Membrane Technology

Prof. Kaustubha Mohanty

Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati

Lectute-18
Nanofiltration Basics, Transport Mechanism, Fouling Model and Applications

Good morning students, today is lecture 18th of module 6. In todays lecture will basically
discuss about Nanofiltration.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:43)

We will try to understand what is nanofiltration and I will tell you how nanofiltration and
reverse osmosis overlaps each other. And what is the difference between them, we will try to
see also learn also what is the transport mechanism of nanofiltration and systems and do various
fouling models and the various applications of nanofiltration.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:59)
So as you know, nanofiltration refers to a specialty membrane process that rejects dissolved
solutes in the approximate size range of 1 nanometre of 10 Angstroms. So very small size
solutes are being rejected. With respect to the size and weight of solutes that nanofiltration
membranes reject nanofiltration operates in the realm between reverse osmosis and
ultrafiltration. So actually, based on the range of the solute it rejects the membranes have been
classified.

So nanofiltration can lies something somewhere between the cutoff of reverse osmosis, and
ultrafiltration. Hydraulic pressure is used to overcome the feed solution osmotic pressure, and
to induce diffusion of pure water, which we also called as permeate through a semi permeable
membrane.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:47)
There residual feed stream reffered to as retentate, concentrate or reject is concentrated by the
process. Nanofiltration membrane can effectively reject dissolved organics, endotoxins and
pyrogens, insecticides and pesticides, herbicides, antibiotics, nitrates, sugars, latex emulsions
etc. and nanofiltration may achieve moderate to low removal of monovalent ions. For example,
sodium, potassium, chloride etc.

And ideal nanofiltration membrane has very high water permeability, right? But the ideal
permeability of solutes might be near 0 or some higher value, depending on the solute and
application. So, an ideal nanofiltration will pass as much as water, permeate as much as water,
however, returning all source of solutes and ions.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:39)

The features of nanofiltration membranes lie between those of non-porous RO membrane and
porous ultrafiltration membranes; this is what we just discussed. Commercial nanofiltration
membranes possess a fixed charge developed by dissociation of surface groups such as
sulphurated or carboxylic acids. So you can see this particular figure here that how
nanofiltration is rejecting large molecules, small molecules and multivalent ions.

However the monovalent ions, because of very small size are passing through the membrane
along with water. Here this particular figure will tell you the operating range of the
nanofiltration and you can see the pore size is 1 nanometre here, okay? Nanofiltration is range
between here, RO here, this is RO, and this is ultrafiltration range. So, RO less than 1
nanometre mostly here, and UF greater than 1 nanometre almost into the range of 10 nanometre
and higher size.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:38)

The properties of nanofiltration membranes, therefore, allow ions to be separated by a

combination of the size and electrical effects of UF and the ion interaction mechanisms of RO.
So that means note that, the NF actually works in the combined principle of UF and reverse
osmosis, UF basically sizes represent membrane and process, as well as charged separation also
affects.

However, in RO the ionic interaction plays a major role. So in NF both the all these things are
playing in a while rejecting a solute or permeating the water, the size of pores in nanofiltration
membranes is such that, even small uncharged solutes and highly rejected while the surface
electrostatic properties allow monovalent ions to be reasonably well transmitted while mostly
retaining the multivalent ions.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:34)
Now, look at that, further properties and look at this particular schematic here. You can see this
water and monovalent ions are mostly being transmitted or pass to the permeate side, whereas
multivalent ions, most of the multivalent ions are developed as viruses, bacteria, suspended
solids, all are we getting rejected. Some multivalent ions will occurs pass through the
membrane because of the various non ideal semi permeable membranes that is actually existed.

So, NF membranes can be produced in plate and frame form, spiral wound, tubular, capillary
and hollow fiber formats, from various membrane materials mostly cellulose derivatives,
maybe there are some synthetic polymers, and then inorganic materials also, ceramics also
available. Now, NF can withstand very high or low pH environment. NF membrane tends to
have a slightly charged surface with a negative charge at a neutral pH.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:32)
Two types of transport theories or models are basically adapted to describe the nanofiltration
transport. So first one is the Sourirajan’s sorption surface capillary flow theory and the second
one is the usual solution diffusion model which we have discussed in detail in our previous
classes. So, in Sourirajan’s sorption surface Capillary Flow theory, so actually it describes the
preferential sorption of water molecules in the membrane.

And then the desorption of multivalent ions by dielectric forces, causing explosion of charged
solutes even smaller than the membrane pores, from movement into the membranes. So that
means the membrane and the water molecules are getting served inside the membranes. Okay,
then they are passing through the permeate cell, and that desorption of multivalent ions are
happening due to the dielectric process because we just discussed that the membrane NF
membranes are slightly negative in charge.

So, smaller than the pore size of the membranes, ions are also getting rejected. So the effective
charge density, pore radii and ionic strength determine the rejection of monovalent ions. For
nanofiltration membranes the rejection of monovalent ions ranges between 0% to 50%.
(Refer Slide Time: 06:51)

So the solution diffusion this way discussed, as I told you in detail earlier it is the same for the
RO we have discussed, so it describes the membrane as a porous film into which both water
and solute ions dissolve. Whatever is getting water has to be served inside the membrane
material, and then only it will get to into the permeate side. Similarly, the solute ions which are
supposed to be transmitted through the membrane must dissolve itself in the membrane
material.
Then sorption will take place, the solute moves in the membrane mainly under the
concentration gradient forces. The water transport is dependent on the hydraulic pressure
gradient, so that means more you are giving supplying the delta P, so more will be the water
flow and the transport of the solute through the membrane depends on the hindered diffusion
and convection.
(Refer Slide Time: 07:40)

So let us understand the transport mechanism of the charged salutes in NF, transport of
solutions through NF is more complex than any other membrane processes, actually 3 different
modes of transport occurs; the first is diffusion, which is due to the concentration potential
gradient in the reverse osmosis membranes, then convection in the larger pore size filtration
such as microfiltration or ultrafiltration, then electromagnetism, attraction or repulsion from
charges within and near the membrane.

So you can see this particular image which was actually proposed or given by one of the paper
in desalination given by Yagnaseni et.al. So this is the solute transport mechanisms occurring
simultaneously for each ion. Now, the mechanism also depends upon the feed water, and its
composition. This is your Of course this is the membrane, right? So activity or thickness given
by delta x and the water flux and solid flux both in this direction.

So you can see diffusion is a ion movement due to concentration gradient, okay? So you can
see this is given by this particular line. So you can see there is a concentration grant in the
downstream side. So that is why movement of ions will happen to the diffusion. Then
conviction; so iron movement with solvent flow, so along with solvent that means, along with
the water some ions are flowing through. So this indicates that the membrane are having some
pores, so they are pores, some pores are existing, okay?

Otherwise, if there are no pores, absolutely no pores membrane then convention will not
happen basically. So then there is electromigration, so that means ion movement due to
potential gradient. So as you know that ion membrane is slightly negatively charged, you can
see this, right, and then up stream side we are maintaining some positive charged, so ion
movement takes place by the flow of cations and anions in both ways and ion movement will
take place both ways.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:43)

So, transport mechanism of charged solutes can be explained by 3 things actually. One is,
Donnan exclusion, the next is actually a dielectric exclusion and then there is also something
called the steric exclusive. So we will learn what is all this things one by one. So Donnan
exclusion, actually what is Donnan exclusion, if you see the IUPAC actually definition. It says
reduction in concentration of mobile ions within an ion exchange membrane due to the presence
of fixed ions of the same sign as the mobile ions.

So that means you see the cation ion matrices, which are having this negatively charged ions
already onto them, so, it will repeal this same charge groups. Similarly, an ion exchange
membrane which are having this fixed positive charge, for all the positive changes their way
attracting the opposite charge. So this is, and then after some time some equilibrium will be
observed here. So that is actually called on an equilibrium.
So, Donnan exclusion has a pronounced effect on the separation in NF compared to other
pressure driven membrane processes because we are mostly dealing with the ions, so each ions
are having some charges. Due to the slightly charged nature of NF membrane, salutes with an
opposite charge compared to the membrane are attracted. Solutes with a similar charge are
repelled. At the membrane surface, a distribution of co and counter ions takes place, thereby
causing an additional separation.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:18)

So the next one is dialectic exclusion; now water molecules show a polarization in the pore due
to the charge of the membrane and the dipole moment of the water. The polarization results in a
decrease in dielectric constant inside the pore, thereby making it less favorable for a charged
salute to enter. That means, when the water is getting polarized inside the pores. It is hindering
the diffusion of solutes inside that pore.

So this is what is actually known as dielectric exclusion. So even in a situation that the
dielectric constant inside the pore equal to the one in water, a changed in electrostatic free
energy, of ion occurs when the ion is transferred from the bulk into the pores. So, this also
resulted in exclusion.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:03)
Let us see this particular figure again given by a Yagnaseni et.al, the desalination of this
particular, you can refer to this nice publication actually, this materialistic so you can see this
exclusion mechanisms occurring simultaneously for each ion, steric exclusion, this is nothing
but side exclusion, than your dielectric exclusion, then Donnan exclusion. So you can see this at
in steric exclusion, ion bigger than the pore opening, Okay?

They are trying to, they will be actually rejected on the surface of the membranes exclusion
means we are talking about rejection how rejection is happening rejection of solutes from the
membrane surface is happening then the dielectric exclusion something like this will
happening. So, ion needs to shed hydration cell to enter the membrane. So it is difficult,
because the membrane is already charged, some charge, Okay?

Then there are counter ions will be there, so they will try to form some groups on something
like this is some, some structure something like this. So thereby there is rejection of the
oppositely charge which is similar charged particles, ions will happen. So then we have Donnan
exclusion, so here the repulsion expulsion happening due to the positive or negatively charged
ions. So membrane charge considering it is negative.

So, we will see this, how the repulsion is happening, Okay? So, this particular figure tells us the
rejection mechanism of the charge solutes on the nanofiltration membrane.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:42)
So let us now understand the different parameters that affect the performance of an
nanofiltration membrane. So, there are various parameters we will see one by one. First one and
foremost one is of course the pressure; pressure difference is the driving forces responsible for
an nanofiltration membrane. So effective driving pressure is the applied hydraulic pressure, less
the osmotic pressure, there is applied on the membrane and by the solutes, Okay?

Temperatures on nanofiltration membrane flux will increase with increasing temperature, due to
the reason is that when the temperature increases the viscosity is reduced. That is where the flux
getting's enhanced. Then cross flow velocity; so nanofiltration membrane flux increases also go
along with that increasing the cross flow velocity. Why? Because if there is a higher cross flow
velocity.

Then, here what it will do is basically the cell will wash away the concentrated concentration
polarization layer, or we can say that the deposition whatever is happening on the surface of the
membranes will be washed away due to a higher flow rate. So, thereby reducing the
concentration polarization actually is falling. So the maximum cross flow velocity depend on
the mechanical strength of the membrane and construction of the element and system hardware.

Operating a NF membrane at too high cross flow velocity may cause premature failure of the
membrane and module. So, it is true that you cannot operate a NF system, beyond a certain
pressure. Otherwise your system will failure and membrane will get rupture.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:13)
So the next other parameter says solution pH, so you know solution pH is the one of the most
important parameter, whenever you talked about any liquid systems. Okay, liquid phase
systems, whether you were doing some separation carrying out some reaction, whatever. So,
charged sites on the NF membrane surface varied with pH. So negatively charged at a neutral
pH and lose their charger acidic pH.

So most NF and RO membranes have lower rejection at low pH. Because of the surfaces are
already charged and mostly it is negatively charged at neutral pH. However the pH dependence
upon membrane is determined, according to the chemistry applied to produce the membrane.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:55)

So let us understand the nanofiltration advantages. So, it has lower discharge volumes, lower
retained concentrations than RO for low value salts. Reduced salt content and dissolved solid
content in brackish water. Reduction in heavy metals, reduced to nitrates and sulphates,
reduction in color, tannins and turbidity, Softens hard water with the use of specific softening
membranes. Chemical free, that is needs no salt or chemicals during the operation.

And pH of water after nanofiltration is normally non aggressive and disinfection. So, these are
the thing that is being done by the nanofiltration membrane.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:38)

So, it has certain disadvantages also. So higher energy consumption than ultrafiltration and
microfiltration and so almost 0.3 to 1 kilowatt hour per meter cube. So, another important thing
is that pre-treatment is required for some heavily polluted water, so pre-filtration 0.1 to 2
microns. The all these things needs to be removed. Otherwise, your membrane will be blocked,
and it will not give the targeted performance.

So this is always the case with spiral wound membranes, see the spiral wound membranes
typically frames as it leaves you, we have understood how spiral wound actually work in our
membranes module discussion as well as in RO also. So you know the how it is being
fabricated. So the space in between is to less. So they are more pore to fouling. So, it is
important that there is a statement before nanofiltration, okay?

For heavily polluted it is not that every water streams are paid water has to be pre-treated. So
limited retention for salts and univalent ions, nanofiltration membranes are little more
expensive than reverse osmosis membranes. So membranes are sensitive to free chlorine, so
most of the time chlorine is present in water and water streams. So they are not very good
chlorine resistance membranes, so life span of 1000 ppmh, Okay?

So an active carbon filter or a bi-sulphite treatment is recommended for high chlorine

concentrations.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:07)

Let us understand the benefits of the NF water treatment; so most of the times, NF is actually
used to produce potable water. So in that case, what are the advantages; so the operating cost
actually is very less, energy costs also less, lower discharger and less wastewater than reverse
osmosis and the principal produces. Then reduction of total dissolved solids content of slightly
brackish water.

Reduction of pesticides and volatile organic compounds, reduction of heavy metals, reduction
of nitrates and sulphates, reduction of color, tannins and turbidity, hard water softening. Being
chemical free say does not use any salts or chemicals. Water pH after nanofiltration is typically
non-aggressive.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:50)
So NF applications includes; the desalination of food, dairy and beverage products or by-
products. Partial desalination of whey, UF permeate or retentate as required. Desalination of
dyes and optical brighteners. Purification of spent clean in place chemicals, CIP chemicals.
Color reduction or manipulation of food products. Concentration of food, dairy and beverage
products or by-products. Fermentation byproduct concentration.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:18)

Let us see one; this is one application, in which the nanofiltration membrane is used to produce
clean water, even for drinking water taps as well as other culinary applications. So you can see
the schematic here, so raw water is coming as I told you that, one of the disadvantages, in
nanofiltration is that it needs a pre-treatment and not always, but most of the times. Depending
upon what is your feed water composition and what it contents basically.
So then it goes to trio pump, basically this is a high pressure membrane system pump is a high
pressure pump, okay? So this high pressure pump will pump the raw water or filter to the
nanofiltration system. So you get permeate and a concentrated. So the permeate is goes to the
purified water storage tank, Okay? Then it can be taken for the culinary or drinking water taps,
or there is purified water, or it may be recycled by partly to maintain the volume.

see many times, here also, this one needs another finishing step, this finishing step is basically
required because most of the ions are divide. When we are doing the nanofiltration, so it is
actually when we are talking about the potable water system or potable water applications. So
you need to sometimes re-mineralization, re-mineralize the NF water. So the concentrate which
is coming here and getting stored here, so, this concentrate is also can be used to toilets and
other non-culinary application.

You can use it for watering your plants in the garden and all these things. So you have been
used in the toilets many of the big hotels star hotels are now are doing are adopted this
technology, and you will see this in the wash room many times it is written that, especially in
your commodes you can see the color of the water is slightly, slightly greyish or a little
yellowish it is written within that, because this is treated water. So, there is some color

So you can remove the color also completely but it will be unnecessarily above the process
what of course so it is not required. So, whatever you are using for your bathing or your
drinking purposes or washing, so you will get them, you will obviously being supplied with the
good water.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:58)
So another NFL application is the NF process for purifying anion exchange resin regeneration
effluent in the sugar industries. So, here what is happening actually a combination of a resin
and membrane processes is especially attractive for plant locations, where the waste disposal is
a critical issue. Now most of the industries that do not have land for waste disposal, and the rest
of them to rules, of course waste disposal also being imposed.

So it is imperative that they need to treat it. So in the future, NF is expected to find applications
in the recovery of water and salt from waste brine at a sugar decolorization plant in sugar
industry. So these are also getting adapted now a day. So in addition, the volume of toxic
wastes discharged from sugar refinery columns can be lowered. So you can see how it is
happening, actually.

So, this regenerate effluent that is the first is coming and you are adding some decolorizations.
So, the decolorizations effluent is being taken here, and it regenerated effluent, Okay? Which is
being stored here. So this is basically NF feed, it goes to the nanofiltration system, where you
are getting the concentrate the region, which is the NF retentate to secondary post treatment of
drain, or you can just use it again, as I told you, for watering garden and all this purposes, non-
culinary purposes, and the NF permeate. Okay?

So this is nothing but recovered regenerate brine tank goes and stored there, so this will be
recycled brine.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:36)
So there is this is another application. This is a conceptual design for the fractionation of
artichoke brines by integrated membrane process. Now here, this is a hybrid system you can
say, okay, usually we say a hybrid system is something where two different unit operations are
plugged together. Okay? But here two different, two different membrane systems are plugged
together.

So you can say integrator membrane process, so you can see here, there is an ultrafiltration
membrane, there is nanofiltration membrane, Okay? Why it is being used so let us try to
understand so artichoke brine is stored here. See our artichoke brine is being feed to the
ultrfiltration membrane. So before being to the ultrfiltration membranes some, some sort of
prefiltration happens to remove the floating solids, suspended solids have certain, certain other
larger molecular compounds.

So, that the UF membrane will not, UF membrane being porous it should not get clogged. So
this filter artichoke brine then goes to the UF membrane, where we are getting the retentate, so
the retentate is getting artichoke brine, suspended solids, higher molecular weight substances,
okay? But now we will try to understand that why we are using UF here. If you do not use the
UF here, directly feeding the artichoke brine after this brief filter, okay?

To hear, them all these whatever the UF is getting rejected will be rejected here but the
membrane performance will decrease drastically, Okay? So that is why there is a need to
actually refilter, as well as there is a need to place a UF, so that the UF will remove most of the
suspended solids and the high molecular weight components. So the permeate divide all these
things, Okay? and having only smaller molecular weight compounds and ions is being feed to
the NF.

So the NF retentate is basically like caffeoylquinic acids, flavonoids etc., and this goes for the
formalization for food or nutraceutical application. So this is actually our product of interest.
Okay? And, whatever the permeate is, there it is getting recycled here. Oka? So it is the salt
solution, mostly right so again going artichoke filter tank.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:55)

So, the artichoke brines are submitted to a preliminary ultrafiltration step, aimed to remove
most of the suspended solid compounds. This is what I already told you, so the ultrafiltration
permeate is a clear solution containing more than 95% of the compounds of interest. So, it takes
out all the larger molecular weight components as well as your TDs, most of the suspended
solids.

So, components which are smaller molecular weight components this caffeoylquinic acids,
flavonoids etc. So they will be fed to the nanofiltration system. So the subsequent treatment
with spiral wound membranes of 300 Da allows to obtain a retentate fraction enriched in
phenolic compounds, and with a solid content able stabilize the retentate itself. So, this fraction
of interest for food nutraccutical applications.

So the NF permeate is a salt solution free from caffeoylquinic acid, which can be designed for
reuse in the processing cycle or replenishing of fresh brines with a consequent reduction of the
volume of water used in the process.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:58)

So this is another classic example of the scale cross-flow NF setup, Okay? For the treatment of
oil sands produced water. So you can see this, there is a tank, Okay? So then it is high pressure
pump is here, so it is pumping the feed water to the occultism number, where they are getting
permeate here. Okay. And then the retentate is again being feed tank or it can be taken out also,
okay?

A typical system consists of a feed tank, a membrane cell, a pump, a temperature controller to
keep the feed temperature very specific value, a back pressure regulator and a bypass valve to
adjust the applied pressure and cross flow velocity. So weighing balances here you can see this,
or a digital flow meter used to measure the permeate flow rate. Permeate and retentate are
recycled to the feed tank to maintain a constant feed concentration over time.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:49)
Another application, this is dead-end nanofiltration under constant pressure. You can see this is
several types of viral removal devices are available as self contained and disposable capsules
and cartridges that can be subjected to integrity tests. So with such devices, protein solution can
be filtered in a dead-end flow filtration mode under constant pressure mode, you can see. So
you can see this, this is NF system actually Okay?

So the proteins solutions are getting actually filter here. Okay, so you are getting the receiving
flask or you have the test tube, whatever the permeate can be collected here.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:31)

So let us now understand the nanofiltration fouling mechanisms and the models. So, the water
flux in RO and NF can be expressed as; Jw equals to delta p minus delta pi by Rtot. So Jw is the
water flux, delta p is the applied pressure difference, delta Pi is the osmotic pressure difference
and Rtot is the total resistance, Okay?. Now the total resistance of the membrane is composed
of three separate resistences in series, Okay?

So Rm, Ri and Rf , so Rm is the resistance of a clean membrane to permeation of clean water,

and is time independent. Okay? So Ri is initial fouling resistance caused by concentration
polarization, and fouling of the membrane, and, it is time independent, Okay? Rf is time
independent fouling resistance. So you can write this, actually, we can write 1 over Rtot equals
to 1 over Rm + 1 over Ri + 1 over Rf. this is how you right actually, this one the resistances.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:49)

Van Boxtel correlated Ri empirically with a cross flow velocity, upstream pressure and
concentration ratio and propose this particular equation. So, Ri equals to a. v to the power of b.
P to the power of c and Cr to the power d. So Cr actually concentration this, so a,b,c d are
empirical constants. For example why this is being necessary and we were talking about this
actually fouling problems becomes very severe.

So for example, we are taking fermentation broth. So, the fouling becomes a major issue when
we are dealing with fermentation broth as it contain salts, colloidal particles, bacterial cells and
proteins, which may cause fouling, most of the marble apartments. So, by treatment of
fermentation by ultrafiltration, some protein and bacteria can be removed and fouling properties
of the solution can be changed thereby reducing the overall resistance also. Then again it can be
sent to the nanofiltration system.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:44)
So, a fouling model can be expressed by this particular equation in the terms of Rf. So dRf dt
equals to A into Jw -B. So, Rf at t equals to 0 equals to 0. That means Rf time 0 equals to 0. So
where A is given by epsilon Cb.pr by rho and B equals, B is given by this particular equation.
So, epsilon is the specific gel resistance. Cb.pr is the Protein Concentration in the bulk.

Cg.pr or is the protein concentration in the gel and kpr is the mass transfer coefficient of protein
in boundary layer. The above equation predicts the flux dependent increase of Rf with time, and
can only be applied with a constant Cb.pr as in continuous system.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:30)

So, in case of a changing C b.pr that occurs during batchwise concentration of solutions, the
above equation can be transformed into this particular equation, where dRf by dt equals to Cr
into A into Jw minus, this particular equation minus ln Crl. So where Cr is given by this, this
equation V0 by V the integration of this Jw. Aw. dt. So if proteins are absent, as in ultrafiltered
fermentation broth, the gel layer model cannot be applied because it is not required, because
there will be no gel formation, Okay? On the membrane surface.

So, a precipitation model or colloidal fouling model is more appropriate in this situation. So
Cohen and Probstein developed a model in which deposition of colloidal particles caused
fouling.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:20)

So they discovered that colloidal fouling was convection controlled and using the law of mass
conservation, the derived a question as given below; so dRf by dt across to this Phi not Jw not
Rc by 1- epsilon c. So we are find out is the foulant volume fraction in feed. Jw is the water
flux determined by extrapolating the flux time curve to time 0, Okay? So basically it is the flux
at zero.

So epsilon c is the effective foulant layer resistance and this model shows that the increase in
long term fouling is constant linearly dependent on the foulant volume fraction.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:00)
So for a given feed which is processed at different Cr and when it is a assumed that Jw0 shows
the same pressure dependence, the above equation can be transformed into dRf by dt equals to
D by Rw0. Cr. delta P - delta pi, where D equals to this Phi not Rc into 1- epsilon c. Rw0 is the
resistance, is the resistance at intercept of the flux time curve at time equals to 0.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:27)

So, the Rw0 put into the concept of initial and long term fouling is equal to the sum of Rm and
Rf. By performing experiments at different Cr and delta P, the first factor on the right hand side
of the above equation can be evaluated. The factor D should be independent of the process
condition. In the case of batch wise concentration, the assumption of quasi- steady state of flux
made by Cohen and Probstein does not hold. For this case Jw0 in the above the question is
replaced by Jw.
(Refer Slide Time: 34:00)
So, let us see this particular figure here. So this is a resistance as a function of time of a
continuous experiment with the UF broth, and only broth, Okay? So UF broth means ultrafilter
broth, Okay? So an example of a continuous experiment with lactic acid fermentation broth is
shown here. So it is clear that the continuous NF of the UF-broth Ri is the largest resistance.

So this is the UF broth, this is UF broth, this is UF broth, this is UF breath, and this is for Ri,
this is for Rm. This is for Ri, Okay? You can see this is for Rm, this is for Ri. So you can see
this, so it is clear that during this, nanofiltration of the ultrafiltration broth Ri is the largest a
distance where you can see, Okay? So time dependent fouling Rf hardly contributes to the
overall resistance of the water permeation.

So Rf is almost negligible, so you can almost neglect the Rf, Okay? Now this shows that
osmotic effect and concentration polarization effects during continuous NF, and UF broth cause
the main mass transfer resistance, Okay?
(Refer Slide Time: 35:09)
So, NF membrane and module; so there are two types of membranes actually available
commercially the spiral wound and the tubular membranes. Spiral membranes are cheapest but
more sensitive to pollution. Tubular and straw membranes, the most used membranes seen the
costs and effect, shall not easily be polluted. The surfaces from the filter determine the capacity
from the filter.

Spiral membranes have the biggest surface area in general, and are therefore the most cheapest
in use. The surface area from tubular or straw membranes is usually less in general. So the pre-
purifying of the feeding water has influence on the performance of the installation. The need of
pre-purifying depends on the feeding water quality.
(Refer Slide Time: 35:54)
So let us now try to understand, before we wind up. What is the difference between RO and NF.
So you know that we have discussed this that RO and NF, they are very much similar to each
other, but they can be distinguished based on the size of the particulates or solute that each is
able to remove.

So comparatively, RO and NF are capable of removing finer contaminantes than micro filters
and ultrafilters, with applications including removal of hardness, nitrates, sulphates, total
dissolved solids or TDS, heavy metals, radionuclides and organic macromolecules from process
and waste streams. So, this is just this tabular format to try to understand the differences.

So RO is rejecting a small then having small pores. So they are capable of removing particles as
small as 0.1 nanometer, but NF range is almost point 0.002 to 0.005 microns, Okay? So, RO is
old techniques existing almost since 1950s. However, NF is a very recently developed
technology. So RO was used chiefly for the, mainly for the desalination purposes, as in potable
water from seawater or brackish water sources and NF is exclusively developed mainly for the
potable water generation.

So RO is extremely efficient in removing all ions, large and small, and NF removes harmful
contaminants such as pesticide compounds and organic macromolecules, while retaining
minerals that RO would otherwise remove. So, Nanofiltration membranes are capable of
removing larger divalent ions such as calcium sulphate, while allowing smaller monovalent
ions such as sodium chloride to pass through.
(Refer Slide Time: 37:38)
So, this is a technical assessment of NF technology, so you can just go through it. So, the status
of technologies, it is an expression is quite mature and it is a robust technology. So applications
are wide, the most of the important applications are water softening, metal removal and
produced water treatment. The feed water quality; it handles almost 500 to 12,000 milligrams
per liter of a TDS. Okay? And product water quality; that depends on the feed water quality and
operating conditions.

However, greater than 90% rejection of a larger divalent ions and metals are possible. Moderate
rejection of monovalent ions are possible in nanofiltration. So the recovery range is almost 75%
to 90%. This is one of the most important parameter. When you talk about industrial
applications, the pre-treatment of feed water is necessary as we have learned in today's lecture.
So it is required, so as to reduce scaling and as well as fouling.

Post treatment of product water sometimes required, especially we are talking about potable
water because it is divided up all sorts of minerals. So re-mineralisation of sodium adsorption
ratio that is SAR value is actually required. So energy uses quite less than the RO for the
separate water quality. There is no chemical use however sometimes we use at the scaling and
antifouling inhibitors, Okay? This is the caustic may be required.

And the lifetime depends actually, so it is anytime between 3 to 7 years, depending on use and
operating conditions. So thank you very much.
(Refer Slide Time: 39:26)
So today's lecture, mostly is taken by a taken from, from Professor Nath’s book, as well as
some other journal sources. Please go through it and in the next class,
(Refer Slide Time: 39:37)

We are starting ultrafiltration, and the next module. So we will try to understand the basic
principles and advantages of ultrafiltration, different types of membranes and modules that is
required for the ultrafiltration, and various types of ultrafiltration configurations. So thank you
very much. In case you have any queries, please feel free to write to me at
kmohanty@iitg.ac.in. Thank you.