CHAPTER 4

WELL HYDRAULICS
 h h h
2 2 2
h
T{ 2  2  2 }  S
x y z t
STEADY ONE-DIRECTIONAL FLOW:
A. Confined Aquifer
 h
2

0
x 2

h V
C  (from Darcy' s Law)
x
1
K

hC X C 1 2

let h  0 at X  0 ; C  0
2

VX
h
K

This states the h decreases linearly, with flow in X direction

B. Unconfined Aquifer

• Sol. of Laplace equation for unconfined aquifer

not possible.

• WT. in 2D flow represents a flow line

• Shape of WT determines the flow distribution,

but at the same time flow distribution governs
WT shape.
To obtain the solution, Dupuit Assumptions --

1. Velocity of flow is proportional to the tangent of

hyd. grad.
ds
dh dh
sin=tan
 or sin tan dh
ds dx 
dx
sin 5° 0.0872
0.3%
tan 5 ° 0.0875
sin 10° 0.1737
1.6%
tan 10 ° 0.1763
sin 20° 0.3420
6.4%
tan 20 ° 0.3640
 2. Flow is horizontal and uniform in a vertical section.
Flux per unit width at a section

dh
q   Kh
dx
2
q Κh C
2X
If h  h0 at X  0
2
h
C  K 0
2
K 2
q (h  h02 )
2x
K 2
q (h0  h 2 )
2x
• This indicates W.T. of parabolic form.

• Dupuit assumptions become increasingly

poor approximations to actual flow.

• Actual W.T. deviates more and more from

computed W.T. in the flow direction.

• W.T. actually approaches the boundary

tangentially above water surface and forms a
seepage face.
This indicates that W.T. is not of parabolic
form; however, for flat slopes, where

sin  = tan 

It closely predicts W.T. position except near the

outflow.
STEADY RADIAL FLOW TO A WELL:
A. Confined Aquifer

When well is pumped, water is removed from

aquifer surrounding the well and W.T. or P.S.
lowered depending upon the type of aquifer.
Drawdown - Distance the water
level is lowered.

Cone of Depression - 3D
Area of Influence - 2D
Radius of Influence - 1D
Assumptions for Well Flow Equations
1. Const. Discharge
2. Fully Penetrating Well
3. Homogeneous, isotropic, horz. aquifer with
infinite horz. extent
4. Water released immediately from aquifer storage
due to W.T. or P.S. decline

h  Piezometri c head above aquifer bottom

For Infinite Aquifer
h1  hw
h2  h0 (Original P.S.)

Q  2T
ho  hw 
ln ro / rw 
Equilibrium Equation (Thiem Equation) Valid
within the radius of influence

Q ln( r2 / r1 )
h K 
2b( h2  h1 )
ln r
Value of h must be measured in steady
state condition only. Not a very
h
practical method of determining K.
t
 B. Unconfined Aquifer

dh
Q  ( 2rh) K
dr
r2 h2
dr
Q  2K  hdh
r1
r h1

( h22  h12 )
Q  K
ln( r2 / r1 )
If aquifer is infinite h2 h0 (orig. static water level) and
h1  hw

If h is constant, i.e., steady state cond. -

Av. thickness
C. Well Flow in Uniform Recharge
Equilibrium cond. or steady state cond. can be
reached in unconfined aquifers due to recharge
from rainfall or irrigation.
• Uniform Recharge Rate
= w cfs/ft2
• Well Flow

Q=r0²w

r 0 = radius of influence

• Horizontal flow thru vertical cylinder (r < ro)

q  Q  r w 2

• Also, flux q
dh
q  (2rh) K
dr
 Q
 r in ln term,
2
Integrating and Substituting
w o

w
and multiplying by
K

Q r w
ln  (r  r )
2 2
o

K r 2 K
w
0 w
 Q ro w 2
ln  (r0  rw )  (h0  hw )
2 2 2

K rw 2 K
If w known, compute r0 for given Q and , or estimate w if
other parameters known, or estimate if w and other
parameters known.

r0  f (Q, w)
Note:
r0 independent of h and K
D. Well in a Uniform Flow

• P - Stagnation Point
Uniform Flow

stream lines
Radial Flow
• Used in Well Head Protection Plan (WHPA)
•Circular area of influence for radial flow becomes

distorted. Wenzel -
(iu  id ) (hu  hd )
Q  Ki ( rh )  zKr  *
z z
2Q  Kr (iu  id )(hu  hd )
2Q
K
r (hu  hd )(iu  id )
Q  discharge ;
iu & id  hyd. grads. U/S & D/S at a distance r from well;
hu & hd  hyd. heads U/S & D/S
• For unconfined aquifer, h  sat. thickness
0

• For confined aquifer,

( h  h )  2b; b  aquifer thickness

u d

• Boundary of the flow area -

y ( 2 K b i y )
  tan
x Q

• Origin at well
b - aquifer thickness
Q – discharge
i - natural piez. slope
K - Perm
• Boundary asymptotically approaches as

y
x  ,   0
x
tan(  )  0
 
2Kbiy

Q
Q
yL  
2 Kbi
• Boundary of contributing area extends to stagnation
point P, where

Q
x
2Kbi

• Boundary equation, Y and X applicable to unconfined

aquifer, replace b by h0 - sat. aquifer thickness, if
drawdown is small compared to aquifer thickness.
E. Flow to Parallel Streams (Drainage Flow or Base Flow)
• Recharge rate continuously occurring over the area
dh
wx  [  Kh ]
dx
a ha

W  xdx   K  hdh
x h

(a  x )
2 2
(h  h )
2 2
w  K a
2 2
w 2
( a  x )  h  ha
2 2 2

K
w 2
h  ha  ( a  x )
2 2 2

K
h
x x  a

Flux to stream
h
q  Kha
x x  a
Unsteady Radial Flow to a Well
• Extensive Confined Aquifer  2h  2h h
T{ 2  2 }  S
Q  S  h  area of influence x y t

• Polar coordinate system

 h 1  h  S h
2

   T  Kb
r r  r  T t
2
 • Boundary Conditions
hh o at to

hh o as r  t>o

 h  Q
lim  r ÷ 
r  o  r  2T

s  ho  h where : W(u) well function (Tables available)


Q e u r2S
 
4T u u
du u
4Tt
Q
 W ( u)
4T
Q u2 u3 u4
 [0.5772  ln u  u     ...]
4T 2.21 3.31 4.41
Application
1. To find the aquifer parameters or formation
constants S & T
2. To determine drawdown for specified Q, S, T, & t

Assumptions
1. Extensive confined aquifer
2. Homogeneous and isotropic aquifer
3. Well penetrates the entire aquifer
4. Well diameter is small
5. Water is removed instantaneously
from storage with decline in head
A. Theis Method

s  ho  h 
QW (u)
4T

where : s  drawdown, ft or m

, gpd
2
T  Trans., ft / d or
2 m
r 2s d ft
u
4Tt
3
Q  disch; ft / d or
3 m , gpm
d
 Converting to field units
114.6  1440 
s  ( ho  h)  QW ( u)  114.6  
T  4 

( h0  h)  s drawdown, ft.

Q  discharge, gpm

W ( u)  dimensionl ess, Well Function

T  Trans., gpd/ft.
 1.87 r 2 S r  distance from well, ft.
u
Tt S  storage coeff., dimensionless
 7.48  t  time, days
1.87   
 4 
 114.6Q   114.6Q 
s W (u ) (1) log s  log    log W ( u)
 T   T 

r2  T  r2  T 
 u ( 2) log  log    log u
t  1.87 S  t  1.87 S 

114.6Q T
and are constant or a test.
T 1.87 S
Match the two curves. Locate a match point and obtain
all coordinates. Solve for S & T.

S, r2/t
W(u), u
(1) Insert s, W(u), and Q in Eq. (1) ---- T
(2) Substitute r2/t, u, T in Eq. (2) --- S
For metric system:

 Q  Q
s W ( u) T W ( u)
 4T  4s
 4T 
2 2
r r S 4Ttu
 u as u  , S 2
t  S  4Tt r
 B. Jacob-Cooper Method
r 2S
u
4Tt
For small r and large t, u is small so that series terms
become negligible after the first two terms.
Q  r 2s 
s
Q
 0.5772  ln u    ln 1.781  ln 
4T 4T  4rT 
Q  r 2s  Q  4T 
   ln 1.781  ln 1.781r 2 s 
4T  4Tt  4T  
ln  2.3 log 10  ln  log e u
 2.25Tto
2
 1
r S
or

2.25Tt0
S 2
r
Thus, a plot of s vs. t forms a st. line.
Plot drawdown, s, from an OBS. well against time, t0
Slope of the line gives S & T values.
 2.3Q 2.25Tt
s log 2
4T r S

s  a log bt

2.3Q 2.25Tt0
0 log
4T 2
r S

All parameters constant except t

Metric system : From S for one log cycle in Eq 1

2.3Q t2
s  s 2  s1  log
4T t1

t2 t2
 10, log 1
t t1

2  3Q
s 
4 T

2  3Q
T 
4  s
Field Units
s  drawdown diff per log cycle of time
264Q
T  t0  time at zero drawdown
s
S  storage coefficien t
S
0.3Tt 0 T  gpd/ft
r2 Q  gpm
1440x2.3
 264
4A
2.25
 0.3
7.48

To avoid large errors, u < 0.01 in this method.

Distance - Drawdown Method
Theis: s vs r2/t ; t - constant; r- variable
Jacob Method:
Need 3 or more observation wells
264Q 0.3Tt
ss  log 2
T r S

528Q  0.3Tt  1
 [log   ]
T  S r
or
b
s  a log
r
528Q r1
s  s2  s1  log
T r2
 S

528 Q
T
s

r r0
0.3Tt
S 2 log
r

ro  d i s t a n c e a t z e r o b r e a k d o w n, f t.

Time - drawdown and distance - drawdown methods

provide S & T values, which should be closely agreeable.
Recovery Method
Time - drawdown measurements during pumping and
time-recovery measurements during recovery provide two
sets of data from an aquifer test.

• Values of T & S serve to check calculations during

pumping.

• If an obs. well available, take water level recovery data

to obtain T & S.

• Where no obs. available, water level recovery data

from pumped well used to calculate T only.
Recovery Method
A. Residual Drawdown Method
Find T in pumped well
t   time since pumping stopped
t  time since pumping began
• Recovery measured in pumped well

 

Q  e u e u  Q
s  ho  h 
s´   du   du   W (u)  W (u)
4T  r 2 s u r 2s
u  4T
 4Tt 4Tt  
Drawdown Recovery
• For small r and large t' , integrals approximated by
first two terms in series.
 2
r s
u 
4t

2
r s
u' 
4t '
 2  3Q t
T log
4 ( h  h)
o
t

2  3Q
 log t 
4s t

t
over 1 log cycle, log , log 10 = 1
t'
Metric System :

2  3Q
T
4s

s  water level recover per log cycle of t 

t
Field Units:
264Q
or T
s

S can’t be determined from this method

B. Time - Recovery Method
Find S & T in observation well
• Recovery measured in observation well
• Plot s  s  , recovery, with t 
• Use Jacob method
Field Units - : Metric System –

264Q 2  3Q
T : T
  s  s  4  s  s 

0  3Tt 
2  25Tto
S o
: S 2
r 2 r
calculated
recovery
(s-s´)
(s-s´)
O
O
O O

t 0 10 100

t
log
Time - Recovery Method and Time-drawdown Method
give close values of S and T.
Leaky Aquifers
• Due to recharge the top of the curve is flat.

confined

leaky
Drawdown,

t
log
 Hantush & Jacob Method for Leaky Aquifers
Determine S, T, K´

s GS
WT

PS
Aquitard K b
ho

Leaky K b h
Aquifer

K  K
 Assumptions:

1. Leakage is vertical

2. Leakage  Drawdown

3. Water level in upper supply aquifer is constant

4. W.T. & P.S. are initially same

Field Units

ho  h   s  114.6Q
W u, r / B 
T

W u, r / B  well function for a leaky aquifer

r r

2
1.87r S
u ,
B
Tt T / K ' / b'

K´ = vertical hydraulic gradient of aquitard

b´ = thickness of aquitard
 Field Units Metric System
Q
s
114.6Q
W (u, r / B) : s W (u, r / B)
T 4T

1.87r 2 S  1  r 2S  1 
t   : t  
T u T u
log S

t
log
•Superimpose the s - t curve on well function curve.

•Select a match point and get s, t , , W u , r / B  & r / B

1
u
114.6Q
T W (u, r / B)
s

Tut
S 2
1.87 r

Tb r / B 
 2
K'
r2
Unconfined Aquifers
• Exact solution difficult because:
- T varies w/ r and t with decline of W.T.
- vertical flow component significant, especially near
well casing.

• If s is small compared to , Theis or Jacob solutions can

be used for unconfined aquifers.

• Jacob suggested that more accurate values of S & T obtained by

h  h  2

subtracting 2h from each drawdown, s.

0

o
Bolton Equation
• For larger drawdowns, s  0.5ho

s
Q
1  C V ( t , r )
2kh
k
o

where Ck - correction factor

- V ( t , r ) well function (table available for t , r  )

Kt
t  C - varies - 0.30 to 0.16
Sh o
k

r ho – max. sat. thickness at ro

r 
h o
0.05  t   5, C  o
k

t   0.05, C varies
k

t   5 refers to
early pumping &
not of much interest
in unconfined aquifers

t 75, C  f ( r ) table or graph available

k
At r > 1.5h , effect of vertical seepage are negligible
o

t 75,
Q  Kt 
h iw  ho 
2 2
ln  1.5
K  srw 
0.05  t   5,
Q  ho 
hiw  ho   m  ln 
2kho  rw 
where m  f (t ) (Table or curve available)

t   0.05  minor significance, no eqn.

Unconfined Aquifer

Observation
Q
Well
GS

WT
S
Delayed drainage
When a well is pumped, water continuously withdraws
from storage within the aquifer as cone of depression
progresses radially outward from the well.

• Since no recharge source is there, no steady-state flow,

and head will continue to decline as long as aquifer is
infinite.

• However, rate of decline of head decreases as cone of

depression spreads.
• Water is released from storage by gravity drainage of
pores in the portion of the aquifer drained by pumping and
by the compaction of aquifer and the expansion of water.

• Gravity drainage of water from sediments is not

immediate; S varies and increases at a diminishing rate
with time.

S,
Storage
Coeff.

T, time of pumping
• First, water is released instantaneously from storage by
compaction of aquifer and expansion of water.

• After a short time, cone of depression grows at a slow

rate as water is released from storage by gravity
drainage reaches the cone.

• Finally, rate of cone expansion increases and cone

continues to expand as gravity drainage keeps pace
with declining water levels.
 S – t Curve for Delayed Drainage

log
S

log
 Well Flow near Aquifer Boundaries
•Impermeable or negative boundary
•Permeable or positive boundary

Solution of boundary problem in well flow is simplified by

applying the method of images.

Image - an imaginary well introduced to create a hyd flow

system which will be equivalent to the effects of a known
flow system. Image

Finite Aq. Infinite Aq.

a. Well near a stream - Permeable Boundary
• This system is converted to a discharging real well
and a recharge imaginary well in an extensive aquifer.
b. Well near an Impermeable Boundary
c. Aquifer Bounded by Two Impermeable
Boundaries
• I1 and I2 provide required flow, but I3 required balance
drawdowns along the extensions of the boundaries.
d. Impermeable Boundary  to a stream
 Determination of a Boundary

Obs. well 3
r4

Obs. Well 2

r3
Discharge. Discharge.
Image Well a Real Well

r 2
r 1

-Need 2 or more observation wells Obs. Well 1

(ho  h)T  (ho  h)1  (h0  h) 2

 114.6
Q
W u1   W u2 
T

1.87 r 2 S
u
Tt
Assume the wells are pumped individually. At a given
time interval
ho  h1  ho  h2

w ( u1 )  w ( u2 )

 0.5772  ln u1   (0.5772  ln u2 )
 or u1 = u2 u  r2/t

2 2 2
r1 r2 r3 t2
  r2  r1
t1 t2 t3 t1

Where t1 - time since pumping began for a given value of

(ho - h) to occur, before the boundary becomes effective.

t2 -time since pumping began, after the boundary

becomes effective, when the divergence of the
drawdown curve caused by the influence of image
well = to particular value of drawdown at t1.
Rate-of-Rise Techniques

Special Techniques:
• Determine local K around a well, without pumping the
well.

Rate-of-Rise Techniques
• Slug Test
• Auger-Hole Method
• Piezometer Method
• Water is suddenly removed by a bucket, bailer, or
cylinder, causing sudden lowering of water levels
around the well.

• Rise of water level with time is measured and K is

obtained.

• Remove enough water to lower water in the well 10 to

50 cm.
 Advantages
1. Pumping not needed.

2. Observation wells not required.

3. Tests completed in short time.

4. Provides good preliminary estimate of K.

5. Test useful where continuous Q is difficult, where

obs. wells not available, and where interference from
other wells.
Disadvantages

1. K measured on small area of aquifer.

2. S generally not evaluated.

Step - Type Pumping Test

Rorabaugh (1953) AGU Tran.

Sternberg (1967) J. Groundwater
 Q3

Discharge, Q Q2
t
Q1
t3
Q0 t2
t1

Time, t

Discharge increased in steps of time. Theis Eq.

(ho  h)  (ho  h1 )  (ho  h2 )  ...
Qo Q1
 t1 t1  t  t 2
 Partially Penetrating Wells
• A well having length of water entry less than the aquifer is
known as partially penetrating well.

• Flow pattern to such wells differs from radial flow around

fully penetrating wells.
Qp

2rw

Le
D
Qp

Le

Qp

Le
• Average length of flow line in a P.P.W. > that in F.P.W. so
that a greater resistance to flow is encountered. Consider two
wells – P.P.W. and F.P.W.
• If Q p  Q , then h p
> h
and if h p  h , then Q Q
p

where Q - well discharge

h - drawdown at the well
p - refers to P.P.W.
Drawdown of P.S. at the well
Q  2.25Tt 
S   ln  2S 
4T  
wp 2 p
r S
Sp - a dimensionless term,
 Le D 
 f  , 
D r  w

Q lnr / r 
 p o w
(1)
Q lnr / r   S
o w p

r0= radius of influence

Q Le
ratio b
for P.P.W. > penetration ration
Q D
• For screen at top or bottom, use equation 1 and figure
Qb
to compute .
Q

Le
• For screen at center, use for obtaining Sp .
2
• Example: 2rw  12" diameter w ell; ro  2000 ft (radius of influence)
D  50'
Le  20'
D 50 Le 20
  100;   0.40  S p  5
rw 1 / 2 D 50
10 = 10 (at center)
  0.20
50
Qp ln( 4000) 8.29
   0.62
Q ln( 4000)  5 8.29  5
8.29
  0.45
8.29  10
Well Losses

Drawdown at a well = Aquifer drawdown and drawdown

caused by flow thru well screen and
flow inside the well to pump intake.

S S S
iw w e

Total head loss = formation loss + well loss

Laminar flow Turbulent flow
Since flow in aquifer is laminar, sw  Q

flow in well screen is turbulent, sw  Q n

n  2, but may be > 2 (2 - 4)

siw  C f Q  CwQ n
siw  BQ  CQ n

where C f , CW , ( B, C )  constants
• For steady flow in a confined aquifer

Q r
siw  ln o  CwQ n
2bK rw

1
Cf  B  ln( ro / rw )
2T
• For low Q, well losses may be neglected,

• For high Q, well losses may represent a sizable fraction

of total drawdown.

• For screen size compatible with surrounding porous

media and which is not clogged, well loss caused by
water entering is small than the portion resulting from
axial movement within the well.
Specific Capacity

Q 1
 - specific capacity  f (Q )
siw
C C Q
f w
n 1

Q Discharge

siw Total Drawdown

siw  BQ  CQ ; n  2 2
Empirical formulas developed in field
Q
• T  Const   , const. varies depending upon geology
 siw 
- 0(2000).

Unsteady flow for a confined aquifer

2.3Q 2.25Tt
siw  log  CQ n

4T 2
rw S
 f (Q , t )
Q 1

s iw 2.3 2.25Tt n 1
log  CQ
4T rw2 S

Q
siw Q = 1 cfs

Sp. Cap.

3 cfs

t, days

•Hence, the concept that

Q ~ siw  implying a constant S.C. 
Can introduce sizable errors.
Multiple Well System
To determine drawdowns (or interference) in a well field.
Determine drawdowns at various points from known Q’s
and add them together.

At a point, Total drawdown.

D  D  D  ...  D
T 1 2 n

Where
D  D  D ,.. D  drawdown at the point due to Q , Q ,..Q
T 1 2 n 1 2 n
At a distance of 2D from a well, the effect of partial
penetration is negligible on the flow pattern and
drawdown.

D = Average aquifer thickness