ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

(Department of English Language & Applied Linguistics)

Course: Psycholinguistics and Language Teaching Methodology (5655)

Semester: Spring, 2018

Level: Diploma TEFL

ASSIGNMENT No. 2

Topic No. 1:-

Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and
comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate.
Language acquisition usually refers to first-language acquisition, which studies infants’
acquisition of their native language. This is distinguished from second-language learning,
which deals with the learning (in both children and adults) of additional languages. Consider
at least two people who can understand and communicate in either two or more than two
languages. Interview them asking questions relating to their language acquiring and learning
strategies/dynamics. Compile a report based on your findings. Also discuss whether
individual differences play any vital role in the two processes.
 Acknowledgement

In the name of Almighty Allah, the most gracious, the most beneficent by help of whom I am
able to complete my internship report. I am grateful to Allah almighty, for enabling me to fulfill
this tiring, but interesting job for the completion of my assignment.

No doubt Allah is the main source of knowledge and wisdom. It is a great blessing of Almighty
Allah, that He enables me because of His Holy Prophet (peace is upon him) I am presenting my
humble contribution for distribution of knowledge. I bow my head before Almighty Allah who
gave me courage, knowledge and confidence and to carry on assignment and enabled me to
accomplish it.

I would not be going to do justice in presenting this assignment without mentioning the people
around me who have been inextricably related with the completion of this assignment. I would
like to express my heartfelt thanks to our course teacher for his support and guidance, which he
rendered throughout the study to peruse this assignment. Finally, for any all too fallible errors,
omissions and shortcomings in the writing of the report only I am responsible for which we
hope that all concerning regards of this assignment will forgive us.
 Table of contents

1. Introduction to the study.....................................................................................................................4

2. Background situation...........................................................................................................................4
3. Rational of the study...........................................................................................................................8
4. Objectives of the study........................................................................................................................8
5. Research question or hypothesis.........................................................................................................8
6. Delimitation of the study.....................................................................................................................9
7. Literature review.................................................................................................................................9
8. Research design.................................................................................................................................10
9. Data collection...................................................................................................................................10
10. Data analysis strategies.................................................................................................................11
11. Findings..........................................................................................................................................12
12. Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................15
13. Bibliography...................................................................................................................................16
 1. Introduction to the study

Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive, produce
and use words to understand and communicate. It involves the picking up of diverse capacities
including syntax, phonetics, and an extensive vocabulary. However, learning a first language is
something that every normal child does successfully without much need for formal lessons.
Language development is a complex and unique human quality but yet children seem to
acquire language at a very rapid rate with most children's speech being relatively grammatical
by age three (Crain & Lillo-Martin, 1999). Grammar, which is a set of mental rules that
characterizes all of the sentences of a language, must be mastered in order to learn a language.
Most children in a linguistic community seem to succeed in converging on a grammatical
system equivalent to everyone else in the community with few wrong turns, which is quite
remarkable considering the pitfalls and complexity of the system. By the time a child utters a
first word, according to the Linguistic Society of America, he or she has already spent many
months playing around with the sounds and intonations of language,  but there is still no one
point at which all children learn to talk. Children acquire language in stages and different
children reach various stages at different times, although they have one thing in common and
that is that typically developing children learning the same language will follow an almost
identical pattern in the sequence of stages they go through. The stages usually consist of:

 cooing- 6 months- use phonemes from every language

 babbling- 9 months- selectively use phonemes from their native language
 one word utterances- 12 months- start using single words
 telegraphic speech- 2 years- multi-word utterances that lack in function
 normal speech- 5 years- almost normal developed speech

Language acquisition is a complex and unique human quality for which there is still no theory
that is able to completely explain how language is attained. However most of the concepts and
theories we do have explaining how native languages are acquired go back to the approaches
put forward by researchers such as Skinner, Chomsky, Piaget and others. Most of the modern
theories we have today have incorporated aspects of these theories into their various findings.
 2. Background situation

Theories of language learning

Language is a construct human’s work in every day to express a wide range of emotions, ideas, concepts,
and actions. Yet it still seems to be incredibly difficult to learn a second language. It seems odd because
we didn’t really have to work to learn the one we know now.

Historical Theories and Models of Language Acquisition

Behaviourist Theory

In 1957 a piece of literature appeared that would come to affect how we view language, human
behaviour and language learning. B.F Skinner's Verbal Behaviour (1957) applied a functional
analysis approach to analyze language behaviour in terms of their natural occurrence in
response to environmental circumstances and the effects they have on human
interactions. Skinner's behaviour learning approach relies on the components of classical, which
involves unconditioned and conditioned stimuli, and operant conditioning but particularly the
elements of operational conditioning.

Innateness Theory

Noam Chomsky's innateness theory (or nativist theory) proposes that children have an inborn
or innate faculty for language acquisition that is biologically determined. According to Goodluck
(1991), nativists view language as a fundamental part of the human genome, as a trait that
makes humans human, and its acquisition is a natural part of maturation.It seems that the
human species has evolved a brain whose neural circuits contain linguistic information at birth
and this natural predisposition to learn language is triggered by hearing speech. The child's
brain is then able to interpret what she or he hears according to the underlying principles or
structures it already contains (Linden, 2007).

Cognitive Theory

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist that was famous for his four stages of cognitive
development for children, which included the development of language. However, children do
not think like adults and so before they can begin to develop language they must first actively
construct their own understanding of the world through their interactions with their
environment. There are four stages of Piaget's cognitive development theory, each involving a
different aspect of language acquisition:
Sensory-Motor Period- (birth to 2 years) Children are born with "action schemas" to
"assimilate" information about the world such as sucking or grasping. During the sensory-motor
period, children's language is "egocentric" and they talk either for themselves or for the
pleasure of associating anyone who happens to be there with the activity of the moment

Pre-Operational Period- (2 years to 7) Children's language makes rapid progress and the
development of their "mental schema" lets them quickly "accommodate" new words and
situations. Children's language becomes "symbolic" allowing them to talk beyond the "here and
now" and to talk about things such as the past, future and feelings.

Egocentrism- Involves "animism" which refers to young children's tendency to consider

everything, including inanimate objects, as being alive. Language is considered egocentric
because they see things purely from their own perspective.

Operational Period- (7 to 11 years) and (11 years to adulthood) Piaget divides this period into
two parts: the period of concrete operations and the period of formal operations. Language at
this stage reveals the movement of their thinking from immature to mature and from illogical
to logical. They are also able to "de-center" or view things from a perspective other than their
own. It is at this point that children's language becomes "socialized" and includes things such as
questions, answers, commands and criticisms.

Social Interactionist Theory

Vygotsky's social interaction theory incorporates nurture arguments in that children can be
influenced by their environment as well as the language input children receive from their care-
givers. Although the theories of Skinner, Chomsky and Piaget are all very different and very
important in their own contexts, they don't necessarily take into account the fact that children
don't encounter language in isolation. The child is a little linguist analyzing language from
randomly encountered adult utterances. The interaction theory proposes that language exists
for the purpose of communication and can only be learned in the context of interaction with
adults and older children. It stresses the importance of the environment and culture in which
the language is being learned during early childhood development because this social
interaction is what first provides the child with the means of making sense of their own
behaviour and how they think about the surrounding world.

3. Rational of the study

This study attempts to help teachers and researchers gain a better understanding of how
children learn. The teacher as researcher perspective gives me the opportunity to observe,
reflect and interpret the children’s behaviors first hand. I was able to generate new knowledge
by collecting data on the children every day. The children already know and trust me so their
actions and interactions were natural and my presence was normal for the children. By
providing children with learning opportunities that afford multiple ways of learning, children
were able to grasp and understand a topic in the way that they know best and/or from different
perspectives.

We know that children truly understand something when they can represent their knowledge
in more than one way (Checkly, 1997 in an interview with Gardner). The work done in this study
may contribute to the way teachers facilitate learning in their classrooms and help to advance
teacher appreciation of children’s multiple intelligences.

4. Objectives of the study

The purpose of this study was to gain understanding of how children learn when they are
engaged in child initiated, teacher guided activities. Specifically, children’s learning processes
were documented and interpreted based on how they use their multiple intelligences. At this
stage in the research, multiple intelligences refer to Gardner’s model of multiple intelligence
and his view of how children have many cognitive strengths. Ethnographic methodologies were
used to observe, document and interpret children’s behaviors and interactions in the
classroom.

5. Research question or hypothesis

 How do young children learn through the use of their multiple intelligences during child
initiated, teacher guided activities?
 How do children acquire language (language acquisition)?
 How do people process and comprehend language (language comprehension)?

6. Delimitation of the study

Due to shortage of time I could only observe two children within a limited time
 7. Literature review

Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of

the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, and
understand language. Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures,
due mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain functioned. Modern research
makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, and information theory to study how the
brain processes language. There are a number of sub disciplines; for example, as non-invasive
techniques to study the neurological workings of the brain become more and more
used, neurolinguistics has become a field of its own.

Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a

grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as
the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, etc. Developmental
psycholinguistics studies infants' and children's ability to learn language, usually with
experimental or at least quantitative methods (as opposed to naturalistic observations such as
those made by Jean Piaget in his research on the development of children).

The term first language acquisition refers to children's natural acquisition of the language or

languages they hear from birth. It is distinguished from second language acquisition, which
begins later, and from foreign language learning, which typically involves formal instruction.

First language acquisition is a rapid process. In the span of just a few years, newborn infants
who neither speak nor understand any language become young children who comment,
question, and express their ideas in the language of their community. This change does not
occur all at once. First, newborns' cries give way to coos and babbles. Then, infants who coo
and babble start to show signs of comprehension such as turning when they hear their name.
Infants then become toddlers who say “bye-bye” and “all gone” and start to label the people
and objects in their environment. As their vocabularies continue to grow, children start to
combine words. Children's first word combinations, such as “all gone juice” and “read me,” are
short and are missing parts found in adults' sentences. Gradually children's immature sentences
are replaced by longer and more adultlike sentences. As children learn to talk, their
comprehension abilities also develop, typically in advance of their productive speech. As
children master language, they also become masters at using language to communicate. One-
year-olds who can only point and label become 2-year-olds who comment, question, and
command, and 4-year-olds who can carry on coherent conversations. Studies of middle-class,
typically developing children acquiring English have documented that by four years of age
children are nearly adult like in phonological properties of their speech; they have vocabularies
of several thousand words, and they produce most of the types of structures observable in the
speech of adults (Hoff, 2008).

8. Research design

The purpose of this study was to gain understanding of how children learn when they are
engaged in child initiated, teacher guided activities. In this study, I observed, documented and
interpreted the children’s learning processes when they were working alone and in groups in
the context of a preschool classroom. Specifically, children’s learning processes were
documented and interpreted based on how children used their multiple intelligences.
Ethnographic methodologies were used to observe, document and interpret children’s
behaviors and interactions in the classroom. My decision to use qualitative research and
specifically ethnography methods comes from the nature of the study. According to Goodwin
and Goodwin (1996), qualitative research is a naturalistic concept where “ multiple realities
exist and must be recognized by giving attention to group and individual constructions and
perceptions of reality”(p.19). This kind of research is quite inductive and the focus is on the
process, the interpretation and meaning making of the process. Qualitative researchers benefit
from using open-ended methods for performing research such as observations, interviews, and
field notes. I used the cycle of inquiry (Gandini & Goldhaber, 2001) in conducting this study and
to organize, analyze, and interpret the data. This cycle of inquiry helped me gain a better
understanding of children’s learning processes and the teaching-learning dynamics.

9. Data collection

The study took place in one of the classrooms at the XYZ Tech Child Development Lab School,
which is a university-based preschool open to the community surrounding the campus. In the
classroom, teachers and children negotiate the curriculum together. The teachers and student
assistants at the lab school give children opportunities to make choices and explore their world
through play. Children are also encouraged to interact with peers, investigate the unknown and
come up with new questions based on play.

Documentation is a useful tool for guiding emerging curriculum in the classroom and for
showing the child’s growth and development during their time in the lab school. Portfolios give
the parents, children and teachers the opportunity to revisit experiences and explorations that
the child has had in the classroom.
 10. Data analysis strategies

The participants in this study were the 2 children named Alia and Ali enrolled in the classroom
at the XYZ Tech Child Development Laboratory School. I used a video camera to videotape the
children alone or in groups engaging in a variety of experiences alone or in groups. This helped
me view the process of the children’s thinking and look back through the tapes to transcribe
exactly what the children say I was also able to consistently see the children using their multiple
intelligences to make sense of the activities they are working on. I videotaped the children from
Aug 22, 2017-Sep 22, 2017. This allowed for five weeks of observation through videotaping at
three days a week

Working Profiles

Alia

The working profile on Alia revealed that she tended to learn through linguistic, interpersonal, and
intrapersonal intelligences. Alia has a love of books and reading. Reading books is one of the ways that
Alia sometimes transitions into the classroom. She has an extensive vocabulary and is very detailed in
her descriptions when she is telling or retelling stories. Once when Alia was reading a book about
animals she would act out the sounds of the animals in the book. Alia also takes reading books as an
opportunity to socialize with her peers. She enjoys teaching others and if one of the other children got
an animal wrong, Alia would correct them and tell them the correct animal’s name. She enjoys
participating as several different characters through her dramatic play experiences. Some examples are
dinosaurs, kitty cats and different roles during playing house. Alia is the only target child according to
our interpretation that possessed both interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences. She works well
alone and is in touch with her feelings. Using her linguistic skills, Alia can tell her teachers how she is
feeling and can differentiate between her emotions well. When Alia wants to be alone, she will tell us
and when she wants or needs someone to be with her, she will let us know

Ali

Ali’s working profile revealed that he learns through linguistic and intrapersonal intelligences.
Ali uses the computer as a language. He is very knowledgeable about computers and has an
extensive vocabulary and interest in computers. Ali uses complete sentences and enjoys being
read to. Ali’s intrapersonal intelligence is shown through several examples. He works alone well
and often enjoys being alone to observe, think and learn. Ali likes the quiet places in the
classroom such as the loft and the chair to the right when you walk into the classroom. He
learns through his observations of others. Although Ali may be on the outskirts of the group, he
is in tune with what is going on with his friends. Ali is in touch with his feelings and often tells
his teachers how he feels. I have heard Ali tell me “I need to rest because I am tired.” He uses
his linguistic abilities to relate his feelings to others.

11. Findings

Alia

When Alia enters the classroom, she is usually smiling but approaches the classroom timidly.
She can be seen hiding behind her mom or dad’s legs. Routinely, Alia brings several transition
items with her to school everyday. There are one or two items like her doll that she brings
everyday and then she brings many others as well. Alia usually first walks with her mom or dad
to her cubby to put away her jacket and toys and then she takes a look around the room to see
what she wants to do. Alia is quite versatile in the activities that she chooses and the people
that she chooses to play with. Sometimes Alia will gravitate towards an activity because her
close circle of friends are there. What I noticed more recently with the last few weeks of
videotaping was that Alia has been participating in activities that Kelli and Sally are not
participating in. Alia has had a few transition issues lately and one hypothesis was that Sally and
Kelli immediately participate in play when they are in the room together whereas Chrissy takes
a few more minutes to observe and think about what she wants to do. Reading is one way that
Alia transitions in the room. The happiness and contentment of being read to can be seen on
the look of her face as she smiles. Alia is very affectionate and I have seen her and experienced
for myself her place a hand on a teachers arm or face as she is concentrating on listening to the
story. Alia works really well with other children in groups. She has an extensive vocabulary and
has the ability to get her thoughts and feelings across to her friends. If she is with others, Alia
tends to be more of a follower of others. She is still vocal but her ideas and plans do not get
played out as much as others. When I have seen Alia with other children that she does not play
with as much, she is more of a leader because of her ability to vocalize her thoughts whereas
the other children may not have that ability. Alia is very gentle, smooth and calm with her
movements within activities. One day there was colored ice and water in the media table. Alia
approached this activity and first watched before jumping in to the activity. Alia first began
exploring the mixer gently. She never splashed the water or dropped water on the floor. She
moves quite adroitly and definitely experiences most activities to the fullest but within a
smooth direction. This play with ice cubes suggests Alia vast imagination and love for drama
and telling stories. Alia began calling the little ice cubes “fishes.” The ice cube trays were used
for “the fishes to sleep” and they were making “fish cookies” for the fish to eat. Another
example of dramatic play is the almost every day ”kitty cat” play that several of the children
participate in. Usually the children including Alia are kitty cats and for the most part their roles
come in the form of mom’s, daddies and babies. Like several of the other children, Alia often
sings and hums as she is working. Almost everyday at group time, Alia likes to teach us a new
song that she has made up. One day Alia had made up a song about caterpillars and she
wanted to sing it to me. I was able to catch it on video. Alia used her hands and legs to move
them back and forth almost to animate or make live the caterpillar she was singing about. The
following is the song that Alia sang several times at snack time:

“Caterpillar go up the tree. Caterpillar go up the tree.

Caterpillar go up the tree. Caterpillar go up the tree.

You are so lucky. You are so lucky.

You are so lucky.

Hey, Hi, Ho, Hoo, Hallee, hallee, doo doo, hallee hallee, doo doo”

After the song she continued to sing using words such as “diddledoodleday.” She rhymed the
words but they were technically not English words. Even though the first four lines are the
same, when Alia was singing them, every line was different because of where Alia decided to
stress certain syllables in the words through the inflection in her voice. Alia has a great memory
and was able to repeat the song more than one time and get the words correct both times.

Reflection:

Alia tends to learn when she is in the company of other children and adults, using her creative,
descriptive language to demonstrate how she perceives the world. Alia often observes what is
going on around her before she jumps into an activity. She seems to be deliberate in thinking
about what she is about to work on before engaging in an activity. When not working with
children, Alia often seeks the company of teachers or adults as if she is looking for someone to
scaffold her into increasing her understanding of and expanding her knowledge of the world
around her.

Ali

Every morning when Ali comes to school, he sits outside of the classroom on a stool and watches to see
what is going on in the classroom. Sometimes he sits outside for a long time and sometimes his
mom or a teacher can convince him to come inside quicker. Ali is not upset or sad, I think he
likes the extra attention of someone specially having to sit outside with him and bring him in
the classroom. Ali’s favorite place in the classroom is up on the loft. He loves the computer but
he also likes to go up there because it is usually a quieter space for him to observe and think.
Almost every morning, a teacher will help to get Ali get involved in an activity in the classroom.
If he is not interested in any of the activities right away, usually we can get him involved in the
classroom by offering the paint program on the computer. Ali enjoys having a teacher work
with him on activities. When he is working one on one with teachers, he is very vocal and talks
a lot when he gets comfortable. He uses full sentences and has an extensive vocabulary. Ali will
rarely interact with other children on his own; he usually requires someone to approach him.
He plays well by himself after he has adjusted to the classroom environment. Ali is very
knowledgeable about computers and enjoys sharing his knowledge with others. He asks
questions when he needs to but Ali predominantly learns from constant observation and
interpretation of what is going on. One morning after he painted a picture on the computer he
pressed print and anxiously awaited the painting to be printed. As he was intently watching the
printer, he asked, “Can you open it for me so I can look at the inside?” He was really interested
in the works of the printer and continued to ask the teacher about the printer: “Where’s the
inside come from? Is it working now? What’s that light doing?” Ali is constantly asking and
wanting to know about the printer and the scanner. He knows how to save and print and he
enjoys sharing this knowledge with his friends. Ali is a keen, sharp observer and often learns
through watching others. He typically does not talk; he is usually quiet. I feel like Ali figures out
things in his head. He does not manipulate much with his hands to figure things out. He
constructs his knowledge through watching others. For example, Ali watched one of the
student teachers closely as she modeled for him how to pull the rope down, put the ball in the
tube and pull the rope so that the tube would raise and the ball would drop. Ali listened to the
teacher give directions and he soon began to actively participate in the activity. Ali knew what
to expect; he knew and understood what was going to happen. Ali uses his eyes to follow the
tube to see where the ball was going and where it was going to come out. There are several
more examples of Ali observing and learning through others around him. Even when Ali is
involved in an activity, he is constantly lifting his head up to see what is going on around him.
Whether it is the marble works game, the art activities or sitting under the loft, Ali is
continuously looking around him. One behavior that became clearer to me is how the
environment easily affects Ali. He easily copies the behaviors and actions of other children that
are usually out of his typical character. One morning Ali was under the loft with other boy lying
on the pillows and blankets. Other boy was screeching and giggling under the loft and Ali would
copy and imitate her screaming and screeching. Other boy would cover herself up with a
blanket so Ali would cover himself up with a blanket. Several times now when we have gone on
walks around. He follows others around and mimics his behavior. Ali easily emulates the
behavior, language and sounds of those around him.

Reflection:

Ali most definitely is a keen, sharp observer of the environment and sounds around him. Ali’s
predominant method of learning about his surroundings is through deep observation and
reflection of what he sees. Ali tends to be able to focus better when he works alone or in small
groups. Ali usually feels more comfortable working alone and would choose to be alone rather
than work in small groups. When Ali does work in small groups it is when other children that he
feels comfortable around initiate the interaction and if Ali is comfortable and has had time to
adjust, he will join the group. He is seldom the leader of the group and mostly he does things
his way or he follows the lead of others. Ali carefully watches those around him and then
follows. Ali almost always knows what is going on around him and what the other children are
doing. He can tell me, and does, periodically during the morning what activities his peers are
involved in and where they are. Ali shares his knowledge of the environment through his ability
to share with his teachers and some peers what is going on around him. He likes to interact
with children who will give him the chance to speak easily.

12. Conclusion

In this study, I explored how children learn during child initiated, teacher guided activities based
on how the children use their multiple intelligences and how they comprehend language
(language comprehension)

Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive, produce
and use words to understand and communicate. It involves the picking up of diverse capacities
including syntax, phonetics, and an extensive vocabulary. However, learning a first language is
something that every normal child does successfully without much need for formal lessons.
Language development is a complex and unique human quality but yet children seem to
acquire language at a very rapid rate with most children's speech being relatively grammatical
by age three.

This study attempts to help teachers and researchers gain a better understanding of how
children learn. The teacher as researcher perspective gives me the opportunity to observe,
reflect and interpret the children’s behaviors first hand. I was able to generate new knowledge
by collecting data on the children every day. The children already know and trust me so their
actions and interactions were natural and my presence was normal for the children. By
providing children with learning opportunities that afford multiple ways of learning, children
were able to grasp and understand a topic in the way that they know best and/or from different
perspectives.

We know that children truly understand something when they can represent their knowledge
in more than one way (Checkly, 1997 in an interview with Gardner). The work done in this study
may contribute to the way teachers facilitate learning in their classrooms and help to advance
teacher appreciation of children’s multiple intelligences.

13. Bibliography

 Website: http://www.speech-therapy-information-and-resources.com/language-
acquisition.html
 Mason, T. (2002). Learning Language. Lecture presented in Didactics of English.
Université of Versailles St. Quentin, Versailles, France.
 Tomasello, M. (2003). Constructing a language: A usage-based theory of language
acquisition. USA: First Harvard University Press.
 Tomasello, M. (2003). Constructing a language: A usage-based theory of language
acquisition. USA: First Harvard University Press.
 Saxton, M. (2010). Child Language: Acquisition and development. Thousand Oaks, (CA):
SAGE Publications Ltd.
 Doughty, C.J., & Long, M.H. (2003). The handbook of second language
acquisition. Malden, (MA): Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
 Saxton, M. (2010). Child Language: Acquisition and development. Thousand Oaks, (CA):
SAGE Publications Ltd.
 Doughty, C.J., & Long, M.H. (2003). The handbook of second language
acquisition. Malden, (MA): Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
 Prince, A., & Smolensky, P. (2004). Optimality Theory: Constraint interaction in
generative grammar. Malden (MA): Blackwell Publishings Ltd.
 Mc Carthy, J.J. (2004). Optimality Theory in Phonology: A reader. Malden, (MA):
Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
 Kager, R. (1999). Optimality Theory. New York, (NY): Cambridge University Press.
 Archangeli, D., & Langendoen, T.D. (1997). Optimality Theory: An overview. Malden,
(MA): Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
 Kuhl, P., Conboy, B., Coffey-Corina, S., Padden, D., Rivera-Gaxiola, M., & Nelson, T.
(2008). Phonetic learning as a pathway to language: New data and native language
magnet theory expanded (NLM-e). Philosophical Transactions B, 363: 979-1000.