GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS A

LECTURE 3: FUNCTIONS OF A GIS

LECTURER: M. GWENA
 Basic Functions of GIS
• A GIS is a computer-based system
that provides the following four
sets of capabilities to handle geo-
referenced data:-
1. Data capture and preparation -
Data collection (GPS, RS, Paper
maps)
2. Data storage and management -
Maintenance of data
3. Data manipulation and analysis
- Query & analysis
4. Data presentation - GIS Functionality/Capabilities
Display/Output Create, Manage, Analyze & Display
 1. Data Capture and Preparation
• A) Data Capture
• Data capture is the most costly element of any project and of most
organizational implementations-- > 80%.
• Creating a GIS database is a daunting task
• Involves data capture, verification, and structuring
• Raw geographical data is available in many different analogue and
digital forms such as…..
• Maps,
• Aerial photographs,
• Satellite images, or
• Tables
• Primary data
- Data that is captured directly from the environment.
1) Ground-based field surveys.
- GPS
- Questionnaires
- Total stations
2) Using Remote Sensors to obtain
- Satellite imagery and
- Aerial photos.
Major Data Sources for GIS
1. Ground-based field surveys….
i)Plane surveying systems
Ground-based field surveys….
• ii) Global Positioning System
(GPS)
• A GPS is a means of measuring
and recording location
• It is a worldwide navigation
system
• Uses satellites as reference
points to calculate locations
• A GPS measures longitudes (X),
latitudes (Y), and heights (Z)
 Data Capture for GIS…2. Remote Sensing
• 2. Remote Sensing
• Is the science and technology of acquiring information about
earth’s surface using airborne or space borne sensors
• The sensors are carried in aircrafts, air balloons, drones,
satellites or space crafts
• Remote sensors record information on land, water or within
the atmosphere
• Active sensors can record information beneath the earth
surface or under water
• Images are derived from optical and digital remote
sensing systems mounted on aircraft and satellite
platforms
 Basic geoSpatial Concepts
Remote Sensing -Satellite Platforms

Source: https://earthdata.nasa.gov/learn/remote-sensing
Areal Photography – Airborne
platform
• Special cameras mounted on aircraft
• Information on land, water or within
the atmosphere are recorded
 Photogrammetry

Digital photogrammetric workstation

- For digital
Aerial Surveying topographical
mapping

Stereo Aerial Photo from photogrammetry

 Factors that make direct data acquisition unpopular
• Time:
• In the first instance the time may not be sufficient to collect
the data
• The weather may be unfavorable for data acquisition in the
case where the technique is weather dependent.
• Cost
• Cost is a major consideration since data collection is capital
intensive.
• Hence when the budget is a limitation then this may not favor
direct data acquisition
• Secondary data
- Data that is not captured directly from the environment.
1) Available digital data (database)
2) Reports
3) Data derived from existing paper maps through scanning and
digitizing.
- In recent years there has been a significant increase in Digitizing
and scanning because of the availability and sharing of digital
(geospatial) data.
Digitizing
• What is digitizing?
• It is the conversion of analogue data into digital representations.
• A traditional method of obtaining spatial data from existing paper
maps.
• Forms of digitizing:
1) Automatic (Scan) digitizing
2) On-tablet digitizing
3) On-screen Digitizing
1. Scanning
• The map document to be scanned is
prepared
• Then loaded into a scanner
• Appropriate settings are established
to ensure that the desired quality
output is obtained.
• Resolution
• Format
• Scanners vary in the following areas:
• Size ( A0, A2, A4….)
• Format (Flatbed, drum….
• Resolution (Low. Medium, High)
• Colour (or black and white)
 Digitizing Tablet for Vector Data Input
2. On Tablet Digitizing
• The original map is fitted on a special surface (the tablet) & operator traces
the geographic features with a mouse device.
Digitizer
3. On-screen digitizing
• A scanned image of the map is displayed
on the computer screen,
• The operator follows the map features
with a mouse device, ..
• Thereby tracing the geographic features.

• Note:
• Google maps and google earth can also
be used as basemaps and the files saved
as KMZ or KML as desired.
 Other digitizing techniques:
• Automated vectorization
• A faster and more consistent approach
• Specialized software used in either batch or interactive mode
• Batch mode takes an entire raster file and converts it to vector object in a
single operation
• Softer algorithms build line strings from the original pixel values.
• Time taken depends on the size of the raster file
• Software such as R2V may be used.

• Automated data creation using codes

• Possible to use programming tools such as Python
• Save final results as Geojson to obtain shapefiles
 Data quality in GIS
• Data Quality refers to how good the data are
• When using a GIS there is sometime a tendency to assume all
data is accurate. But this is never the case.
• While some steps can be taken to reduce the impact of certain
types of error, they can never be completely eliminated.
• The greater the degree of error in the data, the less reliable are
the results of analyses based upon that data.
• This is sometimes referred to as GIGO (Garbage In Garbage Out)
Cost

Quality
Data Quality
 Sources of Errors
• Spatial inaccuracies arises if the coordinates used to
identify location of an entity or a data point is recorded
incorrectly.
• Attribute errors arise if the attribute data for objects are
measured and recorded incorrectly.
• Attribute data values and characteristics are likely to
change over time, so it is good procedure to record the
date and time when data was collected.
 Stages at which errors may be introduced.
1. Data input
2. Data Processing
3. Data Output

1. Data input
• Primary data acquisition errors occur during data capture or
measurement e.g. problem with measurement instruments, sample
bias, interpretation of images, some measurement methods (e.g
surveying) are more accurate than others (interpretation of an air
photo)
• Secondary data acquisition errors e.g. digitizing errors, typing
errors etc.
 Stages at which errors may be introduced….

2. Data processing
• Further errors may be introduced during data
processing e.g.
• Converting data from raster to vector, rounding off
error…
• Using inappropriate tools for a particular type of analysis.

3. Data display e.g. wrong scale….

 Data Capture & preparation….
• B) Data Preparation
• Aims at making the acquired spatial data fit for use.
• Satellite Imagery may require enhancements and corrections.
• Data collected may require conversion to either raster or vector
format.
• A scanned paper map may require georeferencing, cropping…
• Once digitized, vector data may contain errors which require
editing and corrections E.g.
• Overshoots,
• Duplicate lines,
• Attribute data, etc.
• Vector data may require projecting, clipping , generalization….
 Georeferencing
What is Georeferencing?
• Geo referencing can be understood as the process of conveying real
coordinates to the spatial data.
• The process executed to assign each pixel a world coordinate
• It assigns coordinates to the pixels of raster images, thereby placing the
image on its true ground position.
• It is the process of fixing data set (2D or 3D) in a space with cartographic
coordinates
• Georeferencing makes it possible for GIS and Remote Sensing operations

What Georeferencing does

• Assigns coordinates to pixels via a model that solves the coordinate
distortion
• Converts image/pixel coordinates to map/real world coordinate system
 Georeferencing…..Benefits
Georeferencing makes it possible to :
• Carry out measurements in the image (Area, distances, bearings..)
- True measurements
• Spatially combine the vector and raster data – data overlay
• Compare and fuse images (Software dependent) – data integration
• Carry out Data merging/mosaicking
• Carry out Data analysis
• Produce images in a certain map projection
 Georeferencing -
Transformations:
• Linear: ( if the relationship between the image and map are close to
nadir)
• Polynomial: Wider range relationship
The Mathematical Model:
X’ = dXCos(a)-dYSin(a)+Xo
Y’ = dXSin(a)+dYCos(a)+Yo
Note:
• 2 points needed to solve the equation
• When high level accuracy is needed, the one requires more GCPs
Typical Digitizing Errors
Correction of digitized data
 COGO Data Entry
• COGO – Stands for COordinate GeOmetry
• A method of capturing and representing geographic data
• It is used to measure and locate features such as land parcels, road
centerlines and utility easements
• Employs the use of bearings and distances to define each part of an
object
• Coordinates may be obtained from COGO measurements by geometric
transformations
• Data sources may include legal descriptions, survey records, housing
estates maps
• COGO data give precise measurements and are more preferred for
land parcels definition.
 Metadata
• Given that errors can never be completely eliminated, good
practice entails providing metadata.
• Metadata is data about data.
• In the GIS context, each set of data should be accompanied
by metadata explaining not only what it contains…
• but how and when it was collected, and details relating to
its quality.
• The emphasis is not to make the data free of errors…
• but simply to provide potential users with the information
they require to make an informed decision about the
adequacy of the data for a particular purpose
The table below indicates the type of information the
metadata might include.
 Why use and create metadata
1. To help organize and maintain an organization's spatial data
- Employees may come and go but metadata can catalogue the changes and
updates made to each spatial data set and how each employee implemented
them
2. To provide information to other organizations and clearinghouses to facilitate
data sharing and transfer
- It makes sense to share existing data sets rather than producing new ones if
they are already available
3. To document the history of a spatial data set
- Metadata documents what changes have been made to each data set, such
as changes in geographic projection, adding or deleting attributes, editing line
intersections, or changing file formats. All of these could have an effect on data
quality.
Online free data - (VGI)
• VGI – Volunteer Geographic Information
• Online data sources are available in various websites
• However the intended user must fulfill certain conditions
• For example – Registration and having a Gmail account
• Terms and conditions apply based on the source
• Both raster and vector formats are available
• Important to check the metadata for each data set before
downloading
 Some sites for Online data for GIS
Vector data:
• Raster Data
• OpenStreetMap (OSM data)-
(https://www.openstreetmap.org/export) • GTOPO30 – SRTM –
• http://download.geofabrik.de/africa/kenya (https://www.usgs.gov/
.html • SRTM data collection -
• https://extract.bbbike.org/ (https://www.opendem.info/)
• DIVAGIS – (https://www.diva-gis.org/gdata) • Satellite data – http://earth
explorer.usgs.gov/
• KenyaOpenData
• Or USGS – (https://glovis.usgs.gov/)
• Humanitarian Data Exchange
• Existing scanned topo maps :
• Kenya Open Data Initiative (KODI) SamSamWater -
• The data was collected following the SDI (https://www.samsamwater.com/maps/k
Act (2003) enya/topo.php)
• Kenya HERE Dataset – for Road network • RCMRD Portal
• ILRI Portal • FEWSNET
• QGIS OSM – (for Commercial hubs, Public • FAO
transport stops, Business points) • WorldClime.org – for Climate data
• Choose 30 seconds category for
• NB/: Terms and conditions apply better accuracy
 PRACTICAL EXERCISE 1 : Working with Vector Data
• Download and Install QGIS Software (3.28LTR)
• Download relevant vector data for Kenya from online sources
• Ensure to download Metadata for each data set
• Using appropriate GIS tools in QGIS environment, you are required to prepare a resource map for
your county by carrying out the following tasks:
• Identify all the relevant data sets for Kenya (Forest, roads, Towns, market centers, water bodies,
admin boundary ……..)
• Data preparation (Clipping, projecting…) - Extract features to your area of interest (AOI)
• Data Editing (Check for any under/over shoots….)
• Data processing (Generalization, Symbolization, Labeling…)
• Data Presentation - Prepare final map layout (include relevant map elements)
• Export output as JPEG and PDF
• Prepare a brief report with some screen shots for the procedure followed to arrive at the final
output ( See details on separate sheet of Assignment 1)
• Date Due: 6th October, 2023
 THE END

END OF LECTURE 3