MODERN SURVEYING - 20CE32P (Session – 1) 2021-22

DEPARTMENT OF COLLEGAITE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION

STUDY MATERIAL
AERIAL SURVEYING AND GPS
SESSION 1
MODERN SURVEYING – 20CE32P

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MODERN SURVEYING - 20CE32P (Session – 1) 2021-22

AERIAL SURVEYING
Aerial surveying is defined as art, science and technology of taking aerial photographs
from an air-borne platform. In aerial survey images of geomatics or other imagery is captured
by using airplanes, helicopters, UAVs, balloons or other aerial methods. Typical types of data
collected include aerial photography, Lidar, remote sensing (using various visible and invisible
bands of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as infrared, gamma, or ultraviolet) and also
geophysical data (such as aeromagnetic surveys and gravity. It can also refer to the chart or map
made by analysing a region from the air. Aerial survey should be distinguished from satellite
imagery technologies because of its better resolution, quality and atmospheric conditions.

Probably Gasper Felix Tournachon "Nadar" took very first aerial photograph in 1858 of a
village of Petit Bicetre (France) from a balloon.

In 1859 Frenchman Colonel A. Laussedat took photographs from a photo theodolite and
exhibited a plan of Paris prepared by photographic surveys. Almost simultaneously and
independently, a German Scientist A. Meydonbour used tow photographs for the measurements
of architectural details of a building. S. Finster Walder published his book, "The Fundamental
Geometry of Photogrammetry" which explainedthe basic principles of photogrammetry in the
perspective sense, in 1889. Aerial photogrammetry made headway with the development of
aeroplanes in twentieth century.

The first aerial photographs taken from an aeroplane was made on 24th April 1909 by Willer
Wright over Italy. In 1915, Oscar Messter built the first aerial camera in Germany and J.W.
Bogloyad A. Brock manufactured the first aerial cameras in U.S.A.

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During World War-I aerial photography got major momentum of development. Air photos were
taken for reconnaissance from fighter planes and pigeons. Small lightweight cameras were
attached to the birds and a timer was set to take pictures every 30 seconds as it flew. Now, aerial
photographs are taken from aircraft to capture series of images using a large roll of special
photographic film.

Aerial photography in India goes back to 1920 when large-scale aerial photographs of Agra city
were obtained. Subsequently, Air Survey Party of the Survey of India took up aerial survey
of Irrawaddy Delta forests, which was completed during 1923–24. Subsequently, several
similar surveys were carried out and advanced methods of mapping from aerial photographs were
used. Today, aerial photography in India is carried out for the entire country under the overall
supervision of the Directorate of Air Survey (Survey of India) New Delhi. Three flying agencies,
i.e. Indian Air Force, Air Survey Company, Kolkata and National Remote Sensing Centre,
Hyderabad have been officially authorised to take aerial photographs in India.

Today, aerial survey is sometimes recognized as a synonym for aero-photogrammetry, part of

photogrammetry where the camera is placed in the air. Measurements on aerial images are
provided by photogrammetric technologies and methods. Aerial surveys can provide information
on many things not visible from the ground.

PHOTOGRAMMETRY
The term “photogrammetry" is derived from the three Greek words phot which means
light, gramma which means something drawn, and metrein, the noun of measurement.
Photogrammetry is the science of making measurements from aerial photographs. It is defined as
the art of obtaining reliable measurements from photographs for the determination of geometric
aspects such as size, form, angle, distance and coordinates of the objects photographed without
coming in physical contact with the objects.

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Photogrammetry is the technique of measuring two-dimensional or three-dimensional objects

from photographs or imageries stored electronically on tape or disk taken by a video or CCD
(charge-coupled devices) cameras or radiation sensors such as scanners. The important use of
photogrammetry is the construction of accurate planimetric and topographic maps by radial
triangulation and photogrammetric procedures. Its most important feature is the fact that the
objects are measured without being touched. The final results from photogrammetry are:
1. Coordinates of the required object points.
2. Topographic and thematic maps.
3. Rectified photographs.

Principally, photogrammetry can be divided into:

1. Depending on the lens-setting
Far range photogrammetry (with camera distance setting to indefinite), and
Close range photogrammetry (with camera distance settings to finite values).
2. Depending upon the platform used for taking photographs
Aerial photogrammetry (which is mostly far range photogrammetry), and
Terrestrial photogrammetry (mostly close range photogrammetry).

AERIAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY
In aerial Photography, also known as remote sensing, information about the environment is
recorded from a distance, usually from sensors carried in an aircraft or spacecraft. An aerial
photograph is an image, at an instant of time, detected by the photographic film (sensors) due to
the light reflecting properties of the terrain on the top of earth surface. The nature of the image
depends upon the quality and nature of the film, the reflectance characteristics of the terrain and
atmospheric conditions at the time of exposure.

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The details recorded vary with the scale of the photography and the resolving power of the
camera film system. A photographic analogue of the landscape attracts a variety of users, since
landscape is the main topic of geographical, geological and topographical studies. Aerial
photography is mainly used for photo interpretation and image interpretation. Photo
interpretation is a qualitative aspect concerned with the identification of features and their
significance.

Photogrammetry is a quantitative aspect concerned with the accurate measurement of features

recorded by photography or infrared or microwave images recorded from a satellite. Image
interpretation is a general term used for the interpretation of infrared or microwave images.

TERRESTRIAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY
The principle of terrestrial photogrammetry is similar to plane table surveying. When the
directions of an object photographed from two points of a measured base are known, their
position can be located by the intersection of two rays drawn to the same object. But in plane
table surveying, most of the work is executed in the field, and in terrestrial photogrammetry it is
done in the office. It is used for taking photographs in terrestrial photogrammetry. A photo-
theodolite is a combination of a one second theodolite and a terrestrial camera.

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AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
These photographs are taken from camera stations in the air with the axis of the camera vertical
or nearly vertical. According to the direction of the camera axis at the time of exposure, aerial
photographs are further divided into the following:

1. Vertical photographs: These photographs are taken from the air with the axis of the
camera vertical or nearly vertical. A truly vertical photograph closely resembles a map.
These are utilised for the compilation of topographical and engineering surveys on
various scales.
2. Oblique photographs: These photographs are taken from air with the axis of the camera
intentionally tilted from the vertical. An oblique photograph covers larger area of the
ground but clarity of details diminishes towards the far end of the photograph. Depending
upon the angle of obliquity, oblique photographs may be further into two categories.
3. Low oblique photographs: An oblique photographs which does not show the horizon, is
known as low oblique photograph. Such photographs are generally used to compile
reconnaissance maps of inaccessible areas.
4. High oblique photograph: An oblique photograph which is sufficiently tilted to show
the horizon is known as high oblique photograph. Such photographs were previously used
for the extension of planimetric and height control in areas having scantly ground control.
With the introduction of radial line assumptions theory, oblique photographs are no
longer used.

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GPS

Global positioning system (GPS) is used for the calculation of latitude, longitude and altitude for
many users. For many centuries, the sun and the stars were used for navigation. On land,
surveyors and explorers used familiar reference points to base their measurements or find their
way. These methods worked well within certain limitations like the non visibility of the sun and
stars when it is cloudy.

To solve these difficulties, in the beginning of 1970s a new project was devised – the global
positioning system (GPS). The concept promised to fulfil all the requirements such as finding
positional values accurately at any point on the Earth‟s surface, at any time and in all weather
conditions.

For two dimensional definition of any point on the surface of earth, we require two parameters,
and latitude and longitude (Geographical coordinates). The three dimensional positional value
includes height from a reference datum in addition to latitude and longitude. By observing
celestial bodies like the sun, the moon and the stars with the help of an astronomical theodolite or
navigational sextant, one can fix a positional value on the surface of earth. For establishing a
positional value on the surface of earth, the above method was being used for centuries. But the
precise position could not be determined very accurately with the help of conventional methods.

GPS satellites fly in medium earth orbit (MEO) at an altitude of approximately 20,200 km
(12,550 miles). Each satellite circles the Earth twice a day. The satellites in the GPS constellation
are arranged into six equally-spaced orbital planes surrounding the Earth. Each plane contains
four "slots" occupied by baseline satellites. This 24-slot arrangement ensures users can view at
least four satellites from virtually any point on the planet.

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The Space Force normally flies more than 24 GPS satellites to maintain coverage whenever the
baseline satellites are serviced or decommissioned. The extra satellites may increase GPS
performance but are not considered part of the core constellation. As of January 1, 2022, there
were a total of 29 operational satellites in the GPS constellation, not including the
decommissioned, on-orbit spares.

GPS service is offered by US department of defence called NAVSTAR GPS and the second is
developed by Russian called as GLONASS. NAVSTAR GPS (Navigation Satellite and Time
Ranging) is used widely.
GPS system was actually developed for military purpose but by finding its enormous use this has
been made available for civilian purposes.

GPS is an outstanding innovation used for tracking an object using satellite systems currently
present in the space. This type of tracking can be used for military as well as civilian purposes.
Google Maps uses the civil GPS tracking and locates people and places. The tracking system
used by the Global Positioning System is the GNSS network (Global Navigation Satellite System
Network). This system not only stores the location, but also has the memory to store the speed,
direction, time and other parameters.

SEGMENTS OF GPS

1. Space Segments – A number of GPS fly in a circular orbit around the earth at an altitude
of approximately 20,000 km (four GPS satellites per one orbit) with a period of 12 hours.
At least 6 satellites are always within line of sight from any location and these satellites
are powered by solar cells.
2. Control Segments – Control Segment consists of the control station, monitor station,
ground antenna. Control station maintains optimum GPS constellation. Monitor station
checks the exact altitude, position, speed of orbiting satellite. Ground antennas
communicate with GPS satellite. It is responsible for the proper functioning of all the
operations of GPS.
3. User Segments – GPS receiver is composed of an antenna, receiver processor, and highly
stable clock. At least 4 GPS satellites are required for calculating the exact position.

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A GPS receiver (user) on earth will receive radio signals from these GPS satellites and from the
received signals it is able to calculate its position on earth. Five monitoring stations along with
four ground antennas comprise the control of the Global Positioning System. These are
located across the globe which gathers the data about the satellite's position which is further
relayed to the master control station at Schriever Air Force Base in Colorado, USA.
Passive tracking by GPS involves storage of the data obtained during tracking, while in
active tracking some information is relayed regularly through a modem within the GPS
system unit (2-way GPS) to a centralized database. The location tracking is based on a
mathematical principle called trilateration. There are 2 types of trilateration:

1. 2-D trilateration and

2. 3-D trilateration.

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This requires two parameters:

First, the location of the place is required to be known, which will subsequently be traced
by at least 3 satellites. The range of these satellites should be able to cover the specific position.
Next, distance between the object and one of the satellites is required to be known. Hence, for
this, a miniature receiver/device is installed on the vehicles/phones to capture the radio (electro-
magnetic signals) emitted by the satellite. This helps to compute the distance between the
vehicle and satellite as well as the satellite's location. Thus, by locking the signals onto 3
satellites, the location of the vehicle can be gauged by using Triangulation technique, which
can be extended to the mathematical principle of trilateration.

To achieve 3-D trilateration, one need to take consider spheres instead of two dimensional
circles. Unlike 2-D trilateration, the radii of the sphere is said to spread in all directions, thus
forming imaginary 3-dimensional spheres around a given point. Thus the intersection of
these three spheres, gives the location of the object.

In case of 3-D trilateration, two intersection points are obtained because of the 3 spheres. The
earth helps by eliminating one of the points by acting as the fourth sphere. This enhances the
search and makes it possible to locate the exact position of the given object, place or person.

GPS APPLICATIONS

Real time kinematic GPS has opened floodgates to new applications. One can actually have a
digital map of the job site. GPS can also contribute significantly to accurate mapping of
wetlands. GPS can also serve as a watcher on structures or natural features where ground
movements are common. GPS receivers placed on a bridge, dam, or hill top linked by a modem
in a home base can measure the movements quickly through GPS position changes and can send
an email or pager message or warning if danger threatens.

The positional data from GPS can be given as input into GIS software and contouring, cross
sections cut and fill volume calculation and alignment of roads, pipelines, tunnels etc., Can be
carried out easily.

Geodetic measurements provide very accurate determinations of positions of points on the

Earth‟s surface and GPS is highly useful for this measurement. Tectonic plate movement study
requires millimetre accuracy but navigational accuracy is a meter to few centimetres.

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GPS is very much useful in surveying. High end GPS are necessary for survey applications. Time
requirement for GPS surveying is very minimum compared with other conventional survey
equipments. Also it is possible to survey an area for industry or for other purpose aerially. A
flight fitted with GPS can survey an area with in a shorter time span.

One of the real “up and coming” applications for GPS is in land navigation. This includes, rail,
trucking, emergency (police, fire, ambulance, etc.), and private vehicles. Collectively, these land
GPS navigation applications are broadly referred to as intelligent vehicle systems (IVS), or more
specifically intelligent vehicle highway systems (IVHS). Another term that is beginning to find
increasingly wide use is automated vehicle location (AVL).

Therefore, GPS is one of the fastest moving technologies in the world. It has find application in
almost all areas requiring spatial coordinate or time. The following is the list of some application
areas where GPS has been widely used.

1. Utility industry
2. Natural resources
3. Precision farming
4. Civil engineering applications
5. Structural deformations
6. Open pit mining
7. Land and marine seismic surveying
8. Airborne mapping
9. Seafloor mapping
10. Vehicle navigation
11. Transit system
12. Retail industry
13. Cadastral surveying
14. Stakeout ( way point navigation)
15. Location based services ( LBS)

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APPLICATION OF GPS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

1. Geodetic Control Survey: GPS is the system created and maintained by the United
States. GLONASS is the Russian counterpart to GPS. These two systems combined called
as Global Navigational Satellite System (GNSS) and continue to advance and improve its
capabilities which has become a common tool for surveying and can perform geodetic
control surveying in a very short time as compared to classical terrestrial survey methods.
2. Cadastral Survey: Cadastral surveying is the survey related to land boundaries and
subdivisions and is used for boundary determination. With GPS, the cadastral survey
provides very accurate results, and since the major work of the land is on real estate so it
is considered as the most important of all the types of surveys. GPS receivers proved to
be of high accuracy of the measurements and faster alternatives.
3. Photogrammetry, Remote sensing and surveying: GPS is integrated into
photogrammetry and it increases the ease of spatial data acquisition. In Remote Sensing,
GPS can be used to yield applications in various fields like environmental modelling,
Disaster mitigation, mobile mapping, etc. GPS receivers provide very accurate data and
are widely used in surveying.
4. Navigation: GPS helps in determining the ground position of an object and helps in the
navigation to any location.

GPS POSITIONING METHODS

The main positioning modes for GPS surveying and navigation are
1. Absolute or point positioning
In absolute or point positioning, coordinates are in relation to a well defined global
reference system. The position of stationary or moving object can be determined through
GPS. When the position of a stationary or moving object is determined with respect to a
well defined coordinate (x, y, z) by using a single GPS receiver and by making
observations to four or more satellites, it is called point or absolute positioning.

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2. Differential or relative positioning

In differential or relative positioning, coordinates are in relation to some other fixed point.
In GPS surveying this is referred to as baseline determination.

3. Static positioning
In static positioning, coordinates of stationary points is either in absolute or relative mode.
This is generally synonymous with the surveying mode of positioning, based on the analysis
of carrier phase observations. In static positioning, a GPS receiver is required to be
stationary.

4. Kinematic positioning
In kinematic positioning, coordination of moving points is either in absolute or relative
mode. This is generally the navigation mode of positioning, based on pseudo- range
observations (absolute positioning) and surveying mode in relative or differential
positioning. In kinematic postioning receiver collects data while moving.

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ERRORS IN GPS

GPS pseudo range and carrier- phase measurements are both affected by several types of random
errors and biases (systematic errors). These errors may be classified as those originating at the
satellites, those originating at the receiver, and those that are due to signal propagation
(Atmospheric refraction).

There are two types of positioning errors: correctable and non-correctable. Correctable errors are
the errors that are essentially the same for the two GPS recievers in the same area. Non-
correctable errors cannot be correlated between two GPS recievers in the same area.
1. Correctable Errors: Sources of correctable errors include clock, epherimis data and
ionospheric and tropospheric delay, satellite geometry/shading. If implemented, selective
availability may also cause a correctable position error.
2. Reciever Clock Errors: A reciever‟s built in clock is not accurate as the atomic clocks
onboard the GPS satellites. Therefore, it may have very slight timing errors.
3. Orbital Error/Ephimeral Error: An epherimis error is a residual error in the data used
by a reciever to locate a satellite in space. These are inaccuracies of the satellite‟s
reported loacation.
4. Ionosphere and troposphere delay: Ionosphere and troposphere delay errors are caused
by atmospheric conditions, ionospheric delay is caused by the density of electrons in the
ionosphere along the signal path. A tropspheric dalay is related to humidity, temperature,
and altitude along the signal path.usually, atropospheric error issmaller than an
ionospheric error.
5. Intentional degradation of the satellite signal : Selected availability (SA) is an
intentional degradation of the signal once imposed by the U.S Department of Defence.
SA was intented to privent military adversaries from using the highly accurate GPS
signals. The government turned off SA in may 2000, which significantly improved the
accuracy of civilian GPS receivers. The amount of error and direction of the error at any
given time does not change rapidly. Therefore, two GPS receivers that are sufficiently
close together will observe the same fix error, and the size of the fix error can be
determined.
6. Non-correctable Errors: Non-correctable errors cannot be correlated between two GPS
receivers that are located in the same general area. Sources of non-correctable errors
include receiver noise, which is unavoidably inherent in any receiver, and multipath
errors.

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7. Multipath Error: This Occurs when the GPS signal is reflected off objects such as tall
buildings or large rock surfaces before it reaches the receiver. This increases the travel
timeof the signal, thereby causing errors.

The error sources and approximate error range is given below:

Error Source Approximate error range in meters

Correctable with differential
Clock segment (Space Segment) 3.0
Ephemeris (Control Segment) 2.7
Ionoshperic delay 8.2
Tropospheric delay 1.8
Selective availability 27.4
Non-correctable with differential
Reciever Noise 9.1
Multipath (Environmental) 3.0

LIMITATIONS OF GPS

1. The GPS chip is hungry for power and that drains the battery in 8 to 12 hours. This
requires replacement or recharge of the battery quite frequently.
2. GPS does not penetrate solid walls or structures. It is also affected by large constructions
or structures. This means that users can not use GPS indoors or underwater or in dense
tree regions or in underground stores or places, etc.
3. The accuracy of GPS depends on sufficient signal quality received. The GPS signal is
affected by the atmosphere (i.e. multipath) Electromagnetic interference, ionosphere etc.
This results in an error in the GPS signal of about 5 to 10 meters. However, different
receivers have different levels of accuracy.
4. It relies entirely on receiving radio satellite signals, enabling EMP, nuclear weapons,
radio interference, and failed satellites to affect its operation.
5. Another problem is that the position can occasionally be significantly in error, especially
when the number of satellites is limited. Satellites use atomic clocks and are very precise,
but sometimes there are discrepancies and therefore time measurement errors. The
satellites must maintain their predefined orbital positions, but the gravitational pulls
(earth, moon, sun) occur.

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APPLICATION OF GOOGLE MAPS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

Civil engineers need spatial information. Satellites which observe and provide images of the
Earth can be a cost-effective source of such information for many civil engineering tasks. Maps
are essential for civil engineering feasibility and design studies, but much existing data are out of
date or incomplete.

At present, existing map data are usually supplemented by aerial photography. However, new
sources of information from Earth observation (EO) satellites are becoming available, which
offer distinct benefits over aerial photography, as follows.
1. Reduced data acquisition costs: newly acquired 1 m „high resolution‟ imagery of any
region will be sold on a per–unit–area basis. Although prices are indicative at present,
vendors‟ policy is to price products at the same rate or lower than aerial photography of
equivalent quality.
2. Increasing competition among space imagery suppliers will also ensure that costs remain
competitive.
3. Cloud penetration: radar imagery can be used for some civil engineering tasks in regions
where cloud prevents aerial photography and high resolution optical imagery from being
used.
4. Non-invasive data collection: imagery can be obtained where access to aircraft is
restricted.
5. Reduced processing and integration costs: information from satellites can be processed to
order (e.g. to a specified ground reference system) and delivered in user-specified
formats.
6. Reduced delivery time particularly from overseas locations or where access is restricted:
information can be delivered in a matter of days. Four examples follow illustrating some
of the ways that information from satellites can assist with common civil engineering
tasks, although the range of potential applications is much larger.

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A prime requirement in any civil engineering operation is for accurate maps of the project area.
These maps are used for tasks such as logistics planning, road construction planning and
environmental impact analysis. Topographic maps are also required and used for tasks such as
dam planning, routing studies and as essential input to other tasks including earthquake analysis,
landslide detection and line-of-sight analysis.

Scale is critical in any kind of mapping, and for satellite imagery is determined by spatial
resolution the smallest object that can be differentiated. The new generation of satellites will
supply data to users on a commercial basis in some cases within hours of acquisition. Data will
be acquired digitally, allowing direct entry into computer systems.

Earth observation (EO) data are also often used as backdrop or context to underlie other data (e.g.
borehole data). The principal benefits of using satellite Earth observation (EO) data for
geological mapping are as follows.
1. EO data can be considerably cheaper than aerial photography, which can be several
thousands of dollars more expensive.
2. Rapid data acquisition and processing: field survey or aerial photography may take weeks
or months to collect.
3. Provides a good source of geological/geotechnical information enabling early
identification of features likely to impose design restrictions.
4. EO data provide an effective backdrop to information from other sources, such as siting
of boreholes or the route of a road.

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Earth observation (EO) data may be used for civil engineering, but in practice EO data can be
used for a wide variety of civil engineering tasks, including the following.
1. Impact assessment - Digital elevation models (DEMs) can be used to determine visual
impact (line-of-sight) of construction projects. Such analyses are also important for
telecommunications, such as siting of transmitters.
2. Harbour and channel dredging - Bathymetry products derived from optical data are
feasible in shallow, clear water environments. Radar data can also be used under certain
meteorological conditions.
3. Sand transport analysis - Radar interferometry can be used to detect moving sand.
4. Flood risk - Quantitative flood risk analyses generally require very high resolution
elevation data not readily attainable from EO. However, flood extent can be measured
using sensors such as radar which can easily discern flood water and furthermore the re-
visit capability of satellites permits realistic monitoring.
5. Significant wave height - Radar altimetry can be used to measure significant wave heights
to an accuracy of around 10 cm. Global archives of wave data now exist and have been
compiled to show average, maximum, minimum and potential extremes.
6. Shoreline management - As suspended sediments cause significant contrast in water
clarity/ colour, monitoring of sediment transport using optical EO data in shallow
marine/fluvial environments is possible.

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REFERENCES

1. Satheesh Gopi, R. Sathikumar, N. Madhu - Advanced Surveying_Total Station, GIS and

Remote Sensing, Published by Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd., licensees of Pearson
Education in South Asia.
2. A textbook of surveying and levelling by R. Agor. Khanna Publishers operational office,
New Delhi.
3. Surveying Volume I by B.C. Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain & Arun Kumar Jain.16th Edition,
Laxmi publications.
4. Surveying and Levelling by S.S. Bhavikatti, I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
5. Applications of GIS and GPS in Civil Engineering, S. Venkatraman, K Anitha,
International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, Volume 116
No. 14 - 2017, 1-7.
6. Practical uses of Earth observation for civil engineering, R. Capes and P. Brucciani, Proc.
Instn Civ. Engrs, Civ. Engng, 1998, 126, Aug.,106–115

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