Colour Terms

The study of colour terminology is a substantial field of modern linguistics. Much of the research
undertaken today seeks to refine the model presented in the seminal work on colour terminology,
Berlin and Kay’s 1969 Basic Colour Terms: Their Universality and Evolution (hereafter B&K). Their
work, the first cross-linguistic study of basic colour terms conducted with modern scientific methods,
demonstrates that languages encode colour terms that denote the same colour foci for particular
categories. This finding of semantic universals in colour names contradicts the extreme relativism
associated with the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis that predicts arbitrary, language-specific segmentation of
the colour continuum. Further, they posit a particular order for the appearance of basic colour terms
that refer to these categories. This order is applied both synchronically, predicting which categories a
language will encode given the number of basic colour terms, and diachronically, predicting the order
of the division of the colour space into new categories as colour vocabulary evolves. Subsequent
studies refine the model from simple division of the colour space to the dissolution of two channels,
white/warm and black/cool (Hardin & Maffi: 22). The identification of black and white as the first two
colour terms encoded in all languages has been reconceived an early system based on brightness that
switches to coding by hue as a language’s colour vocabulary increases. Casson discusses evidence of
this shift in the history of English (Hardin & Maffi: 224-239).

Colour Symbolism

Colour symbolism in art and anthropology refers to the use of colour as a symbol in various cultures.
There is great diversity in the use of colours and their associations between cultures [1] and even
within the same culture in different time periods. The same colour may have very different associations
within the same culture at any time. Diversity in colour symbolism occurs because colour meanings
and symbolism occur on an individual, cultural and universal basis. Colour symbolism is also context-
dependent and influenced by changes over time. Symbolic representations of religious concepts or
articles may include a specific colour with which the concept or object is associated.

Colour conveys meanings in two primary ways - natural associations and psychological symbolism.
No, it’s not mind control. The truth of the matter is that people are comfortable when colours remind
them of similar things. For example, a soft shade of blue triggers associations with the sky and a
psychological sense of calm.

Successful design requires an awareness of how and why colours communicate meaning. The source of
these meanings can be quite conspicuous, such as those found in nature — red is the colour of blazing
fire and blood, blue the colour of cooling waters and the sky. Other meanings may be more complex
and not universal.
As a starting point, the communicative properties of a colour can be defined by two categories: natural
associations and psychological (or cultural) associations.

Natural Associations: Occurrences of colours in nature are universal and timeless. For example, the
fact that green is the colour of vegetation and that blue is the colour of the sky and water has been a
reality since the dawn of humanity. These colour associations are common to all people. Therefore, this
symbolism is both timeless and universal.

Psychological or Cultural Associations: Colour may generate another level of meaning in the mind.
This symbolism arises from cultural and contemporary contexts. As such, it is not universal and may
be unrelated to its natural associations. For example, green’s associations with nature communicate
growth, fruitfulness, freshness and ecology. On the other hand, green may also be symbolic of good
luck, seasickness, money and greed — all of which have nothing to do with green plants. These
associations arise from a complex assortment of sources.

Furthermore, colour may have both positive and negative symbolism. For example, although blue is
the beautiful colour of the sky on a sunny day, it can be symbolic of sadness or stability. Idiomatic
American English reflects these traits in phrases such as “singing the blues” and “blue chip stocks.”
Red is another example of dual symbolism. On one hand, as the colour of fire and blood, it is an
energizing, aggressive and bold colour. In direct contrast, red is used for “STOP” signs throughout the
world today.

Although there are no absolutes, there are logical sources for the range of complex and sometimes
contradictory psychological/cultural meanings of colours. These may arise from any of the following:

1. Cultural associations: the colour of currency, traditions, celebrations, geography, etc. (For example,
green is associated with heaven (Muslims) and luck (U.S. and Ireland)

2. Political and historical associations: the colour of flags, political parties, royalty, etc. (For example,
green is the colour of Libya's flag; it’s the favorite colour of Emperor Hirohito and the source of
"Green Day" in Japan, and in the U.S., the Green Party.)

3. Religious and mythical associations: the colours associated with spiritual or magical beliefs (For
example, the green man was the God of fertility in Celtic myths, a symbolism that carries over into
today’s associations of Green M&M candies with sexuality in the U.S. Also, in contemporary Western
culture, green is associated with extraterrestrial beings.)
4. Linguistic associations: colour terminology within individual languages (For example, South Pacific
languages refer to shades of green by comparison to plants in various stages of growth. In Scottish
Gaelic the word for blue ('gorm') is also the word used for the colour of grass.)

5. Contemporary usage and fads: current colour applications to objects, sports, and associations
generated by modern conventions and trends. (For example, green is used worldwide for traffic lights
signifying "go." In Scandinavia, green has been a popular colour for many decades. In the U.S.,
“avocado green” was a popular colour for appliances in the 1960s. Today, lime green has been a hip
and trendy colour in fashion and advertising in the US since the late 1990s.)

Figurative Use of Colour Terms

Colour terms may no longer refer to colour at all, but to other concepts. In short, there are some aspects
of the figurative use of colour terms. It is not always easy to draw the line between figurative and non-
figurative language, and colour terms frequently allude to other meanings. However the primary
domain of the predication was the colour domain, and the other meanings could be viewed as
additional associations or attributes. A figurative expression of a colour term is one in which the
primary domain of the predication to which the colour term refers is not the colour domain.
Furthermore, this definition gives us the tool with which to determine whether expressions like (1) Red
herring (2) Pink elephant (3) Black sheep given below should be included in an account of figurative
usage of colour terms. It can be seen that such expressions have very often been included, presumably
under the assumption that the function of red/pink/black serves some further purpose other than merely
ascribing a colour to the noun. However, on closer examination, we can note that these three phrases
are quite different from the point of view of figurative analysis. In the case of red herring, this refers a
particular type of smoked herring and the figurative meaning of this expression goes back to some
aspects of how this fish was used. Thus, technically speaking, red cannot be regarded as having a
figurative function in this expression. Rather, it is the whole phrase that produces the figurative
meaning.

Pink elephant, on the other hand, illustrates a case in which the colour term functions as a trigger. In
this process, pink does not carry any figurative meaning in itself – its meaning has to be construed as
literal – but this very act forces us to make a figurative reading of the entire noun phrase. In contrast to
red herring, there is no possible literal interpretation of the phrase, at least under normal circumstances.
If someone claims to see pink elephants we know that there is something wrong with him/her; (s)he
might be suffering from delirium or may have been drinking too heavily or otherwise have upset
his/her mind or vision. However, the phrase is most often used jocularly.
The colour is of great importance in the life of modern man. The basic condition of communication
considered background knowledge, i.e. knowledge of the realities and cultures who mutually enjoyed
talking and listening. A comparative study of ways to describe colours in different languages is one of
the traditional topics of Linguistics. It is interesting to uncover the meanings of some of the colour
names as an important phenomenon, capturing the essence of the language of the ethnic group.

Associations between Colours and Emotions

A knowledge of colour theory helps us to express our feelings in an artwork. The language of colour
has even entered our vocabulary to help us describe our emotions. You can be ‘red’ with rage or
‘green’ with envy. We often speak of bright cheerful colours as well as sad or dull ones. A ‘grey’ day
may be depressing and result in a feeling of the ‘blues’.

How people are affected by different colour stimuli varies from person to person. Blue is the top choice
for 35% of Americans, followed by green (16%), purple (10%) and red (9%). A preference for blue
and green may be due to a preference for certain habitats that were beneficial in the ancestral
environment as explained in evolutionary aesthetics. The colours orange, yellow, and brown, are the
three least popular colours, respectively.

Colour preference may also depend on ambient temperature. People who are cold prefer warm colours
such as red or yellow while people who are hot prefer cool colours like blue and green. Introverted
individuals are also found to be more attracted to cool colours, while extroverts prefer warmer colours.

Gender has also shown to influence how colours are received, with some research has suggesting that
women and men respectively prefer "warm" and "cool" colours. Black, white, and gray are also shown
to be received more positively by males than females.

Contrary to the unanimous adult preference for blue, in children the colour yellow is the most favoured
colour, perhaps owing to its associations with happiness. However, children's preferences for colours
they find to be pleasant and comforting are mutable and can vary, while adult colour preference is
usually non-malleable.

Cultural background has been shown to have a strong influence on colour associations and preference.
Studies have shown that while people from the same region regardless of race will have the same
colour preferences, common associations connecting a colour to a particular emotion may differ cross-
culturally. For instance, one study that examined colour associations with emotion with participants
from Germany, Mexico, Poland, Russia, and the United States found that in all nations the colour red
was associated with anger and was perceived as strong and active. However, only Poles associated
purple with both anger and jealousy while Germans associated jealousy with yellow, highlighting how
the influence of different cultures can potentially change perceptions of colour and its relationship to
emotion.