BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

PHOTOGRAMMETRY
 Photogrammetry

 Science and technology of obtaining spatial measurements

and other geometrically reliable derived products from

photographs
 Contd…

 Analysis procedures ranges form obtaining approximate

distances, areas and elevations using hardcopy photographic
products, unsophisticated equipment and simple geometric
concepts to generating precise Digital Elevation Models
(DEMs), orthophotos, thematic GIS data and other derived
products through the use of digital raster images and
relatively sophisticated analytical techniques
 Contd…

 Photogrammetric operation involving the use of digital

raster photogrammetric image data – Digital / Softcopy
photogrammetry

 Most common use of photogrammetry- To produce

hardcopy topographic maps
 Photogrammetric
activities

 Determining the scale of a vertical photograph and

estimating the horizontal ground distances
 Using area measurements made on a vertical photograph to
determine the equivalent areas in a ground coordinate
system

 Quantifying the effect of relief displacement on vertical

areal photographs
 Contd…

 Determining object heights from relief displacement

measurements

 Determining object heights and terrain elevations by

measuring image parallax

 Using ground control points

 Producing maps and orthophotos

 Preparing a flight plan to acquire aerial photography

History

History of Aerial Photography:

History
Origins of Remote Sensing
Remote sensing began with
aerial photography

First photographs taken in

1839
 History

Paris by Nadar, circa

1858

1858 Gasper Felix Tournachon "Nadar" takes

photograph of village of Petit Bicetre in France from
a balloon.
History

Boston by Black and King (1860)

History
World War One was a major impetus to development of
aerial photography
History
After the war the technology was in place to begin large
scale aerial surveys
A brief history of Photogrammetry
A brief history of Photogrammetry
A brief history of Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry………

Analog Photogrammetry
Using optical, mechanical and electronical components, and
where the images are hardcopies. Re-creates a 3D model
for measurements in 3D space.

Analytical Photogrammetry
The 3D modelling is mathematical (not re-created) and
measurements are made in the 2D images.

Digital Photogrammetry
Analytical solutions applied in digital images. Can also
incorporate computer vision and digital image processing
techniques.

or Softcopy Photogrammetry
”Softcopy” refers to the display of a digital image, as opposed
to a ”hardcopy” (a physical, tangible photo).
Photograph vs. Image
Photograph Image
A scene which was detected as well A scene which was detected
as recorded on film. electronically.

Chemical reactions on a light Generate an electrical signal

sensitive film detects the intensity of proportional to the incoming
the incoming energy.
energy.

Simple, cheap, well known. Can sense in many wavelengths,

data can be easily converted
into digital form for automated
processing.

Only sense in the wavelength of Complex,

0.3 – 0.9 μm, manual interpretation. Expensive sensors
Why Photogrammetry………

Measuring values and camera constants

Why Photogrammetry

Extracting geometrical information and

•

producing maps.

• Cheaper than terrestrial methods.

• Extracting qualitative information.

• High speed of map generation.

Why Photogrammetry………

Ideal technology when measuring objects such

as
– Vast regions to be mapped
– Irregular shapes and
– Objects that are too
• Hot or cold
• Soft
• Delicate
• Inaccessible
• Toxic
• Radioactive to touch
Photogrammetric products

Planimetric maps –

Planimetric elements in geography are those features that are

independent of elevation, such as roads, building footprints, and
rivers and lakes. They are represented on two-dimensional maps
as they are seen from the air, or in aerial photography. These
features are often digitized from orthorectified aerial photography
into data layers that can be used in analysis and cartographic
outputs.

Topographic maps –
A type of map characterized by large-scale detail and quantitative
representation of relief, using contour lines. Traditional definitions
require a topographic map to show both natural and man-made
features. A topographic map is typically published as a map
series.
Photogrammetric products……

3D points

LiDAR has become

the technology of
choice for deriving
highly accurate
terrain data and 3D
models, and it is
commonly used for a
variety of mapping
applications.
Photogrammetric products……

Photomap (Orthophotos)

DEM/ DTM

DSM
a. Topographical Mapping
– The plotting of map detail and contours is normally
carried out using aerial photogrammetric methods
– These methods are used for both original survey and
revision, and replace classical ground methods except
where the task is so small that flying is uneconomical
– The technique needs a certain amount of ground
surveyed control, but this requirement is being
continually reduced with the improvement of aerial
triangulation techniques to provide supplementary
control.
– A final Field check is necessary
b. Large Scale Plans
– Large scale surveys can be produced accurately and
quickly by air survey methods, but require more field
checking in addition to the provision of ground control
– For large tasks, such as road building and major
constructions, air survey methods are quicker and
cheaper than ground methods
– Profiles for determination of earthwork quantities and
other data useful to Civil Engineer may be simply
obtained from the same photographs
c. Cadastral Plans
– Similar advantages may be gained by an air survey for
cadastral purpose as are provided in the production of
large scale plans.
– As the accuracy of the cadastral plan is related to the
value of land, the traditional ground method trends to be
slower, costly but very accurate
– In most cases, the accuracy of a well planned air survey is
sufficient for cadastral purposes, and this method is used
in many countries
– Where boundaries are related to described features, or
land is very valuable, the additional accuracy of ground
survey may be necessary
d. Land use maps
– Air survey techniques may be used not only to define the
extent of an area, but also to identify its use and measure
the yield of a crop
– Forestry is a typical application where, by plotting the
limits of timber and measuring tree heights, an accurate
estimate of yield may be given.
– The use of special films, such as color and infra-red will
provide additional information about the quality of the
crop
e. Hydrographic Maps and Charts
◦ Air survey techniques are particularly valuable in the
accurate plotting of coastlines, sandbanks and small
islands where the changing tide is a problem for ground
methods
◦ The use of special film will again add more information,
either by clearly delineating water limits or by extra
penetration in shallow water
f. Exploration and Reconnaissance
– Information may be gained about areas to which access is
restricted by employing air survey techniques
– In the case of military reconnaissance, a high flying or
unmanned aircraft can obtain photograph that will
provide data for an accurate survey
– For explorers, and area can be mapped before the first
entry, either from photographs obtained by aircraft as in
the case of Moon or Mars, or by specially equiped
satellites
 g. Terrestrial, Industrial and Scientific Uses
– Photogrammetry has provided rapid, accurate and in
some cases unique solutions to many non topographical
problems.
– The following are of particular interest
1. Detailed Survey of Historic Buildings
– Precise plans of building facades and architectural
detail may be obtained without direct measurement by
terrestrial photogrammetric techniques
2. Traffic Accidents
– Terrestrial methods are also used to record details of
accidents in some countries
– This allows obstructions to be cleared without delay, the
scene being plotted at a later stage
3. Medical Applications
– Short range photogrammetry is in use by doctors and
dentists to define conditions requiring treatment and
also to study the results of treatment
4. Analysis of movement
◦ Tidal and Particle movement
may be analyzed by
photogrammetric methods by
taking photographs of the
moving surface with a fixed
camera
◦ The stereo model obtained
shows vertical “relief”
proportional to the amount of
movement “contours” may be
plotted
General Process
General Flow

Real World Sensor Data Source

(Earth) (Camera) (Images)

Decision Data Image Refinement

Making Analysis & measurement

Products Refined
•Maps Mathematica Image
•DEM l Models Observation
•Otrthophoto
Production Line Mapping Using Aerial Photogrammetry
Photogrammetric Types
Photogrammetric Types

Photogrammetric Types from Applications Point

of View (d is distance from camera to object)

 Close Range Photogrammetry d<10 m

 Terrestrial Photogrammetry 10 m<d<100 m

 Aerial Photogrammetry 2 km<d<10 km

 Space Photogrammetry 30 km<d

Close Range Photogrammetry
Terrestrial Photogrammetry

 Taken with
ground-based
cameras
 Position and
orientation often
measured
Terrestrial Photogrammetry
Space Photogrammetry

 Extraterrestrial pictures taken from space-

based cameras
Space Photogrammetry

 Extraterrestrial

Spot Image
Space Photogrammetry

 Extraterrestrial

NOAA Image
 Space Photogrammetry

 Extraterrestrial

Ikonos Image
Types of photographs (categorized by tilt)

• Vertical - camera axis as nearly vertical as

Possible
• Oblique - camera axis intentionally tilted
• LowOblique
• High Oblique
 Types of photographs

Aerial Terrestrial

Oblique

Vertical
Low oblique
(does not include horizon)

Truly Vertical
High oblique
(includes horizon)
Tilted
(1deg< angle < 3deg)
 BasicGeometric Characteristics Of Aerial
Photographs

 Geometric types of aerial photographs :-

i. Vertical photographs:

• Made with the camera axis directed asvertically as possible

• Unavoidable tilts cause slight (1° to 3°) unintentional

inclination of the camera optical axis- Tilted photographs
Vertical Aerial Photogrammetry

 Mainly used for

mapping
 Contd…

ii. Oblique photographs:

• Aerial photographs taken with intentional inclination of the

camera axis
• High oblique photographs include an image of the horizon
and low oblique photographs do not.
 Contd…

 Taking vertical aerial photographs :-

• Mostly taken with flight cameras along the flight lines or flight
strips
• Nadir line- Line traced on the ground directly beneath the aircraft
during acquisition of photography

• Successive photographs are generally taken with some degrees of

end lap
• An end lap of 50% is essential for total stereoscopic coverage of a
project area
Low Oblique

Low oblique (no horizon)

 High Oblique

• Horizon line
in the photo
Vertical aerial images are not map!

• Maps are based on parallel projection while

photo has central projection
• Maps have a unique scale while image scale
varies depending on terrain relief
• Maps are interpreted while photos should be
interpreted
• Photo is detailed while maps are generalized
 Projection systems

53/89
Contd…
 Contd…

• Stereoscopic coverage consists of adjacent pairs of

overlapping vertical photographs called stereo pairs

• Stereo pairs provides 2 different perspectives of the ground

area in their region of end lap
• When stereo pairs are viewed through a stereoscope, the
result is the perception of a 3D stereo model
 Contd…

• Intervalometer: Device that automatically trips the camera

shutter at desired time intervals.

• Stereoscopic overlap area: Area included in the overlap of

successive photographs
• Air base: Ground distance between the photo centers at the
times of exposure
 Contd…

• The ratio between the airbase and the flying height above
ground determines the vertical exaggeration perceived by
photo interpreters

• Larger the base-height ratio, greater the vertical

exaggeration
 Contd…

• Adjacent strips are provided with a side lap of 30%

• Multiple strips comprise what is called a block of
photographs
Contd…
Taking photographs
Taking Vertical Aerial Photographs

• Photos taken in parallel flight strips

Taking Vertical Aerial Photographs

• Each successive photograph overlap previous

photo
Forward Overlap (End Lap)
 Aerial Photography

Stereo pair

•Over lap about 60%

Aerial Photography – Stereo pair

• Aerial Base: the

distance between two
•Over lap about 60% successive projection
centers
Side Overlap (Side Lap)
 Taking Vertical Aerial Photographs

Position of camera at each exposure called

•

exposure station
Flying
•
height – altitude of camera
Adjacent
•
flight strips overlap – side overlap
Block of photos – photos of 2 or more side
•

lapping strips
Block of photographs
 Contd…
 Geometric elements of a vertical photograph:-
 Contd…
• Light rays from terrain object  Camera lens exposure
station(L)  Plane of the film negative

• The negative is located behind the lens at a distance equal to

the lens focal length, f

• Paper print positive image positions can be depicted

diagrammatically in front of the lens in a plane located at a
distance, f
 Contd…

• The x axis coincides with the line of flight and the y axis
is located 90° counter clockwise from the positive x axis

• Photo coordinate point o is assumed to coincide with the

principal point
• Principal point - Intersection of lens optical axis and the
film plane
 Contd…

• Ground principal point, (O)– Point where the prolongation

of the optical axis of the camera intersects the terrain

• Images for terrain points A, B, C, D and Eappear

geometrically reversed on the negative at a’, b’, c’, d’ and e’
and in proper geometric relationship on the positive at a, b,
c, d and e
 Contd…

 Photo coordinate measurement:-

• Engineer’s scale or metric scale

• Coordinate digitizer

• Comparator – Mono comparator or Stereo comparator

 Contd…

 The relationship between the photograph’s row and column

coordinate system and the camera’s fiducial axis
coordinate system is determined by a mathematical
coordinate transformation between the 2 systems
 Photographic Scale

 An expression that states that one unit of distance on the

photograph represents a specific number of units of actual
ground distance

 Expressed asunit equivalents, representative fractions or

ratios
 Contd…

 Larger scale shows ground features at a larger, more

detailed size (eg: 1:10000)

 Smaller scale shows ground features at a smaller, less

detailed size (eg: 1:50,000)
 Same objects are smaller on a smaller scale photographs
than on a larger scale photographs
 Contd…
 Scale S is computed asthe ratio of photo distance d to the
ground distance D,

Photo Scale, S =𝑷𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝒅

𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑫

 For a vertical photograph taken over a flat terrain, scale is a

function of focal length f of the camera and the flying height H’
above the ground,

𝑪𝒂𝒎 𝒆𝒓𝒂 𝑭𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉 𝒇

Scale = =
𝑭𝒍𝒚𝒊𝒏 𝒈 𝑯 𝒆𝒊𝒈 𝒉𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑯
′
 Contd…

 Average scale computed for the entire photograph,

𝒇
Savg = 𝑯 −𝒉𝒂𝒗
𝒈

where, havg  Average elevation of the terrain

Contd…
 Contd…

 All points on a map are depicted in their true relative

horizontal positions, but points on photo taken over varying
terrain are displaced from their true map positions

 Result of photo scale variation- Geometric distortion

 Map is a scaled Orographic projection of the ground,
whereas a vertical photograph yields a Perspective
projection
Contd…
 Relief Displacement

 On a map  Top view of the object are seen in their true

relative horizontal positions
 On a photo  Areas of the terrain at the higher elevations
appear larger than corresponding areas lying at lower
elevations. top of the objects are always displaced from
their bases

 This distortion is called Relief displacement

 Contd…
 Causes any object standing above the terrain to lean away
from the principal point of a photograph radially
 Contd…

 Relief displacement,

d =𝒓𝒉
𝑯

where, r  radial distance on the photograph from the

principal point to the displaced image point

h height above datum of the object point

H flying height above the same datum chosen to

reference h
 Image Parallax

 Parallax – Apparent change in relative positions of

stationary objects caused by a change in viewing positions

 This phenomenon is observable when one looks at objects

through the side window of a moving vehicle
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