Geographical Information

System
M. Shashi
Definition
• Is a collection of computer hardware, software and
geographic data for capturing, storing, updating,
manipulating, analysing, and displaying all forms of
geographically referenced information
• Geospatial data are data that describe both the locations and
characteristics of spatial features such as roads, land parcels
and vegetation stands on the earth’s surface
• Raw data can come from a range of sources, such as aerial
photographs, previously digitized maps and GPS
The path of geographic
Information
Concept of
layers in GIS
Map layers shown are
A. Parcels
B. Zoning
C. Floodplain
D. Wetlands
E. Land cover
F. Soils
G. Reference framework
H. Composite overlay
Components of GIS
• Hardware
• Software
• Data
• People
• Infrastructure
• Methods
• Hardware
• The general hardware component of a geographical information system is the
computer or central processing unit
• It is linked to a disk drive storage unit, which provides space for storing data
and programs
• A digitizer, scanner and other device is used to convert data from maps and
documents into digital form and send them to computer
• A digitizer board is a flat board used for vectorization of any map object
• A plotter or other kind of display device is used to present the result of the
data processing and a tape device is used for storing data or programs on
magnetic tape
• Software
• The GIS software includes the programs and the user interface for
driving the hardware
• GIS software is essential to generate, store, analyse, manipulate
and display geographic information or data.
• A good GIS software requires user friendliness, functionalities,
compatibilities, updatability, documentation, cost-effectiveness
• The following is a list of GIS software producers and their main
products
• Environmental Systems Research Institute ( ESRI ): ArcGIS
• Autodesk: AutoCAD Map
• Clark Labs: IDRISI
• International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences: ILWIS
• Mapinfo Corporation: Mapinfo
• Bentley Systems: Microstation
• PCI Geomatics: PAMAP
• TYDAC Inc. : SPANS
• QGIS
• Data
• Data is the most important component of a GIS
• Consists of various kinds of inputs that the system takes to
produce information
• Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in
house, compiled to custom specifications and requirements
• A GIS can integrate spatial data with other existing data resources,
often stored in a DBMS
Functions of GIS
• Data Collection
• Capture Data
• Data storing, processing and analysis
• Store Data
• Query Data
• Analyse Data
• Output Production
• Display Data
• Produce output
• People
• Refers to GIS professionals and users who define the purpose and objectives,
and provide the reason and justification for using GIS
• GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system
and develop plans for applying it to real world problems
• GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain the system
to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work
• The identification of GIS specialists versus end users is often critical to the
proper implementation of GIS technology
• Method
• A successful GIS operates according to a well designed
implementation plan and business rules, which are the models
and operating practices unique to each organization
• Infrastructure
• Refers to the necessary physical, organizational, administrative and
cultural environments that support GIS operations
• Includes requisite skills, data standards, data clearing houses, and
general organizational patterns
GIS Data
• GIS Data is the key component of a GIS and has two general types
• Spatial Data and
• Attribute data
Spatial Data
• Spatial data are used to provide the visual representation of a
geographic space and is stored as raster and vector types
• May be
• Discrete features
• Individually distinguishable features that do not exist between observations
• Include points, lines and areas
• Continuous features
• That exist spatially between observations
• Ex: elevation, precipitation
Data Representation
• Vector Data Types
• Points
• Lines and Strings
• Polygons
• Raster Data Types
• Pixels
• Grid cells
• Points
• Define single geometric locations
• They are used to locate features such as houses, wells, mines, or bridges
• Lines and strings
• Obtained by connecting points
• A line connects two points and a string is a sequence of two or more connected lines
• Lines and strings are used to represent and locate roads, streams, fences, property
lines etc.
• Polygons
• Consists of continuous space within three or more connected lines or strings that
form a closed loop
• Represent government jurisdictions, parcels of land ownership, different types of
land cover, or large buildings
• Pixels
• Usually tiny squares that represent the smallest elements into which a digital
image is divided
• Continuous arrays of pixels, arranged in rows and columns, are used to enter
data from aerial photos, orthophotos, satellite images etc.
• Assigning a numerical value to each pixel specifies the distributions of colors
or tones through the image
• Pixel size can be varied and is usually specified by the number of dots per inch
(dpi)
• Grid Cells
• Single elements, within a continuous geographic variable
• Used to represent slopes, soil types, land cover, water table depths,
population density etc.
• The distribution of a given data type within an area is indicated by assigning a
numerical value to each cell. For eg. Showing soil types in an area using
number 2 to represent sand, 5 for loam etc.
Land cover
maps of a
region
a) The region using standard
topological symbols
b) Vector representation of
the same region
c) Raster representation of
the region using a coarse-
resolution grid cell
d) Raster representation using
a finer resolution grid-cell
Attribute data
• Attribute data describe the characteristics of spatial features
• Attributes are the characteristics of the map features, and holding of
the descriptive information about the geographic features. Attributes
are the non-spatial data associated with time and area entities
• They are considered characteristics of entity
• The actual value of the attribute that has been measured (sampled)
and stored in the database is called attribute value
Joining Spatial and Attribute Data
• Georelational data model stores attribute data separately from spatial data
in a split system, the two data components are linked through the feature
IDs
• The object based data model stores spatial data and attribute data along
with other attributes in a single system
• A relational database is a collection of tables, the connection between
tables is made through a key, a common field whose value can uniquely
identify a record in a table
• A relational database is efficient and flexible for data search, data retrieval,
data editing, and creating tabular reports
• All tables can remain separate until a query or an analysis requires that
attribute data from different tables be linked together
GIS Database
• Factors to be considered prior to developing the database for a GIS
• Types of data that can be obtained
• Optimum formats for these data
• Reference coordinate system that will be used for spatially relating all data
• Necessary accuracy of each data type
• Provisions for updating database
• Methods for generating digital data
• From field surveys
• Total Station and GPS data
• Digitizing from aerial photos with stereoplotters
• Accuracy depends on scale, quality of photos, accuracy of GCPs, experience of the
operator
• Digitizing existing graphic material
• Maps, plans, diagrams, other graphic documents
• Using tablet digitizer
• Keyboard entry – usually non-spatial
• Existing digital data sets – generated by agencies involved in GIS
• Scanning – to convert hard copy maps to digital maps
Tablet digitizer
interfaced
with personal
computer
GIS Operations
Spatial Data Input Data entry: Use existing data, create new data
Data editing
Geometric transformation
Projection and Reprojection
Attribute Data management Data entry and verification
Database management
Attribute data manipulation
Data Display Cartographic symbolization
Map design
Data exploration Attribute data query
Spatial data query
Geographic visualization
Data analysis Vector data analysis: buffering, overlay, distance
measurement, spatial statistics, map manipulation
Raster data analysis: Local, neighbourhood, zonal, global,
raster data manipulation
Terrain mapping and analysis
Viewwhed and watershed
Spatial interpolation
Geocoding and dynamic segmentation
Path analysis and network applications
GIS Analytical Functions
• Most GIS are equipped with a set of basic analytical functions that
enable data to be manipulated, analysed and queried
• These functions, coupled with appropriate databases, provide GIS
with their powerful capabilities for supplying information that so
significantly aids in planning, management, and decision making
• Some of the more common and useful spatial analysis and
computational functions are
• Proximity analysis
• Boundary operations
• Overlaying
• Logical operations
• Proximity Analysis
• Creates new polygons that are geographically related to nodes, lines or
existing polygons, and usually involves processes called buffering
• Buffering
• Point buffering
• Line buffering
• Polygon buffering
• Boundary operations
• Adjacency
• Connectivity
• Analysis of the intersections or connections of linear features
• Overlaying
• The individual layers are spatially registered to each other through a common
reference network or coordinate system
• Having various data sets available in spatially related layers makes the overlay
function possible
• Logical Operations
• Attribute data that is related to the features present in the GIS are stored in a
database
• The database can be used to perform logical operations on the data
• The number of useful logical queries that can be performed is limited only be
the data contained in the database and the imagination of the user
Data Visualization
• GIS can provide hardcopy maps, statistical summaries, modeling
solutions and graphical display of maps for both spatial and tabular
data
• For many types of geographic operation the end result is best
visualized as a map or graph
• Maps are very efficient at storing and communicating geographic
information
• GIS provides new and exciting tools to extend the art of visualization
of output information to the users
Thanks!!!