Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1 Introduction
Energy is an essential ingredient for human life on earth. It is used in all
activities of society, for preparing meals, making cloth, building house and other
activities. Human beings have needed and used energy at an increasing rate for
their sustenance and well-being. One of the important requirements of energy for
man is in the form of food. A brief description of the profile of energy is presented
in this chapter.
Common primary energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass
(such as wood). Other primary energy sources available include nuclear energy
The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are
Non-Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a
traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price and used especially in rural
relatively short period of time, energy sources that are replenished more rapidly
are termed as renewable. These include firewood or fuel wood from forest, petro
plants, plant biomass ie. agricultural waste like animal dung, solar energy, wing
energy, water energy in the form of hydro-electricity and tidal energy and
develop over a longer period of time. As a result of unlimited use, they are likely
to be exhausted one day. These include coal, mineral, natural gas and nuclear
power. Coal, petroleum and natural gases are common sources of energy being
organic (biotic) in this origin. They are also called fossil fuels.
It is evident from Table 2.1 that around two-third of Indian households still
use firewood and other bio mass for cooking purpose. It is noted that this source is
the most harmful in terms of the emission of green house gases. Combustion of
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biomass (firewood, dung cake, etc.) emits not only carbon dioxide, but also nitrous
(nitric) oxides and methane. The environment friendly fuel of LPG is being used
kerosene and LPG have not touched around three-fourth of the households in the
country.
Source Percent
LPG 17.1
Kerosene 5.0
Others 5.0
Total 100
20
2.3.1 Regional Variation in the Dependence on Sources of Cooking
Energy
Table 2.2 shows that the dependence on firewood is more intense in states
the hilly states located in the North and Northeastern parts of the country. On the
other hand, only a small percentage of households use firewood, and the majority
use LPG in urbanized areas such as Delhi, Chandigarh, Goa, Pondichery, etc.
Kerosene is also widely used in urbanized areas and localities such as Sikkim and
21
Table: 2.2 - State-wise Distribution of Primary Source of Cooking
Energy
22
2.3.2 Long Term Energy Scenario for India
Coal
demand in India is expected to increase over the next 10-15 years. Although new
oil and gas plants are planned, coal is expected to remain the dominant fuel for
the last decade, the gap between electricity supply and demand continues to
increase. The resulting shortfall has had a negative impact on industrial output and
economic growth. However, to meet the expected future demand, indigenous coal
290 million tonnes per year, but coal demand is expected to more than double by
beneficiated to improve the quality; Coal imports will also need to increase
Oil
India's demand for petroleum products is likely to rise from 97.7 million
23
Natural Gas
India's natural gas production is likely to rise from 86.56 million cmpd in
Electricity
energy deficit of 8.4 percent. Keeping this in view and to maintain a GDP (gross
2012 from the level of 100,010 MW as on March 2001, that is a capacity addition
Nuclear Energy
Nuclei of atoms can be broken down into two or more parts through
artificial methods. In the same way two or more nuclei of light weight can be
combined to form a big nucleus. The above two types or reactions are called
"Nuclear Reactions". During these reactions some of the atomic mass is converted
into energy. This energy is called Nuclear Energy. The amount of the nuclear
E = Energy
M = Mass
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C = Velocity of light (3 x 108 m/sec.)
nuclear energy (because C2 = 9 x 1016) for example, the energy produced by 3.5
energy produced by one tonne of Uranium. Uranium, Thorium and Radium are
some important radio active elements, which give off specific rays like α (Alpha),
reactions. The energy is generated in the form of heat, which is converted into
steam. The steam can be used in running steam - turbines to produce electric
energy. When a nucleus is broken down into two or more parts, the process is
called "nuclear fission". The combination of two or more lighter nuclei of low
Solar Energy
The energy of sun called solar energy can be used effectively. The earth
receives energy continuously from the sun at the rate of about 75,000 x 10 KWH
of energy every day Green Plants have the capacity to trap the solar energy and
they convert to solar energy into chemical form by a process called photo
synthesis. Most part of solar energy is left unused. Just 0.1% of this could meet the
total world energy requirements. Scientists have developed ways and means to
25
trap solar energy artificially and convert into various forms like electrical,
the form of electro magnetic waves. One square centimetre area on earth receives
two calories of solar energy in one minute. It can be increased through artificial
means to meet the energy requirement. Photo - chemical change involves changes
due to heating effects of sun rays. eg. during our child hood days we might have
Some chemical changes also can occur in objects that absorb solar energy.
eg. bright colour clothes fade away when put into strong sunlight continuously.
Black surfaces absorb sunlight and thus get heated. Sun light also causes the
When sunlight falls on some specific metals like sodium, potassium and
lithium it activates the electrons inside it. The excited electrons after some time
return to their original level after releasing the energy, It is called 'Photo Electric
Effect'.
All the above principles are used to convert solar energy into heat, chemical
Reseach Institute (CAZRI) space heating buildings during cold weather in USA
26
Advantages
1. Can be used in remote and rural areas, ships and military camps where
4. The greatest and foremost advantage is that it does not produce wastes or
pollutants.
Disadvantages
2. Solar cells, solar panels and solar energy conversion equipments are costly.
Progress in India
electric power, generators and solar pump sets are being used even in remote
27
Wind Power
hills and mountain slopes by sun rays. There is kinetic energy in wind. Even in
ancient times the great sailors utilized kinetic energy of the wind in sailing their
The kinetic energy of wind is caused by its motion, the higher the velocity
of wind the greater the kinetic energy in it. This velocity of wind is affected by
solar radiation, which varies from season to season and from place to place. Strong
winds blow in coastal plains and hill. The kinetic energy of the wind can be
utilized by converting it into mechanical form. With this wind mills are operated.
Large blades of wind mills can convert much of the wind energy into mechanical
form.
costly. At times there may be no wind and the power generation may stand still.
Progress in India
with 17,000 turbines generating 1500MW is the world’s largest producer of wind
energy. India started utilization of the wind power during the period of the VIIth
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five year plan. It was found that on 80 per cent days winds in Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat below 10Km / hour for
morethan 10 hours and 20 hours on 40 per cent days. Large scale research in this
different parts of Indian states and union territories. In 1995, the total wind energy
Thoothukudi District are the major wind energy producing places. Many villages
situated in the mountain pass area of Western Ghat naturally it is well suited for
Bio mass means dry weight of organic matter produced by plants, their
derivatives and wastes. It includes plant parts, animals and animal wastes. As
another form of indirect use of solar energy. It is very cheap, renewable and
almost pollution free. Bio-mass energy has from the following three ways.
over.
29
2. By converting bio - mass into alcohol through thermo chemical process and
using it in engines.
The energy from bio-mass is very high. One cubic metre of bio-gas
contains about 6000 calories which is equivalent to 0.8 litres of petrol, or 0.6 litres
of crude oil or 1.5m3 of natural gas, or 1.4kg of charcoal or 2.2 KWH of electrical
energy.
highly combustible and gives non - luminous flame. Estimates show that it can
produce 22,500 million cubic metres of methane (Gobar gas) and 206 million
metric tonnes of organic manual every year. Scientists have identified several
species of plants (Petro - plants) that can be used as bio-mass sources. Green
leaves, animal urine, animal fodder left over or waste and perishable food wastes
are other bio - mass resources besides the animal dung. (Gobar)
cultivable land. So where is the land for the creation of more bio - mass?
Progress in India
Bio - gas Development Programme. The installation of these plants is going on all
30
over the country at the block and panchayat level in rural areas. During the year
1984 - 1985 alone 1,50,000 Bio - gas plants were installed. Now it is estimated
The total power consumption in the State during the last twenty five years
has shown about six-fold increase. In Tamil Nadu, energy use has been increasing
commercial and industrial use of energy. During the last three decades Tamil
Nadu’s total installed capacity has increased more than three and a half times. Yet,
the demand for electricity continues to increase at an accelerated rate with the
result energy and peaking shortages hamper the growth of industrial and other
sectors. Apparently, to meet the increasing demand for energy supply, the public
the private sector. The Government of India have initiated a number of measures
to further the pace of reforming the power sector in the country and make the State
1. The energy Conservation Bill 2000, which envisages the efficient use of
energy and its conservation was introduced. Efforts are being made to
31
create awareness about energy conservation potential by better
devised to renovate / modernize and refurbish old plants. Plants at the verge
3. Scheme for securitisation of dues of Central Sector Power and coal utilities
to assist the State Electricity Board to clear these dues was initiated;
rationalizing the tariff for hydro projects and simplifying the procedure of
5. The Government of India has formulated the revised Mega Power Policy to
generate power at the lowest possible tariff by setting up such plants at the
pit heads;
32
2.3.4 Energy and Environment
The interaction between energy and environment has been dealt with
field, a forest, an ocean, or even an aquarium’. Human use of energy has an effect
on the eco system in which the energy is used and the changes caused contribute,
effects of chemical and physical agents affect not only the living organisms but
effect, acid rain, the ozone hole, and the immediate health hazards necessitate
Oil, natural gas, and coal being the major energy resources, their depletion
poses the need for identifying alternate energy resources. Huge amount of money
gas in different areas in the globe. While it is certain that the globe will not
sustain the energy requirements from conventional sources the need for identifying
The actions to protect the global environment cannot be an event that may
last for just a few decades; it has to be a long drawn process. As such the effort has
33
to be all pervasive. Conceptually in a broader sense the energy and environmental
education has to be at the first instance to for the policy makers at the national and
Global level. Economists and politicians may not go for short term profits at the
cost of long term welfare. Also, they should assume, while taking any decision
that their primary responsibility is to leave their country as a better place for the
next generation. Environmental education should result in a firm belief that the
present generation may have to sacrifice a lot in the interest of the future
generations.
The other end from which the environmental education can start is in the
minds of the children. The desired end points of interest at different levels of
biological organization should be taught to the children and they must be made
environment, disasters and managing disasters and so on. Ready made teaching
The most important single factor, which can act as a constraint on the
correlation between the degree of economic growth, the size of per capita income
and per capita consumption of energy. Since energy is an essential input of all
34
productive economic activity, the process of economic development inevitably
Energy development has been given high priority by the State and Centre
over the plan periods. In Tamil Nadu, the State Sector investment for power
development has been very high. Cumulatively upto the IX plan, over 22 percent
of plan expenditure had been devoted for the development of this vital
infrastructure. The power sector attracted the highest allocation during the first
three plan periods (37.7%, 42.2% and 37.6% respectively). It may be noted that a
sum of Rs.8,030 crores accounting for 20.07 percent of X plan outlay has been
Among the factors that have led to distortion in the supply and demand of
LPG, and protection of state oil monopolies, for example through import
Although the measures may have been introduced with a view to making
cleaner fuels more accessible to the poor, universal fuel subsidies have often
35
To reduce the adverse fiscal impact of such policies, some governments
have supplemented a heavy kerosene subsidy with a ration system that made
subsidised kerosene available in small amounts, but not sufficient for cooking. In
addition, a price differential between domestic kerosene and LPG on one hand and
other petroleum products that are close substitutes (e.g. commercial kerosene and
LPG, and diesel) have led to illegal diversion of domestic fuels to the commercial
and transport sector; thus further reducing their availability for the poor.
Lack of incentives and enabling environments for the private sector may
a biogas project in India where meeting of quality standards and durability of the
36
households: if used to support the purchase of efficient appliances that reduce fuel
(and health) costs in the long term, this could be a powerful instrument for change.
The generation of power and the consumption of power in Tamil Nadu are
37
There was a moderate gain during 2002 – 03 both in building installed
power generation capacities (4.3 %) and also on the gross power availability
(5.7%), despite a setback in the hydel generation. To meet the increasing demand,
the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board resorted to a higher level of purchase during the
year and ensured unrestricted supply to all the categories of consumers. The per
capita consumption of power increased from 567 units in 2001 – 02 to 586 units in
31.12.2004 was 9394 Mega Watts (MW). This comprises 5381 MW of TNEB’s
Central Sector Projects and external assistance of 360 MW. Apart from this, a total
capacity of 1664 MW is available from wind mills in the Private Sector and 19
MW of power from the wind mills of TNEB. Besides this a total capacity of 275
annum. Energy consumption during 2004 - 05 upto December 2004 was 38,462
23.02.2005.
38
Table: 2.4 – Power Sector – Profile
Source: Economic Appraisal 2002 – 03, Evolution and Applied Research Department, Government
of Tamil Nadu, Kuralagam, Chennai, P.86.
High Tension / High Tension (EHT/HT) lines, 4.75 lakh kms. of Low Tension
(LT) lines, 1.59 lakh distribution transformers and 169.10 lakh service
connections.
39
To meet the increase in demand, the TNEB has planned to augment its
transmission and distribution system during the X Plan period (2002 - 07).
In Tamil Nadu, energy use has been increasing at a faster rate in respect of
apparently explains the relatively low growth of commercial and industrial use of
energy. During the last three decades Tamil Nadu’s total installed capacity has
increased more than three and a half times. Yet, the demand for electricity
continues to increase at an accelerated rate with the result energy and peaking
shortages hamper the growth of industrial and other sectors. The profile of the
The table 2.5 reveals that, the year 1999 - 2000 witnessed an accelerated
growth in power generation by 6.4 percent and the total power consumption by
9.3 percent as compared to (-) 4.0 percent and 3.8 percent respectively during
decreased to 13.3 percent in 1999 - 2000. The per capita consumption steadily
increased from 430 units in 1997 - 98 to 452 units in 1998 - 99 and further to 480
40
Table: 2.5 - Power Sector: A Profile in Tamil Nadu
% % %
Items 1997- 98 Change 1998 - 99 Change 1999 - 00 Change
5. Total Power
Consumption 26,740 4.5 27,657 3.8 30,238 9.3
(Million units)
6. Per Capita
(Consumption units) 430 2.4 452 5.1 480 6.2
7. Number of Agricultural
Pumpsets Energized 16.10 2.5 16.44 2.1 16.79 2.1
(lakhs)
Source: www.govt.tn.in.
Note: % percentage change over previous year
The table concludes that the power generation increases year by year, and at
the same time the power purchase also increases. So there is a negative
41
relationship between the power generation and power purchase. It is not
appreciated. So the government should take necessary action to increase the power
generation.
1999 - 2000. The source-wise number of powerhouses and installed capacities are
42
Table 2.6 explains that, the total installed capacity of the State’s own
All the additions (39 MW) came from the three-hydel stations – Sathanur (7.5
MW), Parsons Valley (30MW) and Tirumurthi Mini (1.95 MW). It is significant
to note that the State has been taking efforts for exploiting even the mini and
micro hydel sources to augment the capacity. With no additions possible in respect
38.5 percent in 1997 - 98 to 39.0 percent during 1999 - 2000. In Tamil Nadu
Substantial quality of the power has been added to the State grid by means
of purchases made from Central Sector Projects such as Neyveli I and II, National
Project (MAPP), Kalpakkam. One notable addition to this category is the Kaiga
Atomic Power station in Karnataka, the purchases from which were linked with
the State grid in 1998 - 99. The installed capacities of the three sectors are
43
Table: 2.7 - Installed Capacity: Central Sector Projects (MW)
Source: www.govt.tn.in.
Table 2.7 reveals that, the share of installed capacities from the Central
1999 - 2000. This addition came as a much needed relief after several years of
stagnancy and helped improve the capacity due from Central Sector Projects from
The Tamil Nadu government encourages the private power sectors - both
thermal power and windmill power. The capacity creation of private sector is
Private sector came into play in power development for the first time in
1997 - 98. In 1998 - 99, a quantum of 196 MW (4 units each of 49 MW) Diesel
44
Electric Power Project (DEPP) was commissioned. Encouraged by the private
favourable pricing agreements, the power needs of the State could be adequately
met. It is also noteworthy, that the State has made great strides in exploiting non-
conventional sources of energy, especially, wind energy with the help of private
sector.
2.Wind Mills
Source: www.govt.tn.in.
45
2.4.5 Power Generation
compensate the set back in the hydel generation during 1999 - 2000. It is displayed
in Table 2.9.
Source: www.govt.tn.in
Note: Figure in bracket indicates percentage change over the previous year
Table 2.9 indicates the electricity generated through hydel capacity has
been declining in the recent years from 5,287 mu in 1997-98 to 4,918 mu in 1998 -
46
Table: 2.10 - Thermal Power Generation
Generation (mu) PLF (%)
Source: www.govt.tn.in
Table 2.10 shows the details of the total thermal power generation during
1999 - 2000 that increased by 10.5 percent to reach 18,861 mu. The performance
of all the thermal stations was quite impressive save that of the Ennore Thermal
Plant. The overall Plant Load Factor (PLF) which indicates the operational
efficiency of the plants and defined as the ratio of average load carried by a power
in 1999 - 2000. This table discloses that the total thermal power generation
Wind energy, solar energy, biomass and other forms of bio energy, tidal
energy, fuel cell, ocean-thermal and geo-thermal energy are important among
renewable energy sources. Among these sources, though the first three renewable
47
energy sources, namely, wind, solar and bio energy are being harnessed in a big
way in India and in Tamil Nadu, the other sources have not yet reached a stage of
1. Government
Wind 27.2 19.5 17.8 19.5
Solar 0.05 0.13 0.12 0.15
Co-generation Plants 60.0 54.0 54.0 54.0
Total 87.25 73.63 71.92 73.65
2. Private
Wind 1,129.4 1,070.7 1,239.3 1,286.2
Solar -- 339 0.031 0.018
Co-generation Plants 312 - 340.0 546.0
The major share of this comes from wind energy followed by biogas based
48
2.5 Energy Consumption in Households
The household sector, the most important one, consumes 70 percent of the
energy even now which is absolutely necessary for survival. Of the various facts
most of the developing countries, the household sector is still the largest single
such as education, income, family size, price of energy occupation, cost of stove,
fuel types, plinth area of the house in sq. feet, hours of cooking and nature of stove
for various uses. Commercial sources include electricity, kerosene, petrol, diesel
and L.P. Gas. Non-commercial sources consist of firewood, dung cake, and
forms a major share. In the face of global energy crisis with the fast depleting
situation of primary sources of energy like coal, oil and gas and depleting forest
resources in the country, it is essential not only to use these fuels more efficiently
and sensibly but also to look for better and improved heating and cooking ovens.
1
Elizabeth Cecelski, “Energy and Rural Women’s Work: Crisis. Response and Policy
Alternatives”, International Labour View, 126 (1): 1987, p.41.
49
In the context of these situations, the present study pays attention to
suggest ways to optimize energy use with care to protect the environment.
It covers an area of 546 sq.km and comprises 51 villages. According to the 2001
census, the total population of the taluk was 3,08,154. The rural energy
indicates that although all types of fuels are currently in use, most domestic needs
are met only by firewood. Monthly per capita consumption of fuel wood was 89
kg, of kerosene 0.25 litres (mainly for lighting), of electricity 2 kWh, and LPG gas
12 kg.
50
Table: 2.12 – Rural Energy Consumption Pattern in Tiruchendur Taluk
Basic Data
Geographical Area (according to village records) Sq.km 546
Villages No. 51
Households No. 37,569
Population (2001 census) Persons 3,08,154
Rural Population Persons 1,57,557
Net Area Shown (2005) H.a 15,634
Cultivable wasteland H.a 11,773
Forest Area H.a 5,168
Livestock Population No. 1,45,772
Number of renewable Energy Systems installed
Solar Heaters No. 2
Photovoltaic panel for street lighting No. 125
Source: Compiled from DRDA records, Collector Office, Thoothukudi.
station in Tamil Nadu under the control of the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board with
three units of 2 tonne M.W. each generating 50 million units of energy daily. The
first unit was commissioned in July, 1979, the second in December 1980 and the
third in March 1982. This power station feeds about 1/3 of the total power
51
Generation of Electricity (in M.U)
a) Wind Mill Generation : 28.1
b) Thermal : 6,596
c) Power purchased : 28.1
Consumption of Electricity (in M.U)
a) Agriculture : 36
b) Industry : 369
c) Commercial : 60
d) Domestic : 132
e) Public lighting and water works 25
In the Thoothukudi district people seldom use cow dung as fuel for
domestic purposes. On the contrary it is used both as a manure and meagre input
for the production of cobar gas in household and institutions for cobar gas plants
are very liberal items. The life span of these plants has been estimated at 25 years.
Cobar gas plants are available in three models. They include K.K. model, Janata
model and Deenapandu model. The biogas plant installation in the Thoothukudi
52
Table: 2.13 – Biogas Plant Installation in Thoothukudi District
(in Number)
Achievement
Year Target Achieved percentage
The table 2.13 reveals that, there are 761 biogas plants installed in the
Thoothukudi district. Year after year the plant shows a downward trend. The
53
2.7.2 Improved Chulha
voluntary organizations. The chulha supplied are in different models. They are
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University model, Sukhad model and smokeless model.
chulhas enjoy more advantages like better burning of firewood, no smoke, no air
blowing, high thermal efficiency and finally saving of fire wood over 25 percent.
Table 2.14 shows that in 1990 –91 the total improved chulhas supplied in
Thoothukudi district was 2,340, but it has decreased to 825 numbers of improved
chulhas in the year 2004 – 05. The improved chulhas supplied by the panchayat
Agency. The table draws the conclusion that the improved chulhas supplied in the
Thoothukudi district show a decreasing trend because the people change their
energy pattern.
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Table: 2.14 – Improved Chulahs Supplied in the Thoothukudi District
(No.)
By Panchayat
Year Union By DRDA Total
In the Thoothukudi district totally 175 solar street lights have been
installed. Table 2.15 shows the number of such solar street lights in the district
year wise.
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Table: 2.15 – Solar Street Light Installation in the Thoothukudi District
(in Number)
Achievement
Year Target Achieved percentage
2002 – 03 25 25 100
2003 – 04 50 50 100
2004 – 05 50 50 100
2005 – 06 50 50 100
The table 2.15 reveals that in the year 2002 – 03 the Thoothukudi district
installed the solar streetlights. In the year 2002 – 03, 25 solar streetlights were
installed but in the year 2003 – 04, 50 solar streetlights were installed. After that
2.7.4 Kerosene
entitled to get a minimum of not less than 10 litres of kerosene per month. But the
same was fixed at five litres in B grade municipalities and town panchayats and
through fair price shops in the Tiruchendur taluk is presented in Table 2.16.
56
Table: 2.16 – Kerosene Consumption through fair price shops in the
Tiruchendur Taluk
(in Litre)
Consumption Population
Year (per month) Covered
was 0.378 litre. In 2004 – 05 it was increased to 0.481 litre. The average
consumption of kerosene has increased and it means the people mostly use this
In the Tiruchendur taluk 145 ration shops distribute essential goods through
66,194 family cards. A block-wise distribution of ration shops and family cards is
57
Table: 2.17 – Ration Shops of the Tiruchendur Taluk
The table gives above accounts for the lowest number of ration shops in the
taluk. While distributing kerosene, ration shops disqualify those who own two
liquefied petroleum gas cylinders from availing themselves of the monthly quota
of it. However, those who own only one cylinder are rendered eligible for the
A brief description of the profile of the study area namely the Tiruchendur
1986 has certain rare features. The mixed landscape of the sea and the ‘theri’
(waste) lands has imbibed some special traits in the character of the sons of the
58
soil. Valour, devotion and patriotism are the watchwords of the people here. The
the supreme sacrifices of the illustrious sons of the district like V.O.Chidamparam
Pillai who brought the first Swadeshi ship ‘Galia’ to the Thoothukudi port and
The poet Subramania Bharathi born at Ettayapuram in this district was also
Inception
district which is named after the great patriot and freedom fighter Late
Tuticorin, by bifurcating the erstwhile Tirunelveli District.2 The district has been
renamed as the Thoothukudi district from 1997 as per the G.O. Ms. No. 618/
Location
North, Tirunelvelli district on the South and West and the Bay of Bengal on the
2
District Industry Centre, Chidambaranar District at Tuticorin – Action Plan for 1989-90 to
1993 - 94, p. 2.
59
East. It lies between 0.8 and 45’ of the Northern longitude and 78 and 11’ of the
Eastern longitude. The total area of the district is 4621 square kilometres.3
Tiruchendur), eight taluks and 12 blocks in the district. This district comprises 19
town panchayats and two municipalities. There are 468 revenue villages grouped
in 408 panchayats.
The climate of Thoothukudi is neither too hot nor too cold. During the
months of April, May and June the Thoothukudi district is hot. During winter,
that is, in the months of December and January, the climate is pleasant.
3
District Statistical Hand Book 2003 - 04, Thoothukudi District.
60
Tiruchendur Block
Alwarthirunagari Block
Udangudi Block
61
The maximum temperature is 35.70 C and the minimum is 24.50 C. The
rainfall is high in the coastal taluks namely Thoothukudi and Tiruchendur. The
normal rainfall of the district is 655.7mm but the actual rainfall varies year to year,
When the North East Monsoon started, the actual rainfall was higher namely,
319.5 millimetres. During the cold season the actual rainfall was very low that is,
41.7 millimetres.
Irrigation
Thoothukudi district, through 52 system tanks. The river rises from Agasthiar
Tirunelveli, Srivaikuntam and Tiruchendur taluks (the former two taluks are in the
Tirunelveli District) (the latter two taluks are in the Thoothukudi district) and
enters into the sea at Punnakayal (in the Thoothukudi district) a place between
Thoothukudi and Tiruchendur. The most fertile lands lie on either sides of the
river5. The rest of the lands in other taluks are dry lands. In the taluks of
blown sandy belts, red in colour, with sand dunes, which are locally known as
4
District Statistical Hand Book 2003 - 04, Thoothukudi District.
5
Durairaj.S, “An Agricultural Profile- Tuticorin”, The Hindu, dated January 1,1998 – Magazine B,
p.8.
62
‘Theri’. The net area under irrigation through government canal is 3,873 hectares,
through tank irrigation, 18,040 hectares, through tube wells 256 hectares and by
Agriculture
paddy, chillies, banana, cumbu, chenna and cotton. The total cultivated area in the
Thoothukudi district is 1,65,998 hectares of which the net area sown is 1,60,992
hectares and the rest is 5,006 hectares.6. The intensity of cropping is very low,
Industry
Thoothukudi, the Central Government has a Research Centre for marine salt in
addition to the State Government’s units. There are two industrial estates in the
district, one at Kovilpatti and another at Thoothukudi. The major industrial units
(DCW), Sterlite Copper Smelting Industries, Heavy Water Plant and Thermal
Power Project.
6
District Statistical Hand Book 2003 - 04, Thoothukudi District.
63
Forest
The total reserved forest area is 11,012 hectares. In the total forest
products, timber contributes 69.857 cu.m., fuel wood 13,273 metric ton and
Demographic Situation
persons of which 7,66,823 were males and 8,05,450 were females. The rural
population accounted for 9,07,500 persons while the urban population was
6,64,773. The density of population in the district was 340 persons per square
kilometre.7 The total population of the Tiruchendur taluk is 3,08,154 persons out
7
District Statistical Hand Book 2002 - 03, Thoothukudi District.
64
Table: 2.19 – Classification of Area and Population Block wise
(2001 Census)
(in number)
Population
Name of the Block Area
(sq.k.m) Persons Male Female
65
Literacy
Employment
The total workers in the district were 6,73,682, out of which male workers
were 4,30,386 and female workers, 2,43,296. The rural workers were 4,28,883
while urban workers were 2,44,799. The employment pattern shows that there
in household industry, and 3,89,197 other workers. There were 88,944 marginal
Fisheries
ranging from Vembar village to Periathazhi village covering 135 kms. Marine
8
District Statistical Hand Book 2002 - 03, Thoothukudi District.
66
fishing is one of the sources of employment to the fisher folk. In 2001 the total
population of the fisher folk was 43,707 out of which 21,180 fisher folk were
women were engaged chiefly in marketing fresh and dried fish. The per capita
income per family was only Rs.6,573. A Fisheries College with Research Institute
The important towns and villages are well connected with a good network
of roads. The total length of roads in the Thoothukudi district is 4,705 km., out of
112.4 km and that of the State Highways is 1,994.232 km. Municipality and
Municipal Corporation roads contribute a length of 202.106 km. The district has a
June 1991 and the airport is located near Vagaikulam at a distance of 15 kms from
Thoothukudi.
9
Tamil Nadu Marine Fisher Folk Census year 2001 – Department of Fisheries, Government of Tamil Nadu,
pp. 210 – 212.
67
There are 39 post offices doing postal business alone and 406 post offices
doing post and telegraph works. The district has 95,155 telephone connections,
Port
The district has the pride of having a major Port, the Thoothukudi Harbour
Project renamed the Thoothukudi Port Trust. During 2003 – 04, 1517 vessels
entered Thoothukudi port and cargo to the tune of 1.36 crore tones are handled.
Exports of certain raw materials and finished products are shipped to about 20
foreign countries. The Thoothukudi port has been issued the prestigious ISO 9002
certificate for port operation and services and has joined the select group of world
ports by becoming the first Indian major port to get such certificates.
From the foregoing section on the profile of the study area, it is clear that
the Thoothukudi district has people of different occupations and the majority of
the workers earn their income through agriculture. Most of the villages are rain-
fed areas and paddy is cultivated mainly in the delta areas of the river
agricultural workers do not have regular employment throughout the year, they
have to earn their livelihood through other works during the off season.
10
District Statistical Hand Book 2003 - 04, Thoothukudi District.
68
2.8.1 Integral Rural Energy Programme
Biogas
bio-gas plants in the district. They are Vivekananda Kendra, Kanyakumari, Centre
Normally 2 cubic metre or 3 cubic metre bio-gas plants are constructed in the
the setting up of family type Bio - Gas plants is a central sector scheme and is
point number 19(d) of the 20 Point Programme. It has the following objectives:
households.
plants.
is given below:
69
Capacity of the Subsidy for SC/ST, SF/MF Western Subsidy for
Plant Ghats notified hilly areas. others
1 Cu.m. to 10
Rs.2,300 Rs.1,800
Cu.m.
Chulha
the programme at the district level. At the block level, there is a separate extension
cum Rural Welfare Department. They identify and select the beneficiaries at the
block level. Manons are given technical training about the installation and
The NPIC is Point No. 19(c) of the Twenty point Programme and part of
70
5. Employment generation in rural areas.
Subsidy
Fixed models with chimney Rs. 40/- per chulha. Rate of self employed
workers Rs. 20/- per chulha for single pot, Rs. 30/- per chulha for two / three pots.
Alwarthirunagari and Udankudi. All the blocks are directly linked with every
nook and corner of the district by means of a very good network of roads.
Tiruchendur block is situated in the south of the Thoothukudi District and situated
near the sea of Gulf of Mannar. This block is surrounded in the West and the
North by the Alwarthirunagari block, the East by Gulf of Mannar and the South by
the Udankudi block. The sea level of this block is 3.5 metre in height. The area of
this block is 135.68 sq. km. This block consists of 15 revenue villages and
areas.
This block has a total area of 135.68 sq. kilometers. As per the 2001 census,
the population of this block was 1,18,862 out of which the male population was
56,591 and the female population 62,271. The number of SC/ST was 18,068,
71
which was 15 percent of the total population. The number of the rural population
was 28,360 that is 23.86 percent of the total population. The density of population
is 223 sq. km. The number of females per 1000 males is 1100.
which, 44,522 are male (that is, 78.67 percent of the total male population) and
45,916 female (that is, 73.74 percent of the total women population of 62,271).
process, coir making, ice manufacturing and mineral water processing industries
come under small-scale industries. Fishing is a very important job in this block.
Agricultural labourers (15,905) constitute 43.76 percent of the total work force.
There are 7,759 male agricultural workers and 8,146 female ones. The total
only 3.54 percent of the total work force in the block. There are 391 male and 896
female workers in this category. Workers in other industries are 1,147. The
72
numbers of male and female workers are 105 and 1,042 respectively. They form
3.16 percent of the total work force. Other workers are 6,048 or 16.64 percent of
The total length of roads in this block is 21.9 km. The length of tar roads is
10.5 km, and of metal roads 8.62 km. The length of cement concrete roads is 1.18
The main crops cultivated in the block are paddy, banana, coconut,
groundnut, vegetables and fruits. The Tiruchendur block has few infrastructure
facilities and the cultivators mainly rely on the channel. The net area sown in this
block is 3,851 hectares. Current fallow and other fallow lands account for 2,761
hectares. The area under barren and uncultivated land is 549 hectares.
The Tiruchendur block has a large number of livestock like 24,115 cattle,
7,931 buffaloes, 11,123 sheep, 10,744 goats, 12 horses and ponies, 1,817 pigs, 436
donkeys and 9,063 poultry. Two milk co-operative societies are functiong in this
block and the total production of milk is 68,076 litres per year.
In this block all the 15 villages, 150 hamlets and four towns are electrified.
There are 1,686 tube lights and 29 sodium vapours in the streets.
73
2.9.2 Alwarthirunagari Block
the northern side, the Ottapidaram block is situated. The Thoothukudi and
Alwarthirunagari blocks are the eastern boundary of this block. To its southern
side, the Tirunelveli district lies. There are 31 village panchayats in this block.
schools, 34 middle schools, five high schools, eight higher secondary schools, an
This block has a total area of 216.73 Sq. kilometres. As per the 2001
census, the population of this block was 1,16,877 out of which the male population
was 55,669 and the female population 61,208. The number of rural population was
The density of population is 185 sq. km. The number of females per 1000
males is 910. The total numbers of literates is 87,966 out of which, 43,723 are
male (that is, 78.54 percent of the total male population) and 44,423 are female
The total length of roads in this block is 143.3 km. The length of tar roads
is 86.85 km, and of metal roads 28.7 km. The length of saral roads is 17.35 km
74
and the length of mud, unsurfaced roads is one kilo metre and cement concrete
The main crops cultivated in the block are paddy, banana, blackgram,
facilities and the cultivators mainly rely on the channel. The net area sown in this
block is 7,761 hectares. Current fallow and other fallow lands account for 3,843
hectares. The area under barren and uncultivated land is 100 hectares. The forest
There are sixteen revenue villages, seventeen village panchayats and a town
this block. There are Palm leaf Women Industrial Co-operative Society and
75
Parmankurichi is a Handloom centre wherein over 200 families depend on
weaving. The places of tourist attraction are Arul Migu Mutharamman Temple,
This block has a total area of 197 Sq. kilometres. As per the 2001 census,
the population of this block was 72,415 out of which the male population was
33,454 and the female population 38,961. The number of rural population was
The total number of literates is 56,432 out of which, 26,649 are male and
29,783 female. The total number of rural literates is 41,011 that is, 77.79 percent
of the total rural population. The total number of urban literates is 15,421 (that is,
The total number of work force in the block is 22,287 persons out of which
14,764 are male workers and 7,523 female workers. The percentage of workforce
pattern shows that the total number of cultivators is 3,108. Agricultural labourers
(5,085) constitute only 22.82 percent of the total work force. There are 4,184 male
agricultural workers and 901 female agricultural workers. The total number of
contribute 38.92 percent of the total work force in the block. There are 5,905 male
and 2,770 female workers in this category. Marginal workers are 2,824. The
numbers of male and female workers are 138 and 2,686 respectively. They form
76
12.97 percent of the total work force. Other workers are 2,595 or 11.64 percent of
The main crops cultivated in the block are paddy, coconut, banana, and
sugarcane. In the Udangudi block the cultivators mainly rely on the wells. The
net area sown in this block is 4,022 hectares and area more than once is 2,498
hectares. Current fallow and other fallow lands account for 3,566 hectares. The
area of barren and uncultivated land is 284 hectares. The forest land occupies
5,080 hectares.
In this block only ten biogas plants are installed. 16 revenue villages, one
town panchayat and 167 hamlets are electrified. There are 3,812 street tube lights,
175 sodium lights, 16 mercury lights and one tower light in this village.
77
2.10 Sample Profile
particulars, purpose of fuel use and electrification of the sample households in the
study area. A total sample size of 375 was randomly selected from the sample
villages.
Table 2.21.
Marginal 14 36 26 13 89
(15.73) (40.45) (29.21) (14.61) (100)
Medium 24 18 26 11 79
(30.38) (22.79) (32.91) (13.92) (100)
High 13 11 8 7 39
(33.33) (28.21) (20.51) (17.95) (100)
78
Out of the total sample size, 124 respondents (33.07 percent) belong to the
from the marginal income group, 24 from the medium income group and 13 from
the high-income group. There are 103 respondents (27.47 percent) belonging to
the most backward class, out of which 38 come under the low-income group, 36
from the marginal income group, 18 from the medium income group and 11 from
the high-income group. Respondents in the Scheduled Caste and Tribe category
are 104 (27.73 percent) distributed as 44 from low income, 26 from marginal
The respondents other than the above categories are grouped as other caste.
There are 44 (11.73 percent) respondents out of which, 13 are from low income,
another 13 from marginal, 11 from medium and seven from high-income groups.
This table reveals that the majority of the respondents belong to the backward
class, 33.07 percent of the total, followed by Scheduled Castes and Tribes, 27.73
percent.
of the total sample size, 277 respondents (73.87 percent) are male which includes
133 from low income, 67 from marginal income, 51 from medium income and 26
from high-income groups. There are 98 (26.13 percent) females, which include 35
79
from low income, 22 from marginal income, 28 from medium income and 13 from
Marginal 67 22 89
(75.28) (24.72) (100)
Medium 51 28 79
(64.56) (35.44) (100)
High 26 13 39
(66.67) (33.33) (100)
of years.
80
Table: 2.23 – Age – wise Distribution of the Respondents
(in Numbers)
Low 44 86 38 168
(26.19) (51.19) (22.62) (100)
Marginal 26 44 19 89
(29.21) (49.44) (21.35) (100)
Medium 21 36 22 79
(26.58) (45.57) (27.85) (100)
High 14 18 7 39
(35.90) (46.15) (17.95) (100)
Table 2.23 reveals that the respondents who are below 30 are
105 (28 percent), those between 30 and 45, 184 (49.07 percent) and those above
45, 86 (22.93 percent). There are 184 respondents belonging to the age group of
is also an important one. The details of the education levels of the respondents are
81
Table: 2.24 – Education Level of the Respondents
(in Numbers)
Higher
Income Primary Middle Secondary Studies Total
Groups
Low 37 64 45 22 168
(22.02) (38.10) (26.79) (13.10) (100)
Marginal 11 34 18 26 89
(12.36) (38.20) (20.22) (29.21) (100)
Medium 17 28 30 4 79
(21.52) (35.44) (37.97) (5.06) (100)
High 9 12 11 7 39
(23.08) (30.77) (28.21) (17.95) (100)
The respondents who are of the primary level are 74 (19.73 percent),
middle level 138 (36.80 percent), secondary level 104 (27.74 percent) and higher
studies level 59 (15.73 percent) in the total sample size. The majority of the
82
Table: 2.25 – Occupation Level of the Respondents
(in Numbers)
Low 36 64 24 44 168
(21.43) (38.10) (14.29) (26.19) (100)
Marginal 21 26 31 11 89
(23.60) (29.21) (34.83) (12.36) (100)
Medium 26 19 16 18 79
(32.91) (24.05) (20.25) (22.78) (100)
High 8 6 8 17 39
(20.51) (15.38) (20.51) (43.59) (100)
labourers are 91 (24.27 percent), agricultural households are 115 (30.67 percent),
(24 percent) of the total sample size. The households with agriculture as their main
occupation are 115, out of which 64 are from low income group, 26 are from
marginal income group, 19 are from medium income group and the remaining six
83
2.11 Housing Particulars of the Respondents
house, whether electrified or not, and purposes of different fuels used are
discussed as follows:
Marginal 31 36 22 89
(34.83) (40.45) (24.72) (100)
Medium 26 29 24 79
(32.91) (36.71) (30.78) (100)
High 17 14 8 39
(43.59) (35.90) (20.51) (100)
There are 120 respondents in the category of less than 3, 173 respondents
between 4 and 6 and 82 respondents more than 6 of the total households. Most of
the respondents i.e., 173 (46.13 percent) belong to the group of 4 – 6 persons.
84
2.11.2 Nature of House
The people in the study area are living in different types of houses like
concrete, tiled and thatched houses. As per Table 2.29, 132 (35.20 percent)
households live in concrete houses, 174 (46.40 percent) in tiled houses and 69
Marginal 36 32 21 89
(40.45) (35.96) (23.60) (100)
Medium 44 22 13 79
(55.70) (27.85) (16.46) (100)
High 18 14 7 39
(46.15) (35.90) (17.95) (100)
85
2.11.3 Ownership of House
The respondents reside either in their owned or rented houses. Table 2.28
shows that, 300 (80 percent) respondents have their own houses. Only 75 sample
households (20 percent) reside in rented houses. Out of the 75 rented houses,
medium income group and the remaining eight by high income group.
(in Numbers)
Marginal 73 16 89
(82.02) (17.98) (100)
Medium 52 27 79
(65.82) (34.18) (100)
High 31 8 39
(79.49) (20.51) (100)
86
2.12 Electrification Particulars of the Respondents
mainly on electricity. As per Table 2.29, out of the total sample size, 319 houses
are electrified (85.07 percent) and 56 (14.93 percent) houses are not electrified.
Among the electrified houses, 135 come under the low-income group, 71 in the
marginal income group, 76 in the medium income group and 37 in the high-
income group. Non-electrified houses are very few in the medium income group.
(in Numbers)
Marginal 71 18 89
(79.78) (20.22) (100)
Medium 76 5 81
(93.83) (6.17) (100)
High 37 - 37
(100.00) (0.00) (100)
87
2.13 Monthly Income of the Respondents
Out of the total sample size, 168 respondents (44.80 percent) come under
from Rs.4,000 to 6,000 and the remaining 39 (10.40 percent) belong to Rs. 6,000
It is observed that 44.80 percent of the respondents are in the low income
21.07 percent of the respondents in the medium income group and the remaining
10.40 percent fall in the high income category of Rs.6,000 and above.
88
2.14 Purpose of Fuel Use
The purpose of use of different fuels like kerosene, petrol, diesel, L.P.Gas
Table 2.31.
Low 36 64 24 44 168
(21.43) (38.10) (14.29) (26.19) (100)
Marginal 21 26 31 11 89
(23.60) (29.21) (34.83) (12.36) (100)
Medium 26 19 16 18 79
(32.91) (24.05) (20.25) (22.78) (100)
High 8 6 8 17 39
(20.51) (15.38) (20.51) (43.59) (100)
Out of the total sample size, the category not using kerosene is 91
(24.27 percent). Those who use it for lighting are 115 (30.67 percent), for cooking
79 (21.07 percent) and for both lighting and cooking 90 (24 percent). Under the
89
low-income group, 168 respondents use kerosene, out of which 64 use it for
lighting, 24 for cooking and the remaining for both cooking and lighting.
Table: 2.32 – Purpose of Petrol and Diesel Use – Income Group - wise
(in Numbers)
Marginal 76 13 89
(85.39) (14.61) (100)
Medium 73 6 79
(92.41) (7.59) (100)
High 28 11 39
(71.79) (28.21) (100)
As per Table 2.32, out of the total sample size, 341 (90.93 percent)
respondents do not use petrol and diesel at all. Only 34 (9.07 percent) respondents
90
2.14.3 L.P. Gas Use
Table 2.33 reveals the details of the purpose of L.P. Gas use income group
wise.
Marginal 55 34 89
(61.80) (38.20) (100)
Medium 62 17 79
(78.48) (21.52) (100)
High 15 24 39
(38.46) (61.54) (100)
In the total sample size, only 91 respondents (24.27 percent) use L.P. Gas
for cooking purpose, of which 16 are from the low-income group, 34 from the
marginal income group, 17 from the medium income group and 24 from the high-
income group. It is understood from Table 2.33 that only the higher income group
91
2.14.4 Electricity Use
An over all estimate of the purpose of electricity use income group wise has
Marginal 4 85 89
(4.49) (95.51) (100)
Medium 2 77 79
(2.53) (97.47) (100)
High - 39 39
(100.00) (100)
Among the electricity using households of 359, 100 are from the low-
income group, four from the marginal income group and two from the medium
income group and they use electricity for lighting purpose. It is observed from
Table 2.34 that no respondents reported using electricity for cooking purpose.
92
2.15 Summary
of the profile of the study area namely Tiruchendur block in the Thoothukudi
fuel use and electrification of the sample households in the study area. A total
sample size of 375 was randomly selected from the sample villages.
93