BIOMOLECULE: also called biological molecule, any of numerous substances that are produced by cells

and living organisms. Biomolecules have a wide range of sizes and structures and perform a vast array of
functions. The four major types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.

CARBOHYDRATES: are made up primarily of molecules containing atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, the general formula Cx(H2O)y is commonly used to represent many carbohydrates, which
means “watered carbon. Are essential energy sources and structural components of all life, and they are
among the most abundant biomolecules on Earth. They are built from four types of sugar units—
monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.

FUNCTION AND IMPORTANCE OF CARBOHYDRATES: The importance of carbohydrates to living things

can hardly be overemphasized. The energy stores of most animals and plants are both carbohydrate and
lipid in nature; carbohydrates are generally available as an immediate energy source, whereas lipids act
as a long-term energy resource and tend to be utilized at a slower rate. Glucose, the prevalent
uncombined, or free, sugar circulating in the blood of higher animals, is essential to cell function. The
proper regulation of glucose metabolism is of paramount importance to survival.

TEST FOR SPECIFIC CARBOHYDRATES: Seliwanoff’s test, Bial’s test and Iodine test

1. Seliwanoff’s test

Principle of Seliwanoff’s test:

Seliwanoff’s test is used to distinguish aldoses from ketoses. On treatment with conc. Acid, ketoses are
dehydrated more rapidly to give furfural derivatives and on condensation with resorcinol give cherry red
complex. The test will be answered by fructose, sucrose and other keto containing carbohydrates.
Result Interpretation of Seliwanoff’s test:

Positive seliwanoff’s test: Fructose and sucrose

Negative seliwanoff’s test: glucose, distilled water

2. Bial’s Test

Principle of Bial’s test:

Bial’s test is useful in distinguishing pentoses sugar from hexoses sugars. Pentosses ( such as ribose
sugar) form furfural in acidic medium which condense with orcinol in presence of ferric ion to give blue
green colored complex which is soluble in butyl alcohol.

Result interpretation for Bial’s test:

Positive Bial’s test: formation of blue color ( eg. Ribose sugar)
Negative Bial’s test: formation of any other color indicates negative test. Hexose sugar ( glucose,
fructose) generally gives green, red or brown color product.

3. Iodine Test: Principle, reagents, Procedure and Result

Principle of Iodine test for carbohydrate:

Starch when reacted with I2 forms absorbed compound that gives blue color. On heating or on addition
of alkali like NaOH or KIH, color disappears. This reaction is only physically association where I2 traps in
the coiled structure of polysaccharide. On heating or on addition of alkali; the coiled structure becomes
linear and the I2 molecules are released and the color disappears. The test will be answered by fructose,
sucrose and other keto containing carbohydrates.
Result interpretation of Iodine test:

Positive iodine test: dark blue color (starch)

Negative iodine test: glucose, fructose and sucrose

MONOSACCHARIDE: also called simple sugar, any of the basic compounds that serve as the building
blocks of carbohydrates. Monosaccharides are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones; that is, they are
molecules with more than one hydroxyl group (−OH), and a carbonyl group (C=O) either at the terminal
carbon atom (aldose) or at the second carbon atom (ketose). The carbonyl group combines in aqueous
solution with one hydroxyl group to form a cyclic compound (hemi-acetal or hemi-ketal). The resulting
monosaccharide is a crystalline water-soluble solid.

CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDES: classified by the number of carbon atoms in the molecule;

dioses have two, trioses have three, tetroses four, pentoses five, hexoses six, and heptoses seven. Most
contain five or six. The most-important pentoses include xylose, found combined as xylan in woody
materials; arabinose from coniferous trees; ribose, a component of ribonucleic acids (RNA) and several
vitamins; and deoxyribose, a component of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Among the most-important
aldohexoses are glucose, mannose, and galactose; fructose is a ketohexose.

ALDOSE AND KETOSE

Basis of Distinction Aldose
Definition The monosaccharide that only
has one aldehyde group in each
molecule and becomes a pure
sugar.
Ketose
A monosaccharide that has a
ketone group in each molecule
that contains three carbon
atoms.

Example Glycolaldehyde that only has Dihydroxyacetone, and it does

one carbon atom within its
structure.
Convertibility May decompose into ketose
depending on the isomerization
reaction.
not have any optical activity.
May decompose into aldose
only if there exists a separate
carbonyl group at the end of
each atom.

Seliwanoff’s Test Light Pink color Dark red color.