurement at a specified geometry is the bidirectional reflectance, such that
the set of measurements at all geometries describes the bidirectional reflectance distribution function
BRDF.
Multi spectral reflectance
Applications of Remote Sensing
Meteorology - Study of atmospheric temperature, pressure, water vapour, and wind velocity.

Oceanography: Measuring sea surface temperature, mapping ocean currents, and wave energy spectra
and depth sounding of coastal and ocean depths.

Glaciology- Measuring ice cap volumes, ice stream velocity, and sea ice distribution. (Glacial)

Geology- Identification of rock type, mapping faults and structure.

Geodesy- Measuring the figure of the Earth and its gravity field.

Agriculture Monitoring the biomass of land vegetation

Forest- monitoring the health of crops, mapping soil moisture

Botany- forecasting crop yields. Etc.

Hydrology- Assessing water resources from snow, rainfall and underground aquifers.
Disaster warning and assessment - Monitoring of floods and landslides, monitoring volcanic activity,
assessing damage zones from natural disasters.
Planning applications - Mapping ecological zones, monitoring deforestation, monitoring urban land use.
Oil and mineral exploration- Locating natural oil seeps and slicks, mapping geological structures,
monitoring oil field subsidence.
Military- developing precise maps for planning, monitoring military infrastructure, monitoring ship and troop
movements.
Urban- determining the status of a growing crop
Climate- the effects of climate change on glaciers and Arctic and Antarctic regions
Sea- Monitoring the extent of flooding
Rock- Recognizing rock types
Space program- is the backbone of the space program
Seismology: as a premonition.
(viii) Acoustic and near-acoustic remote sensing: Sonar: passive sonar, listening for the sound
made by another object (a vessel, a whale etc); active sonar, emitting pulses of sounds and listening for
echoes, used for detecting, ranging and measurements of underwater objects and terrain. Seismograms
taken at different locations can locate and measure earthquakes (after they occur) by comparing the
relative intensity and precise timing.

Electromagnetic waves:
Photons

According to quantum physics, the energy of an electromagnetic wave is quantized, i.e. it can only
exist in discrete amount. The basic unit of energy for an electromagnetic wave is called a photon. The
energy E of a photon is proportional to the wave frequency 𝛾 ,

𝐸 = ℎ𝛾 =

Where the constant h is the Planck's Constant, h = 6.626 x 10-34 J s.

 Wavelength units: 1mm = 1000 μm; 1μm=1000 nm

Gamma Rays <0.30 nm

X-Rays 0.03—30.0 nm
Ultraviolet: 0.03—0.40 μm
Visible Light: Violet: 400 - 430 nm Indigo: 430 - 450 nm Blue: 450 - 500 nm
Infrared: 0.7 to 300 μm wavelength
Microwaves (Radar) 1 mm to 1 m wavelength
Radio and TV Waves: 10 cm to 10 km
Solar Irradiation
Optical remote sensing depends on the sun as the sole source of illumination. The solar irradiation
spectrum above the atmosphere can be modelled by a black body radiation spectrum having a source
temperature of 5900 K, with a peak irradiation located at about 500 nm wavelength. Physical
measurement of the solar irradiance has also been performed using ground based and spaceborne
sensors. After passing through the atmosphere, the solar irradiation spectrum at the ground is modulated
by the atmospheric transmission windows.
The Earth's Atmosphere
The earth's surface is covered by a layer of
atmosphere consisting of a mixture of gases and
other solid and liquid particles. The gaseous
materials extend to several hundred kilometres in
altitude, though there is no well defined
boundary for the upper limit of the atmosphere.
The first 80 km of the atmosphere contains more
than 99% of the total mass of the earth's
atmosphere. The vertical profile of the
atmosphere is divided into four layers:
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and
thermosphere. The tops of these layers are
known as the tropopause, stratopause,
mesopause and thermopause, respectively.
Atmospheric Constituents
When electromagnetic radiation travels through the atmosphere, it may be absorbed or scattered by the
constituent particles of the atmosphere. Molecular absorption converts the radiation energy into
excitation energy of the molecules.

Scattering redistributes the energy of the incident beam to all directions. The overall effect is the removal
of energy from the incident radiation. The various effects of absorption and scattering are outlined in the
following sections. The atmosphere consists of the following components:

• Permanent Gases,

• Gases with Variable Concentration,

• Solid and liquid particulates,

• Ozone Layers etc.

Absorption by Gaseous Molecules
The energy of a gaseous molecule can exist in various forms:

• Translational Energy

• Rotational Energy

• Vibrational Energy

• Electronic Energy

The last three forms are quantized, i.e. the energy can change only in discrete amount, known as the
transitional energy. A photon of electromagnetic radiation can be absorbed by a molecule when its
frequency matches one of the available transitional energies.
Solar Radiation in the Atmosphere
In satellite remote sensing of the earth, the sensors are looking through a layer of atmosphere separating the
sensors from the Earth's surface being observed. Hence, it is essential to understand the effects of
atmosphere on the electromagnetic radiation travelling from the Earth to the sensor through the
atmosphere. The atmospheric constituents cause wavelength dependent absorption and scattering of
radiation. These effects degrade the quality of images. Some of the atmospheric effects can be corrected
before the images are subjected to further analysis and interpretation.

A consequence of atmospheric absorption is that certain wavelength bands in the electromagnetic spectrum
are strongly absorbed and effectively blocked by the atmosphere. The wavelength regions in the
electromagnetic spectrum usable for remote sensing are determined by their ability to penetrate
atmosphere. These regions are known as the atmospheric transmission windows.
Atmosphere Effects
Our eyes inform us that the atmosphere is essentially transparent to light, and we tend to assume that this
condition exists for all Electromagnetic radiation. In fact, however, the gases of the atmosphere selectively
scatter light of different wavelengths.

The gases also absorb Electromagnetic energy at specific wavelength intervals called absorption bands.
The effects are caused by the mechanisms of,

(1) Transmittance (Some radiation penetrates through atmosphere, water, or other materials.) ,

(2) Scattering (Scattering occurs when particles or large gas molecules present in the atmosphere interact
with and cause the electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its original path. Types: Rayleigh
scattering, Mie scattering, Nonselective scattering) and

(3) Absorption(Absorption is the other main mechanism at work when electromagnetic radiation interacts
with the atmosphere i.e. X-Ray and Gama Ray Absorption, Ultraviolet Absorption, Visible Region
Absorption, Infrared Absorption, Microwave Region Absorption).
Spectral Reflectance Signature
When solar radiation hits a target surface, it may be transmitted, absorbed or reflected. Different
materials reflect and absorb differently at different wavelengths. Some radiation reflected away from
the target at different angles (depending in part on surface "roughness" as well as on the angle of the
sun's direct rays relative to surface inclination), and some being directed back on line with the
observing sensor.
Image Processing
Pictures are the most common and convenient means of conveying or transmitting
information. A picture is worth a thousand words. Pictures concisely convey information
about positions, sizes and inter-relationships between objects. They portray spatial
information that we can recognize as objects. Human beings are good at deriving
information from such images, because of our innate visual and mental abilities.
Analog and Digital Images
An image is a two-dimensional
representation of objects in a real scene.
Remote sensing images are
representations of parts of the earth
surface as seen from space. The images
may be analog or digital. Aerial
photographs are examples of analog
images while satellite images acquired
using electronic sensors are examples of
digital images. Digital image is a two-
dimensional array of pixels. Each pixel
has an intensity value (represented by a
digital number) and a location address
(referenced by its row and column
Pixels
A digital image comprises of a two dimensional array of individual picture elements called
pixels arranged in columns and rows. Each pixel represents an area on the Earth's surface. A
pixel has an intensity value and a location address in the two dimensional image.

The intensity value represents the measured physical quantity such as the solar radiance in a
given wavelength band reflected from the ground, emitted infrared radiation or
backscattered radar intensity. This value is normally the average value for the whole ground
area covered by the pixel.
Multilayer Image
Several types of measurement may be made from
the ground area covered by a single pixel. Each type
of measurement forms images which carry some
specific information about the area. By "stacking"
these images from the same area together, a
multilayer image is formed. Each component image
is a layer in the multilayer image. Multilayer images
can also be formed by combining images obtained
from different sensors, and other subsidiary data.
For example, a multilayer image may consist of
An illustration of a multilayer
three layers from a SPOT multispectral image, a image
layer of synthetic aperture radar SAR image, and consisting of five component
layers.
perhaps a layer consisting of the digital elevation
map of the area being studied.
Multispectral Images
A multispectral image consists of GREEN
several bands of data. For visual
display, each band of the image may
be displayed one band at a time as a RED
grey scale image, or in combination
of three bands at a time as a color
composite image. Interpretation of a
multispectral color composite image
will require the knowledge of the
spectral reflectance signature of the
targets in the scene. In this case, the
spectral information content of the
image is utilized in the NIR

interpretation.
Superspectral Image
The more recent satellite sensors are capable of acquiring images at many more
wavelength bands. For example, several satellites consist of 36 spectral bands, covering
the wavelength regions ranging from the visible, near infrared, shortwave infrared to the
thermal infrared. The bands have narrower bandwidths, enabling the finer spectral
characteristics of the targets to be captured by the sensor. The term "superspectral" has
been coined to describe such sensors.
Hyperspectral Image
A hyperspectral image consists of about a hundred or more contiguous spectral bands
forming a three-dimensional (two spatial dimensions and one spectral dimension) image
cube.. The characteristic spectrum of the target pixel is acquired in a hyperspectral image.
The precise spectral information contained in a hyperspectral image enables better
characterization and identification of targets. Hyperspectral images have potential
applications in such fields as precision agriculture (e.g. monitoring the types, health,
moisture status and maturity of crops), coastal management (e.g. monitoring of
phytoplankton, pollution, bathymetry changes).
Images Resolutions
The quality of remote sensing data consists of its spectral, radiometric, spatial and temporal
resolutions.

1-Spatial Resolution: Spatial resolution refers to the size of the smallest object that can be resolved
on the ground. In a digital image, the resolution is limited by the pixel size, i.e. the smallest resolvable
object cannot be smaller than the pixel size. The intrinsic resolution of an imaging system is determined
primarily by the instantaneous field of view (IFOV) of the sensor, which is a measure of the ground area
viewed by a single detector element in a given instant in time.

A "High Resolution" image refers to one with a small resolution size. Fine details can be seen in a high
resolution image. On the other hand, a "Low Resolution“ image is one with a large resolution size, i.e.
only coarse features can be observed in the image. An image sampled at a small pixel size does not
necessarily have a high resolution.
2-Radiometric Resolution: Radiometric Resolution refers to the smallest change in
intensity level that can be detected by the sensing system. The intrinsic radiometric
resolution of a sensing system depends on the signal to noise ratio of the detector. In a digital
image, the radiometric resolution is limited by the number of discrete quantization levels
used to digitize the continuous intensity value.

3-Spectral resolution: The wavelength width of the different frequency bands recorded –
usually, this is related to the number of frequency bands recorded by the platform. Current
Landsat collection is that of seven bands, including several in the infra-red spectrum, ranging
from a spectral resolution of 0.07 to 2.1 μm.
4-Temporal resolution: The frequency of flyovers by the satellite or plane, and is only
relevant in time-series studies or those requiring an averaged or mosaic image as in
deforesting monitoring. This was first used by the intelligence community where repeated
coverage revealed changes in infrastructure, the deployment of units or the
modification/introduction of equipment. Cloud cover over a given area or object makes it
necessary to repeat the collection of said location.
Visual Interpretation
Analysis of remote sensing imagery involves the identification of various targets in an image,
and those targets may be environmental or artificial features, which consist of points, lines, or
areas. Targets may be defined in terms of the way they reflect or emit radiation. This radiation
is measured and recorded by a sensor, and ultimately is depicted as an image product such as
an Observing the differences between targets and their backgrounds involves comparing
different targets based on any, or all, of the visual elements of

tone shape

Size pattern

Texture shadow

association.
Image Correction
1-Radiometric correction: Gives a scale to the pixel values, e. g. the monochromatic scale
of 0 to 255 will be converted to actual radiance values.

2-Atmospheric correction: Eliminates atmospheric haze by rescaling each frequency band

so that its minimum value (usually realised in water bodies) corresponds to a pixel value of
0. The digitizing of data also make possible to manipulate the data by changing gray-scale
values.
Microwave Sensors

The instruments onboard the satellites that use the principle

of remote sensing to provide the required data are known as
sensors and the sensors which operate in the microwave
region are of the electromagnetic spectrum are known as
microwave sensors.
Microwave Sensor (Microwave Altimeter)

A satellite microwave altimeter is a radar that precisely measures the

range from the radar antenna to the ocean surface, and the
measurement of altitude is called altimetry. The altimeter transmits a
short pulse of microwave radiation with known power toward the
sea surface at satellite nadir (the point directly beneath the satellite).
This pulse interacts with the sea surface, and part of the incident
radiation reflects back to the satellite, giving the range from the two-
way travel time of the pulse. Near-surface wind speed and significant
wave height can be determined from the power and shape of the
returned signal.
Microwave Sensor (Microwave Scatterometer)

The radars by which the measurements of the normalized radar cross section
(NRCS), at microwave frequencies and incidence angles between 20o and 70o
have been used to infer ocean surface winds from satellites are called Scatter
meters or scatterometers. The space-borne scatter meter instrument transmits
microwave pulses and receives backscattered power from the ocean surface.
Changes in wind velocity cause changes in ocean surface roughness, modifying
the radar cross-section of the ocean and the magnitude of the backscattered
power. At the present time, the microwave scatter meter is the only satellite
sensor that is capable of providing information of both wind speed and wind
direction.
 Microwave Sensor (Microwave Radiometer)
Radiometers are passive microwave radar systems, which measure microwave emissions
from objects, generated due to collisions of molecules inside the object, at various
frequencies and polarizations. Space borne microwave radiometers on polar satellites are
being used for sensing the earth’s surface and the atmosphere globally and with a fairly high
repetitive frequency. Radiometry is the measurement of incoherent radiant electromagnetic
energy. Passive microwave radiometry measures naturally emitted microwave energy,
expressed in terms of brightness temperature, which is based on a surface’s physical,
electrical and thermodynamic variables. The ocean surface’s properties affect the physical-
electrical interactions, which then determine the surface’s microwave emission. Microwave
radiometry is mainly used because it is independent of the sun and can penetrate clouds,
rain and other objects to an extent.
Three Views of a GIS
A GIS can be viewed in three ways:

1) The Database View: A GIS is a unique kind of database of the world—a geographic database (geo
database). It is an "Information System for Geography." Fundamentally, a GIS is based on a structured
database that describes the world in geographic terms.

2) The Map View: A GIS is a set of intelligent maps and other views that show features and feature
relationships on the earth's surface. Maps of the underlying geographic information can be constructed
and used as "windows into the database" to support queries, analysis, and editing of the information.

3) The Model View: A GIS is a set of information transformation tools that derive new geographic
datasets from existing datasets. These geo-processing functions take information from existing
datasets, apply analytic functions, and write results into new derived datasets. By combining data and
applying some analytic rules, we can create a model that helps answer the question you have posed.
 Spatial Data Models
GIS uses two basic data models to represent spatial features:
vector and raster. The data model determines how the data are
structured, stored, processed, and analyzed in a GIS. The vector
data model uses points and their x, y coordinates to construct
spatial features of points, lines, and areas. Vector-based features
are treated as discrete objects over the space. The raster data
model uses a grid to represent the spatial variation of a feature.
Each cell in the grid has a value that corresponds to the
characteristic of the spatial feature at that location. Raster data are
well suited to the representation of continuous spatial features like
precipitation and elevation.
Vector Data Model

The vector data model consists of three types of geometric

objects: point, line, and area. A point may represent a gravel
pit, a line may represent a stream, and an area may represent
a vegetated area. A point has 0 dimension. A point feature
occupies a location and is separate from other features. A line
is one-dimensional and has the property of length.
Vector Data Model

A line feature is made of points: a beginning point, an end

point, and a series of points marking the shape of the line,
which may be a smooth curve or a connection of straight-line
segments. Line features may intersect or join with other lines
and may form a network. An area is two-dimensional and has
the properties of area and boundary. The boundary of an
areal feature separates the interior area from the exterior
area. Areal features may be isolated or connected. They may
overlap one another, and may form holes within other areas.
Vector data representation using point, line, area, and volume
is not always straightforward because it may depend on map
scale and, occasionally, criteria established by government
mapping agencies.
Raster Data Model

The raster data model uses a regular grid to cover the space
and the value in each grid cell to correspond to the
characteristic of a spatial phenomenon at the cell location.
Conceptually, the variation of the spatial phenomenon is
reflected by the changes in the cell value. Raster data have
been described as field-based, as opposed to object-based
vector data.
1. Application of Remote Sensing and GIS in Civil Engineering: Remote sensing and GIS
techniques become potential and indispensable tools for solving many problems of civil engineering.
Remote sensing observations provides data on earth‘s resources in a spatial format, GIS co-relates
different kinds of spatial data and their attribute data, so as to use them in various fields of civil
engineering.

a- In structural engineering: Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) provides designers with feedback of
structural performance, assisting in development of structures with higher utility and lower
manufacturing costs.

b- Town Planning and Urban Development: To achieve the objectives of making metropolis cities more
livable and of international standard, a co-coordinated and integrated approach among the various
agencies involved in urban development and provision of services are needed including participatory
process in planning and implementation at local body levels. As well as to have planned and organized
disposal of population through growth centres, which will acts as counter-magnets to the cities growth.
 Applications of Remote Sensing to Hydrology and Hydrogeology

The Hydrological Cycle: As a general rule, both surface and ground water flow under the force of
gravity toward streams and lakes, and ultimately oceans. The return of water to the oceans can thought
of as completing the cycle.

Precipitation: Accurate measurement of precipitation is a continuing goal in meteorological research and

a continuing need in hydrology which depends greatly on these data for modelling.

A. In thick clouds (more than one kilometer) rain is possible when the upper surface of the cloud is at
less that –15 C.

B. The probability of rain is inversely proportional to the temperature of the upper surface of the cloud.

C .Precipitation intensity is directly proportional to the area of the upper surface of the cloud at
temperature of less than –15 C.
Snow: For the hydrologists who must forecast water levels, snow represents one of the most
complicated and most difficult to measure parameters. As hydrologists come to accept
satellite remote-sensing data on snow mapping, they also come to learn the limitations of
satellite remote sensing. Despite some indications that the reflectance of snow may, under
certain circumstances, be related to the snow thickness.

Glaciers: It play an important role in the hydrological cycle of many mountainous areas.
Terrestrial photography of glaciers was an important early reference method. Traversing and
conducting scientific studies on glaciers are difficult, and glacieologists were quick to
appreciate the value of remote sensing, first from aircraft, later from satellites ( Landsat,
HCMM, NIMBUS and IceSat etc).
Surface Water: One of the best known applications of remote sensing to water resources is
the inventorying of surface water bodies, particularly streams, lakes, marshes and bogs,
within a given region. The area covered by open water is readily delineated by various
remote- sensing techniques because of the particular radiation characteristics of water.
Decreased reflectivity of soils moisturized at the surface facilities the delineation of recently
flooded areas, if these are barren. The delineation of floods in vegetation-covered areas is
more difficult, but is possible either by use of radar or through a combination of radiation
and topographic data. Remotely sensed data obtained on flood-plain characteristics can be
combined with data obtained during floods for flood mapping and delineating flood hazard
areas. Characteristics of river channel such as width, depth, roughness, degree of tortuosity
and braiding can also be obtained from remote-sensing surveys.
Ground Water: Ground water is
concerned with water in the saturated
zones beneath the surface of the Earth.
Ground water information most useful to
water resource managers includes: the
presence or absence of ground water in
designated areas, the depth to ground
water, the quantity and quality of water
available for development, recharge rates
to aquifer, the possible impact of
pumping on land subsidence, a real
extent of the aquifer, locations of
recharge and discharge areas, and the
interaction between withdrawals at wells
and natural discharge into rivers.
Applications in Hydrology: Hydrology is the study of water on the Earth's surface, whether
flowing above ground, frozen in ice or snow, or retained by soil. Hydrology is inherently
related to many other applications of remote sensing, particularly forestry, agriculture and
land cover, since water is a vital component in each of these disciplines.

Examples of hydrological applications include:

· wetlands mapping and monitoring, soil moisture estimation, snow pack monitoring /
delineation of extent, measuring snow thickness, determining snow-water equivalent, river
and lake ice monitoring, flood mapping and monitoring, glacier dynamics monitoring
(surges, ablation), river /delta change detection, drainage basin mapping and watershed
modelling, irrigation canal leakage detection, irrigation scheduling.
Applications of Remote Sensing in Weather Forecasting and
Warnings
Applications of meteorological satellites: Meteorological satellites are indispensable in weather
forecasting and warning services. Because of their huge areal coverage, meteorological satellite
images can be used to keep. track of weather systems days before they come close to an area. This is
particularly useful in monitoring severe weather systems like tropical cyclones. The very basic
application of meteorological satellite is in identification of clouds. Clouds can be broadly classified
into three categories according to the cloud base height, namely, low, medium and high clouds.
Remote sensing application in geomorphology
Geomorphology is the science of study of the landforms of the earth Geomorphological analysis of surface
forms of the earth is a direct form of interpretation from space images. Aerial photos with required forward
overlap usually provide the third dimension of height, which adds to the precision of interpretation including
morphometric. Geomorphology as a science developed much later than geology although several aspects of
geomorphology are embedded in geological processes. Geomorphology deals with the genesis of relief forms
of the surface of the earth‘s crust. Remote sensing is an effective tool in this understanding, as aerospace
images contain integrated information of all that is on the ground, the landform, the ecology, the resources
contained in the area and the impact of human actions on the natural landscape. The dynamism with which
changes occur in the landscape is brought out effectively by repeated coverage of images of the same area at
different times.

Geomorphology - basic concepts The earth‘s surface forms are primarily due to hypogene or endogenous
processes, which include diastrophism, leading to geologic structure, tectonic activity and volcanism leading
to volcanic landforms.

For example, limestone forms hills in a dry climate whereas in wet climate, it forms Karst topography with
sink holes, caves and caverns predomination.
Advantages of Remote Sensing in Agriculture Survey
• Vantage Point

• Coverage

• Permanent Record

• Mapping Base

• Cost Savings

• Real-time Capability

• Easy data acquisition over inaccessible area

• Reducing the field work

Global Positioning System GPS
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based global navigation satellite system (GNSS) that
provides reliable location and time information in all weather and at all times and anywhere on or near
the Earth when and where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. It is
maintained by the United States government and is freely accessible by anyone with a GPS receiver.

GPS was created and realized by the U.S. Department of Defense (USDOD) and was originally run with
24 satellites. It was established in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous navigation systems.

Basic concept of GPS:

A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely timing the signals sent by GPS satellites high above
the Earth. Each satellite continually transmits messages that include
• the time the message was transmitted
• precise orbital information (the ephemeris)
• the general system health and rough orbits of all GPS satellites (the almanac).
The receiver uses the messages it receives to determine the transit time of each message and computes
the distance to each satellite. These distances along with the satellites' locations are used with the
possible aid of trilateration, depending on which algorithm is used, to compute the position of the
receiver. This position is then displayed, perhaps with a moving map display or latitude and longitude;
elevation information may be included. Many GPS units show derived information such as direction and
speed, calculated from position changes.

Some GPS receivers may use additional clues or assumptions (such as reusing the last known altitude,
dead reckoning, inertial navigation, or including information from the vehicle computer) to give a less
accurate (degraded) position when fewer than four satellites are visible.