Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Welding and Cutting Issue 1 2014 Lowres PDF
Welding and Cutting Issue 1 2014 Lowres PDF
Contents
1. Country codes
2. Steel grades compared with chemical analysis
3. Steel names, listed alphanumerically by
index number (EU/DE material no.)
4. List of cited standards
4.1 German and European material standards
4.2 Chinese material standards
4.3 Indian material standards
4.4 Japanese material standards
4.5 Russian material standards
4.6 US material standards
4.7 ISO material standards
Internationaler Stahlvergleich /
International Comparison of Steels
German/English, Peter Marks, Walter Tirler,
1st edition 2010, 784 pages
Order no 500091
Issue
01
The
Welding
Institute
2014
Since it was founded in 2006, the UK Editorial Advisory pean Engineer, Chartered Engineer, Chartered Scientist,
Panel has become established as an expert body which Fellow of the Welding Institute and a Fellow of the Institute
provides advice to the editorial team of “Welding and Cut- of Materials Minerals & Mining. As well as being a member
ting“, actively accompanies the development of the journal of the American Welding Society (AWS) D1N Committee
and is available as a contact for the readers as well as for on Titanium welding, Norman is BAE Systems Organisa-
the companies and institutes dealing with joining, cutting tion Representative with TWI and is also a member of
and coating technology in the United Kingdom. TWI Council.
All panel members have long working experience in
these industries and they make use of their contacts,
knowledge and expertise to keep the journal a source of
up-to-date technical information as well as a valuable
platform for knowledge exchange and an attractive medi-
um for advertising customers.
The UK Editorial Advisory Panel meets up once per
year at TWI – The Welding Institute in Cambridge. Since Alan Denney
a few members have left the body and new members have Hammersmith, London, UK
been added in their places compared with the last pres- e-mail: alan@denney1.freeserve.co.uk
entation in “Welding and Cutting“ (see No. 2/2006), the
five current members (in addition to the Editor-in-Chief Eur Ing Alan Denney is a metallurgist and welding
from DVS Media in Düsseldorf/Germany, Dietmar Rippe- engineering consultant in the offshore, onshore process
gather) are introduced below. and pipeline industries. He is a freelance consultant fol-
lowing nine years as Manager of Welding and Materials
at Saipem Ltd in the UK. He has wide ranging technical
interests in welding, non-destructive testing, quality con-
trol, material selection, corrosion engineering and integri-
ty management in the upstream oil and gas industries.
He was with John Brown for more than twenty-four years,
Norman Cooper fifteen of which he was Chief Engineer Materials Engi-
Barrow-in-Furness, Cumbria, UK neering during which time he worked in offshore platform
e-mail: engineering and construction, pipelines, onshore termi-
norman.cooper@baesystems.com nals, refineries, defence engineering and flue gas desul-
phurisation.
Norman Cooper has worked in the military shipbuild- Alan Denney started his working life in the Research
ing and engineering industry at BAE Systems Barrow-in- and Development Group of Ove Arup and Partners, and
Furness England for 25 years, working on a range of proj- has a love of architecture and structural engineering which
ects from nuclear submarines and warships to self pro- was a result of his time there, and the projects on which
pelled howitzers. Having graduated with a degree in Met- he worked. He has a long term interest in pipeline integrity
allurgy and Microstructural Engineering, he joined the and rehabilitation and was awarded the Pipeline Indus-
Company, then Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering Lim- tries Guild J.W. Jones Award in 1994 for a paper on this
ited, as a graduate trainee. Following training, he joined topic. He has written more than 50 papers on materials
the Metallurgical Laboratory, engaged in production/weld- applications in the offshore and process engineering in-
ing metallurgy and troubleshooting, and over the years, dustries, and lectures to universities, colleges and profes-
through a series of promotions became Chief Metallurgist. sional societies on welding and materials matters. Alan is
In 1996, Norman Cooper was appointed Technical a Council Member of TWI, a member of Professional
Production Services Manager and is currently responsible Board , a past-President and programme secretary of the
for Materials and Welding Technology for the new UK As- London Branch of TWI . He is currently Chairman of the
tute Class nuclear hunter killer submarine. He is a Euro- Offshore Technical Group of TWI.
01
The
Welding
Institute
2014
EDITORIAL
Read the editorial on page 39 for an insight into the right ‘Ticket‘
to ‘Tick-it‘.
19 Network Rail has completed successful trials A high-tech process for stringent quality
with BOC’s new oxygen “Genie“ gas cylinder for demands in all welding positions
use on maintenance works. (Photo: Linde)
01
The
Welding
Institute
2014
48
brink, Vesselin Michailov
Avoidance of hot cracks and seam
quality improvement of CrNi steels
26
Niyameddin Süleymanov, Driss Bartout
48
52 Laser/GMA hybrid welding with the aid
of lowenergy arcs
Uwe Reisgen, Simon Olschok, Michael
Mavany
57 Editorial Preview
58 Books Cracking in the case of
58 Imprint/Ad Index the chromium-nickel
steels welded without
any pulse modulation.
ORBITAL | WELDING
www.orbitalum.com
Fig. 2 • When large systems are being assembled, the welders must work Fig. 3 • When welding hot-dip aluminised sheets, the crucial factor is to
at height, which makes the welding process extra difficult. prevent the aluminium coating from ”burning off”.
this welding function has helped it to reduce alisation system you would have to have a the benefits of the welding power sources
the problem of burn-through considerably. lot of experience to work that out.” His final cannot be quantified, explains Drasch:
summary: “With other units, welders would “The user benefits of the power sources
A major plus point: Practical need more practice to achieve the same lev- have a positive commercial impact. Thanks
training for the next generation of el of quality.” to the Rehm welding machines, we can
welding specialists Martin Drasch, Head of Supply Produc- achieve higher levels of quality more quick-
Trainer Markus Olscher explains why tion & Pre-assembly at Eisenmann is de- ly.”
the digital operating concept is also such a lighted with the commercial added value of Specifically, Eisenmann is now enjoying
bonus from the perspective of training: “The the units: “We can integrate our trainees into the following advantages:
large central display allows you to see the the production process right from the start. • Time savings and, in turn, cost benefits
entire welding curve at a glance”. This The user support provided by Rehm’s tech- thanks to the preset ideal characteristic
means that he can see straight away if the nology makes up for a lack of experience, curves,
trainee has made a setting mistake. What’s which clearly improves our productivity • Lower error rates even on the part of
more, novice welders can learn – in a clear when you consider that 10% of our work- career entrants and novice welders
and practical way – how changing individ- force is made up of trainees.” thanks to the special operating concept,
ual parameters affects the weld seam. “Dur- • Higher product quality, e.g. thanks to
ing aluminium welding, the seam often col- Summary: Enables faster and the “Dual Wave“ process variant,
lapsed on trainees and they couldn’t un- more reliable TIG welding • Improved productivity due to fewer er-
derstand why. The ‘Invertig.Pro digital’ al- As the systems and lines manufactured rors, less rework and shorter set-up
lows us to check directly which parameters by Eisenmann are generally custom-made, times.
have to be changed,” explains Olscher. He there is no series production at the com- (According to press information from Rehm
then adds the following: “Without the visu- pany in the conventional sense. As a result, GmbH u. Co. KG Schweißtechnik)
particularly suited to welding by focusing a robot to develop specific tools and to study
on the torch – the decisive component in these applications. This opens up other
the tools developed by Polysoude, Nantes/ channels in which technological solutions
France. The “robotics” approach is however can be optimised to ensure that perfect in-
not a recent phenomenon at Polysoude. On tegration can be achieved. The synergy be-
numerous occasions over the last decade tween knowledge of welding and cladding
or more, the company has integrated dif- techniques and robot integration represents
ferent brands of robot to meet customer a culmination in technological support to
needs as closely as possible. Therefore, provide the best solution to industrial man-
wherever irreproachable joint quality is a ufacturers’ specific needs.
compulsory factor, the axes of movement
and motion peripherals are designed on a Yaskawa Ibérica moves into new
case-by-case basis to transform the robot facilities Opening ceremony of new Yaskawa Ibérica buil-
into a more suitable control device. More- Yaskawa Ibérica, the Spanish subsidiary ding in Gavá/Spain (from l. to r.): A. Santiago,
Head of Yaskawa Ibérica; J. Balsera, Mayor of
over, the robot can accommodate all types of Yaskawa Europe GmbH, has moved into its
Gavá; M. Stern, COO of Yaskawa Europe GmbH;
of torch depending on the cold-wire or hot- newly built facilities in Gavá, near
T. Fuchigami, Japanese Consul General in Barce-
wire TIG or plasma welding process adopt- Barcelona/Spain. The new opening is part of lona.
ed, not only for standard joints but also nar- Yaskawa’s European growth strategy. The
row gap applications. This approach has re- company is expecting considerable growth in Various cells demonstrate robotic applica-
sulted in the acquisition of new program- the coming years, particularly with regard to tions, such as fixtureless welding and auto-
ming skills within the company’s Applica- the Spanish market. In addition to modern mated packaging. Yaskawa Ibérica is also pre-
tions Department for the development of administration and development areas, the senting the latest generation of 7-axis robots
welding procedures. At the Polysoude head- new facilities also boasts a representative in Gavá. Furthermore, the new building also
quarters in Nantes, the company – which showroom. Spanish customers can experi- provides space for the extensive training and
boasts 50 years of experience in welding ence the different potential applications of continuous professional development courses
and cladding techniques – has invested in Motoman industrial robots there at first hand. offered by the “Yaskawa Academy” in Spain.
Dear Editor, mum dimension as measured from the face weld (with the short leg length equal to the
May I draw your attention to the article on of the weld to the intersection of the weld specified minimum) can be demonstrated
theoretical root point on page 299 of “Weld- bead fusion line with the unfused joint line. by procedure qualification to achieve an in-
ing and Cutting“ issue 5/2013 in the “Weld- This is illustrated in Fig. 1 above where creased weld throat if the welding procedure
ing Practice“ section which I believe is mis- it can be seen that the actual weld throat is is made with the flange vertical and the web
leading. The article recognises that the equal to t1 and not a–+e as stated and that in horizontal, Fig. 2. Using the methodology as
measurement of this dimension is important fact a< a–+e. described in the W&C article there would be
to structural integrity and its correct inter- Using the guidance provided in the arti- no apparent change in the throat dimension
pretation is essential. There is no ambiguity cle to establish the achieved throat from a of this weld if the joint set up was changed
in the interpretation of throat dimension for deep penetration weld procedure macro in production to execute the weld with the
a standard fillet weld as shown in Fig. 1. would require an inspector to measure the flange horizontal and the web vertical.
However, Fig. 2 of the published article dimension from the weld face to the weld In fact such a change would lead to a
proposes that the load carrying throat of a bead fusion line at the point of maximum significant reduction in the throat dimen-
deep penetration weld is computed as the penetration when in fact the correct dimen- sion, Fig. 3, with a consequent unanticipated
nominal throat of a symmetrical fillet weld sion is as stated above. increase in shear stress. I believe that some
plus the penetration. This is not the case and This could be very significant in the case clarification of this point would be valuable.
the proposed method may overstate the true of a deep penetration submerged arc welded Eur. Ing. Greg Marshall
throat dimension which is in fact the mini- web to flange joint where an asymmetric fillet FIMMM, FWeld I RWE1 (Retired)
Well-prepared is half-welded –
Tacking of the components
In order to counteract any shrinkage pass to be welded with good penetration af- is the danger of components failing in op-
and thus stresses during the welding, it is ter the tacking. eration. Steels which must be preheated
necessary to execute an adequate number The tacks should either be removed before before the welding must be preheated be-
of sufficiently large tacks. Reference values the overwelding or it must be ensured that fore the tacking as well in order to avoid
are given in Table 1. The root gap (the gap they are melted completely. Any cracked any cracks. In the case of MAG welding
between the components) before the tack- tacks must not be overwelded but they (primarily at lower arc powers), tacking
ing must also be large enough for the root must instead be removed. Otherwise, there should be replaced by clamping in order
to avoid any defects in the weld. With
Table 1 • Reference values for the tacking chrome-nickel steels, tempering colours
Sheet thickness Length of the tacks Distance between the tacks already arise during the tacking (the cor-
rosion protection is lost). This can be
Up to 5 mm Approx. 10 to 25 mm Approx. 10 to 25 × sheet thickness avoided using forming. It is recommended
More than 5 to 30 mm To 60 mm Depending on the process and the component size; to position the first tack in the centre of
More than 30 mm To 100 mm 10 to 25 × sheet thickness; up to 500 mm
the weld and the others towards the out-
From 7 to 11 April 2014, the trade fairs The perspectives are also on the positive
wire and Tube will take place again si- side: More than 85% of the companies pre-
multaneously in Düsseldorf. What is the dict equally good or better business in the
economical status in these industries? coming six months.
As we all know, the steel industry is at Aluminium manufacturers can expect
the beginning of the supply chain, making stable business results. In fact, production
it a reliable indicator for the rest of the econ- levels in 2013 may surpass those from 2012.
omy. As the largest raw steel producer in the The mood in the industry, which is benefit-
EU, Germany – with 42.7 million tons in the ing from the trend to increasingly lighter cars
year 2012 – is number 7 worldwide. Ger- and aircraft, could be described as ”cau- through 12 and 15 through 17. That is al-
many is also number 7, behind South Korea, tiously optimistic”. ready more than the total space booked in
in the area of hot-rolled products. German NE companies produced a total 2012, and with that the exhibition halls for
The steel industry is looking to 2014 with of approximately 4 million tons of NE metals wire 2014 are full. It is still possible, however,
optimism: According to the Steel Trade As- in the first half of 2013. 43% of this product to get onto a waiting list.
sociation, an upswing in the steel industry was exported. For Tube, 49,000 m2 have already been
is expected. In spite of all uncertainties, the In summary, the economic climate in- booked. In 2012 the total space occupied in
association expects a production increase side of which wire and Tube will take place halls 1 through 7a was 48,500 m2. Again here
of approximately 3% in 2014. The global de- in April seems quite favourable. we are seeing the trend toward larger stands
mand for steel also remains on a growth and a more substantial trade fair presence –
course. What is the state of affairs today, a few a development that was observed in the pre-
The NE metal industry also recorded an months before the trade fairs begin? vious events.
economic upswing in the first half of 2013. To begin with, we are confident that we
70% of the companies surveyed in the NE will achieve a good level of registrations What status do the wire and Tube trade
metal industry assess their current business again with the 2014 fairs. Once more we are fairs have internationally?
situation as good or typical for the season, expecting more than 2,500 companies and The two trade fairs are worldwide by far
as was reported by the German Metals Trade more than 100,000 m2 of rented space. 15 the leading trade fairs in their respective in-
Association. The production level for this exhibition halls are occupied. dustries. As a platform for ”mother trade
year is anticipated to be similar to that of A few months before wire 2014 begins, fairs”, Düsseldorf is internationally the num-
2012. more than 58,000 m2 are booked in halls 9 ber one meeting place for steel experts and
Some of the plenary lectures will add sonality in the plastics industry who has made • Plasma coating in plastics processing
counterpoint to the selected topics and thus a particularly valuable contribution to coop- and application,
further stimulate debate. The networking eration between industry and science. The • New production strategies for polyure-
concept will also move more into the spot- “Fibre-Reinforced Plastics Study Prize” will thane parts,
light. Prof. Dr.-Ing. Christian Hopmann, be awarded for the fourth time. The prize is • Integrated production concept for elec-
head of IKV, will open the event with a pres- presented to an outstanding study thesis in trical and electronic components,
entation of the IKV research highlights. A the field of FRP and is donated by a former • New approaches for injection moulding
special and unique item on the agenda will member of IKV, Dr.-Ing. Peter Ehrentraut. simulation,
be the presentation by Professor em. Georg The sessions of the International Collo- • Prediction and detection of damage in
Menges, who celebrated his 90th birthday quium Plastics Technology are: FRP parts,
last year. IKV will honour its former Institute • Thermoplastic FRP – customised man- • Raising efficiency in mass production
head with a special session. Other plenary ufacture of lightweight components, by optimised mould technology,
speakers are Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dirk Abel, Insti- • Innovative processing methods for the • Designing highly stressed plastics parts,
tute of Automatic Control, RWTH Aachen, rubber industry, • Process optimisation and functionali-
Dr.-Ing. Heinz Neubert, Bosch GmbH, Dr. • Tailor-made materials through new sation in forming,
Georg Oenbrink, Evonik Industries, and Dr.- compounding processes, • Alternative matrix materials for FRP,
Ing. Hans Wobbe, who is responsible for • Increased efficiency in film extrusion, • Considering internal properties in part
technology transfer at IKV. • New materials and fluids for the gas and design,
The presentation of two awards will round water injection technique, • New approaches for the processing of
off the program. The Georg Menges prize, do- • New simulation tools for joining tech- silicone rubbers.
nated by VDMA, PlasticsEurope and the IKV nology, For more information visit: www.ikv-collo-
Sponsors’ Association will be presented for • Clear vision with precision plastic op- quium.com. (According to press information
the ninth time, with the recipient being a per- tics, from IKV)
2/20 12
ST IC S EN
2/2012
G PL A PLASTICS
by Supported by
Supported
TSTOFF
74999
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rteil zur Sonderteil zur Verbindungstechnik
Sonde n for joining en applications from lightweight construction and renewable energies
erfahr
l sectio Special section for joining technology in
-EWS-V
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Das KVT
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TopicsJoining
using
Welding
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differen
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of similar
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Peer-reviewed
plastics
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Papers tool welding
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Schweißen Eigens Kunststoffe mittels ng the
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properties
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dissimilar thermoplastics
welds
artungleicher Thermoplaste mittels
FügenFügen mentsc ties of
Laserst
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using laser radiation
Laserstrahlung zierung
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beim Heizelementschweißen Reducing the cycle time in heated tool welding
Zykluszeitreduzierung schafte
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Kurzze
Kurzzeiteigenschaften von Schweißnähten
Rohren
DVS Media GmbH • Aachener Straße 172 • 40223 Düsseldorf • Tel: +49 (0) 211/1591 159 • Fax: +49 (0) 211/1591 250 • media@dvs-hg.de • www.joining-plastics.info in PE100-
in PE100-Rohren properties of welds in PE100 pipes
Technical Specific
These documents are component or
process specific and address welding in
greater detail.
Issue
The
Welding
Institu e 03
2013
allied processes
for welding and
Technical journal
www.welding-and-cutting.info
Spirit
and Inventive
With Tradition
for Metal Working
and Processing. The
Cutting, Joining Issue
Know-how in
Welding
03
Institute
2013
tion 2014
Media Informa
www.welding-and-cutting.info
Technical journal for welding and allied processes
Technical journal
Know-how in Cutting, Joining and Processing.
by Kjellberg Finsterwalde
Made in Germany
it seems –
Nothing is as the
of the joint gap to changes in
a contribution
The importance materials during
testing by brazing – base and filler
“PolyTank“ project: when joining
DVS Media GmbH • Aachener Straße 172 • 40223 Düsseldorf • Tel: +49. (0)2 11. 15 91-151/-155 • Fax: +49. (0)2 11. 15 91-150 • iris.jansen@dvs-hg.de | britta.wingartz@dvs-hg.de • www.dvs-media.eu
Fig. 1 • Principle of the oscillating arc. Fig. 2 • Different groove shapes, torch types and welding positions.
the circulating travel carriage. The macro- The individual parts with wall thick-
section through such a weld can be seen be- nesses up to approx. 80 mm are merely ther-
low that. mally trimmed, bent and tacked. For the
housing parts weighing tonnes, the assem-
2.3 Hydroturbine housings bly conditions result in gap width differ-
The narrow gap GMA welding of hydro- ences between 12 mm
turbine housings constitutes another future and 20 mm. The
challenge, Fig. 8. In this respect, the welding system must in-
Fig. 4 • Narrow gap GMA welding with an in- must be performed not only in the PA posi- dependently
dustrial robot. tion but also in the PC and PF positions. In recognise the cur-
each case, the materials to be joined are low- rently existing groove
nised in the transverse section on Fig. 6. alloyed (similar to S355) or high-alloyed width and, depend-
By rotating the torch itself by 180°, the (similar to 1.4301) or, also as a combination, ing on this, read-
direction can be reversed at the ends of the as a black-and-white mixed joint. just the oscilla-
groove and the welding-back operation can
be performed. This is continued until the
Fig. 8 • Turbine housing
slag has to be removed. The utilisation of Fig. 7 • Execution of an inspection weld
welded from plate parts.
narrow gap welding meant that it was not in situ, position: PC, two beads per pass.
necessary to carry out any turning, gouging
or sealing run welding in the case of the pre-
viously customary double-V weld. The de-
tails from Fig. 11 relate to this application.
Fig. 9 • Comparison of the requirements with the attained results. Fig. 10 • Narrow gap GMA welding of the low-
pressure rotor material.
tion width, the centre of the groove and the and stability of this process were the yard- Not only the visual observation possibility
welding speed. stick for a refinement with a view to higher and the “one bead per pass“ technique made
It has already been possible to success- productivity and economic efficiency. All possible by the slight and easy-to-remove slags
fully demonstrate the desired reactions for over the world, narrow gap submerged arc but also the good interpass quenching and
the welding of a witness specimen in the PA welding is also an established process for tempering effects and the development po-
position. The control of the filling ratio is the welding of the filler passes on rotors at a tential for achieving even smaller gap widths
being optimised even further on the basis high melting rate [3]. Table 1 shows the se- with a given suitability out of position were
of the initial results. The functions of the lection criteria which ultimately led to the additional arguments in favour of the GMA
other controllers based on the evaluations decision in favour of the GMA process. process with its well-known flexibility [4].
of the arc parameters with the arc as the sen-
sor could be proven beyond doubt. The ul-
trasonic test did not result in any impermis- Fig. 11 •
sible weld indications. Narrow gap
The PC and PF positions set stringent re- GMA welding
of flange ring
quirements on the process stability which
segments.
must be guaranteed across the entire toler-
ance range. In this respect, it is easier to sta-
bilise weld large gap widths in the PF position
and small gap widths in the PC position. The
results until now highlight the feasibility for
the specified gap width differences. Thus, the
optimisation of welding and control processes
is being continued beyond the current status.
3 Economic assessment
With regard to the decision in favour of
utilising the narrow gap welding process,
smaller workloads for weld preparation as
well as a significantly lower consumption of
cost-intensive welding fillers with a shorter
fabrication time and an improved fabrica-
tion quality are counterbalanced by the re-
quired investment volume in the case of in-
creasing weld thicknesses and quantities.
The individual conditions of fabrication
such as the internal or external supply of Fig. 12 • Economic efficiency number (2E number).
2014
The Newsletter of The Welding Institute
Editorial
Got the Ticket? Just the Tick-it, or is it? ence, it is rarely in a customer’s best interest to specify a single source
of competence assurance as a monopoly position will not encourage
Having the right ‘Ticket’ is often essential in getting you the job, but best practice from the supplier.
what is the ’Ticket’? When an employer refers to a ‘Ticket’, they are Standards that define competence requirements often also define, di-
usually referring to a card, certificate or licence to practise that ver- rectly or through references, requirements for the competence of the
ifies an individual’s competence for the job role and responsibilities conformity assessment body and its personnel. For example, ISO 9712
in question. The employer’s choice of ‘Ticket’ should be based on an for Non-destructive testing – Qualification and certification of NDT
understanding of the competence requirements of the role, that is personnel, refers to ISO/IEC 17024, Conformity assessment – General
the minimum knowledge, skills, experience and behaviours that the requirements for bodies operating certification of persons. A conform-
individual should be able to demonstrate before being authorised to ity assessment body accredited to ISO /IEC 17024 has validated com-
undertake the role. The ‘Ticket’ or combination of ‘Tickets’ specified petence in personnel certification. However, it is still necessary for an
by the employer for the job should verify the role-specific compe- employer to have confidence that the conformity assessment body
tence of the ‘Ticket’ holder, based on validation of their knowledge, has a scope of certification that satisfies the competences of the role;
skills, experience and behaviours. an ISO 9712 Level 2 UT certificate holder will only possess validated
Sometimes, ‘Tickets’ are mandatory, often where the tasks or respon- competence in application of the NDT method to the materials,
sibilities are safety-related; a regulation or standard will stipulate the geometries and flaws included in the competence assessment. Some-
level of competence necessary for that role, and will set a require- one whose training, experience and competence assessment has been
ment that only individuals with evidence of that level of competence focused on aerospace materials and applications is unlikely to have
will be permitted to perform the required tasks and hold the relevant high competence in inspection of pipelines and pressure vessels. They
responsibilities for the work. In engineering, relatively few roles will undoubtedly have transferable competences that will enable
have mandated ‘Tickets’, and even where safety requirements make them to adapt but specific competence requires specific education
compliance with personnel competence requirements a legal require- and training; generic education and training is only able to support
ment, it should still be possible to permit employers and individuals generic competence. Whenever a new employee joins the organisa-
to have choice in the route to gaining a compliant ‘Ticket’. tion, some amount of training is likely to be required, however, to
Welding is a highly regulated process and is subject to a large number avoid severe competence shortfalls and excessive amounts of addi-
of standards that seek to control its application and quality. This is tional training, competence assurance that closely matches the role
because welding is considered to be a special process; weld quality requirements should be procured.
cannot be readily verified after the weld is made because much of the Competence assurance is not a case of ‘buyer beware’, it more a case
evidence of process control will have been concealed or lost once the of ‘buyer be aware’. In the same way as for sub-contracting welding,
weld has been completed. As such, weld quality is highly reliant on where you would have a specification for the product and a process
the competence of welding personnel, which means that welders, for assessing the supplier, buying-in competence assurance needs
welding operators, welding coordinators and welding engineers re- you to understand the competence requirements of the role and a
quire specific knowledge, skill and expertise in planning and execut- way of selecting a credible supplier. Credible conformity assessment
ing its application; this competence is also likely to be process, bodies will have effective stakeholder-led management that provides
material and application dependent. focus on industry requirements without any single interest predom-
Welder, welding operator, welding coordinator and welding engi- inating. This stakeholder involvement should not be a ‘tick-in-the-
neer competence requirements are often set in standards. Compe- box’ element in accreditation, it is your opportunity to work with
tence requirements may be expressed from a very generic, “shall the body to ensure that your requirements are included in the con-
have sufficient and competent personnel for …..”, through to spec- formity assessment process and that your role competences are ef-
ified requirements such as, “welders shall be qualified by an appro- fectively addressed. If ‘off-the-shelf’ competence assurance products
priate test”, with direct reference to ISO 9606-1:2013, Qualification do not meet your requirements, and your chosen conformity assess-
testing of welders – Fusion Welding, for example. ment body does not welcome your specific requirements, it is time
At the generic end of the requirement scale, the employer must follow to change supplier; ready-to-wear, one-size-fits-all is not the best fit
guidance such as that given in ISO 9001 that, “personnel performing for personnel competence assurance in welding engineering.
work affecting conformity to product requirements shall be compe- Personnel competence is a key element in achieving weld quality,
tent on the basis of appropriate education, training, skills and expe- whether you subcontract conformity assessment or not, it is essen-
rience.” This generic requirement makes it the responsibility of the tial that you understand your competence requirements. The
organisation to determine the competences for each role and assess ‘Ticket’ that you select must deliver the competence assurance nec-
personnel, initially and periodically, to ensure that they are and re- essary to fulfil the roles and responsibilities you allocate. A ‘Ticket’
main competent. Sub-contracting of competence assurance is possible just to ‘Tick-it’ on the recruitment form, tender document, or audit
but authorising an individual to work remains the responsibility of checklist does not absolve an employer of the responsibility to only
the employer, so it is necessary to have confidence that the compe- authorise competent personnel to perform work affecting conform-
tence assurance provider is itself competent to define and validate ity to product requirements.
personnel competence in the relevant scope of work. Credible, inde-
pendent, third-party competence assurance can provide added cus- EUR ING Chris Eady BSc(Hons) MSc CEng MRAeS FWeldI
tomer confidence, and may be specified as a customer requirement. Associate Director Professional Affairs
However, although a preference may be developed through experi- The Welding Institute
ture. The combinations specified in Table 1 are under con- ted to the minimum nugget diameter of the resistance-
sideration in order to achieve an increase in stiffness. welded spot), as well as the cross-weld at the intersection
Because the contact area is too small for a weld, the between the webs (length of one arm: approx. 4 mm).
WH (web on honeycomb) combination is investigated ex- The punctiform or linear contact existing when the joining
clusively in the case of resistance spot welding. Two RLBW members are positioned (depending on the combination)
shapes were investigated: The circular weld in the centre results in different requirements on the welding process.
of the honeycomb, with a mean diameter of 4 mm (adap- The utilised laser power can be seen in Table 2. It must
be borne in mind that every program was executed with
a power ramp. Thus, only the maximum powers of the
Negative structural position
ramps are specified in the table. The welding speed was
KW kept constant in each case. For orientation close to practi-
cal conditions, full-penetration welding was executed from
one side. However, this was not possible with the HH joint
because of the minimal punctiform contact.
Positive structural position
The clamping forces normal to the sheet plane are
Web
adapted for every structural combination and weld type.
On average, a force of approx. 600 N is sufficient. In the
case of the HH structural combination, the force must be
Fig. 1 • Differentiation of the structural positions kept low (max. 100 N) since the punctiform contact makes
the honeycombs bulge inwards and causes a void which
does not permit a joint. The specimens used for the tensile
shear and peel tests are single-spot test pieces (Fig. 2)
which were prepared according to DIN EN ISO 14273 (ten-
sile shear test) or DIN EN ISO 14270 (tensile peel test).
They correspond to the single-spot test pieces which were
utilised for the resistance spot welding of structured sheet
metals [1]. The tensile tests were performed on all the com-
binations in Table 1. In this respect, a distinction is made
between three reference specimens: BB for the cross-weld-
ed joint, BB (HB) for the circular-welded joint with full pe-
netration from one side as well as BB (HH) for the circu-
lar-welded joint with full penetration (cf. also Table 2). At
least three specimens per combination were tested and
the respective representative curves were analysed.
Force [kN]
time and post-weld upset force) is needed for the resis-
tance spot welding of each welded spot. In the case of re-
mote laser beam welding, approx. 0.65 s is needed for the
Laser beam welding
circle and approx. 0.4 s for the cross. In this respect, the BB (HB)
non-productive times such as the travel from one welding HB
BB (HH)
position to the next are not included in the calculation. HH
As far as resistance spot welding is concerned, the
non-productive times are determined to a very great extent Displacement [mm]
by the approach to the next spot. Because of the remote
technology, shorter non-productive times may therefore Resistance spot welding
be assumed in the case of RLBW. Compared with resist- BB
HB
ance spot welding, there are no changes in the design di- HH
mensions since this is the same honeycomb structure and
the positions of the joints are identical [1].
Force [kN]
9 Summary
The shear strengths of the RLBW honeycomb joints
with structured joining members surpass the shear
strengths of the RSW honeycomb joints. In contrast, the
shear strengths of the RLBW web joints with structured
joining members achieve values which are as much as
22% lower than the shear strengths of the RSW web joints.
Because of the structure, both RLBW and RSW joints
with structured joining members exhibit an increased re-
sistance to peeling. In this respect, the RLBW joints gene-
rally achieve higher maximum peel strengths.
As the results show, the joining of structured sheet
metals using a laser beam may constitute an alternative
to resistance spot welding. What process is applied is de-
pendent on the type of component, on the ambient va-
riables and on economic aspects and should be decided
on an individual basis.
around twice as high as that of the other structural com- Fig. 7 • Energy
binations. The RLBW specimens with the WW combina- absorption;
tion exhibit analogous behaviour up to deformations of a) shear stresses, Literature
b) peel stresses. [1] Schleuß, L., et al.: Widerstandspunktschweißen strukturier-
approx. 8 mm. The HH combination also has a higher re-
ter Bleche - Schweißbereiche, Prüfung, Anwendung. 12.
sistance to peeling. Kolloquium Widerstandsschweißen und alternative Ver-
fahren 13 October 2010, Halle (Saale).
7 Energy absorption [2] Olbrich, S., et al.: Prozesssichere Herstellung von FQZ Wa-
Fig. 7 provides information about the energy absorp- benstrukturen durch Hydroforming, in: bbr – Bänder, Ble-
che, Rohre 7 (2012), pp. 66/67.
tion capacities of the respective structural combinations.
[3] Fritzsche, S., et al.: Experimental Characterisation of
As has already been illustrated by the evaluation of the Structured Sheet Metal. Key Engineering Materials 473
tensile shear tests as well, the structural combinations (2011), pp. 404/11.
with two structured joining members (in comparison [4] Malikov, V., et al.: Analytical and numerical calculation of
with the other structural combinations of the same joint the force and power requirements for air bending of
structured sheet metals. Key Engineering Materials 473
type) are capable of absorbing higher energies when
(2011), pp. 602/09.
subjected to shear stresses. In the case of resistance spot [5] Mirtsch, F., et al.: Wölbstrukturierte Materialien - Potenziale
welding, it may thus be concluded that the energy capa- und Anwendungen, 15. IMT-Leitseminar “Management
city when subjected to shear stresses is higher with und Technologie”, Berlin, 2003.
structured welded specimens than with flat welded spe- [6] Sterzing, A.: Bewertung von Leichtbaupotenzial und Ein-
satzfähigkeit wölbstrukturierter Feinbleche, Diss: Techni-
cimens.
sche Universität Chemnitz 2005.
The RLBW specimens exhibit analogous behaviour [7] Viehweger, B., et al.: Strukturierte Feinbleche – Umformver-
when subjected to peel stresses. There is a different situ- halten bei Zieh- und Hydroformverfahren, Konstruktion 5
ation with the RSW specimens where the energy absorp- (2005), pp. W7/W9.
tion of the structural combinations with just one structu- [8] Kornienko, E., et al.: Investigation of Corrosion Behaviour
of Structured Sheet Metals by Salt Spray Test, INTECH 2011
red joining member is minimally higher than with two
– International Conference on Innovative Technologies
structured joining members. In general, the capacity to (01./02.09.2011), Bratislava/Slovakia, pp. 308/11.
absorb energy when subjected to peel stresses is higher [9] Malikov, V., et al.: Flat hamming of structured sheet metals,
with the RLBW specimens than with the RSW specimens. INTECH 2011 - International Conference on Innovative
The highest energy absorption occurs with the HH joint Technologies (01./02.09. 2011), Bratislava/Slovakia.
[10] Graf, K., et al.: Auswirkungen von strukturierten Fügepart-
of the RLBW specimen subjected to shear stresses. nern auf geklebte Verbindungen. In: DVS-Berichte Vol. 275
(2011), pp. 472/77.
8 Applications of the remote-laser-beam-
welded joints
Remote laser beam welding permits the joining of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
structured sheet metals not only with each other but also
with flat sheets. The full-penetration welding from one The presented work was supported by the Ministry of Science,
Research and Culture of the Federal State of Brandenburg within
side makes it possible to advantageously join structured
the framework of the International Graduate School at the Bran-
sheet metals, e.g. in bodymaking, with flat sheet compo-
denburg University of Technology in Cottbus.
nents as a stiffening panel and thus to achieve a weight
3 Objective
With regard to materials engineering and metallurgical
aspects, the aim pursued during this research project was
to provide an application-relevant solution to the prob-
lems which relate to the hot cracks and the formation of
coarse grains during the arc welding of chromium-nickel larly with regard to the mixed joints). In most cases, the Fig. 2 •
steels and are associated with fusion welding processes joints which are currently welded with the GMA processes Superimposed
today. For this purpose, the scope of variation of modern exhibit hot cracks. The utilised heat input is too great and multiple pulse in
power source controllers should be exploited to the full the molten pools forming in this respect are therefore rela- the background
current phase
in relation to the dynamics of the arc in order to control tively large. The activities in the present research project
(red curve:
the cooling and solidification conditions and to adjust included the adjustment of an available welding power
welding current
them to the metallurgical requirements. In this respect, source for a power feed into the arc with free time pro-
in A, blue curve:
the interactions between the power source, the arc, the gramming as well as fundamental investigations into the voltage in V).
energy input, the convection and the solidification had influences of the materials and the parameters on the weld-
to be analysed in detail and portrayed in the form of a ing results. For this purpose, an existing welding power
model. The research results served to open up new areas source was adapted for the free programming of the process
of applications for arc welding technology which are today phases. Due to the selective alteration of the parameters
either occupied by complicated laser beam processes or (and thus, for example, of the pulse power), it is possible to
in which no solution approaches with fusion welding exert an influence on the solidification conditions and thus
processes have been in view until today. The aim of the to improve the mechanical and technological properties.
paper is to clarify the following points:
• generation of a welding process for the defect-free 5 Results
joining of the chromium-nickel steels at risk from Building upon the simulation results, welds were ex-
hot cracking by using arc technology with pulse con- ecuted on austenitic corrosion-resistant chromium-nickel
trol and steels (1.4541 and 1.4571, sheet thickness: 5 mm). Solid
• a systematic analysis of the weld geometry and the wire which was made of X5CrNiNb19-9 and had a diam-
structure with the aim of obtaining fundamental find- eter of 1.2 mm was utilised as the welding filler. The in-
ings about the influences exerted by the welding pa- fluence of the pulse modulation on the resulting structure
rameters and the pulse shapes. was investigated in the welding tests. Different pulse
shapes were utilised during the investigations, Fig. 1. In
4 Test setup this respect, the influence of the energy input in the dif-
In the research project, welded joints were analysed ferent process phases was investigated on single-pulse
systematically with the aid of arc processes with pulse and dummy welds.
control. This project focused on determining the quanti- The investigations on dummy welds show the possi-
tative influence of selected parameters and the pulse bility of exerting influences on the forming structural com-
shape on the molten pool dynamics and the structural position via the selective modulation of the arc power.
formation. The base materials were the X6CrNiTi18-10 For this purpose, extensive tests were performed in order
(1.4541) and X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2 (1.4571) chromium- to investigate the qualitative influence of the welding pa-
nickel steels. In each case, filler materials which had chem- rameters. The pulse shapes differed in the times and am-
ical compositions similar to those of the base materials perages of the background currents. Starting from a basic
were utilised for the execution of dummy welds (also for structure of the time-related current course, it is possible
single-spot welds). The SG X5CrNiNb19-9 (1.4551) and to set individual current plateaus (up to 500 A), upslope
SG X5CrNiMoNb19-12 (1.4576) fillers were used here. and downslope times (max. 125 A/0.1 ms) as well as fre-
The prevention of hot cracks and the control of molten quencies (up to approx. 3.3 kHz). In contrast with normal
pool movements during pulsed arc welding constitute a pulsed welding, a multiple pulse is also superimposed in
key technology which leads to a great utilisation potential the background current phase, Fig. 2. This multiple pulse
for arc processes. It is not easy to transfer the findings and is characterised by a certain amperage and time as well
procedure of single-pulse welds to longer welds (particu- as by the number of successive pulses. The point in time
Fig. 6 • Crack
avoidance with
the pulse mod-
ulation (medi-
um pulses).
grains, these cannot absorb the arising shrinkage stresses conditions during the execution of dummy and single-
at the end of the solidification. In the case of the welding pulse welds on austenitic chromium-nickel steels. Here,
without any pulse modulation, the crack location is the it was possible to establish that the selective modulation
wetted grain boundary or the residual molten material be- of the arc power has a great influence on the forming
tween the dendrites. Therefore, hot cracks always exhibit structural composition.
an intercrystalline course, i.e. between the grain boundaries, On the basis of the obtained fundamental findings
Fig. 5a. Unevenly stress conditions lead to further cracks in about the inclination to hot cracking, the structural re-
the heat-affected zone, Fig. 5b. Cracks in the welding and finement and also the physical effective mechanisms be-
heat-affected zones were reduced with the corresponding tween the time-related control of the welding current and
welding parameters and pulse shapes, Fig. 6. the flow conditions in the molten pool, the enormous po-
A partly distinct differentiation in the formed structure tential of the highly dynamic pulse modulation can be
is visible on Fig. 7. In contrast with Fig. 7a, a substantially made accessible to companies for the exertion of selective
more coarsely directional structure is recognisable on Fig. influences on the weld quality and can be implemented
7b. This suggests that the heat dissipation from the molten in an economically viable way.
material into the base material is hindered here and thus
leads to the formation of a coarser structure. On the other Literature
[1] Schuster, J.: Heißrisse in Schweißverbindungen. DVS
hand, the structure on Fig. 7a has resulted from the quicker
Media, Düsseldorf 2004.
cooling of the material and thus from uniform non-direc- [2] Dilthey, U.: Schweißtechnische Fertigungsverfahren 1 –
tional solidification with a more fine-grained structure. Schweiß- und Schneidtechnologien. 3rd edition. Springer-
Verlag, Berlin 2006.
6 Concluding remarks
The influences of the arcs with pulse control on the
molten pool dynamics and on the solidification were in- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
vestigated within the framework of this research project. The investigations were promoted from budgetary funds of the
The investigations have proven that the control of the arc German Ministry of Economic Affairs and Technology (BMWi) via
power by means of pulse modulation leads to an improve- the Federation of Industrial Research Associations Otto von Guer-
ment in the weld properties. The conducted investigations icke (AiF) and were supported by the Research Association for
into the influence on the solidification illustrate that the Steel Application (FOSTA). We would like to express our sincere
gratitude for the support.
time-adjusted modulation of the arc power makes it pos-
sible, in principle, to exert influences on the solidification
For permanent
joining
F
BERKENHOF
®
bercoweld
High-tech wire solutions made of
copper for brazing and welding.
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SPECIALIST ARTICLES
5 Temperature comparison
Since the determination of the energy per unit length
has indicated distinct differences between the processes,
tests for the determination of the t8/5 times were carried
out in order to prove the different energy inputs. For the
Fig. 3 • comparison of the temperature development, two Ni-
Laser/GMA hybrid CrNi thermocouples of the K type were introduced into
weld with a
the weld in each case through a transverse borehole in
“coldArc“; top:
the centre of the specimen sheets. Subsequently, these
current and volt-
were overwelded and the forming thermovoltage was
age courses, cen-
tre: upper weld recorded and evaluated at a frequency of 13 Hz using
bead, bottom: im- LabView. The welding process was started at the point in
ages on high- time t = 0 s and the thermocouple overwelded at the point
speed photo- in time t = 1.1 s. The welding process ended at t = 3 s.
graphs (restriking The measured maximum temperature plays only a
operation free subordinate role with regard to the assessment of the
from spatter) processes. The so-called t8/5 time has become estab-
lished in welding technology. This designates the time
which passes during the cooling from 800°C to 500°C.
The t8/5 time is considerably shorter during the cooling
of the specimen welded with the “CMT“ process than
during the analogous short arc test. Moreover, the time
from the beginning of the temperature rise until the
800°C is reached during the cooling operation turns out
to be considerably shorter with the “CMT“ process.
Thus, the weld executed with the “CMT“ process has
already cooled down to 800°C after 0.7 s. In the case of
the welding with the standard short arc, it takes 1.1 s
until the weld has cooled down to 800°C after the weld-
ing, Fig. 1. This illustrates that the heat input in the
“CMT“ process is substantially lower than that in the
The arc power results from the current and voltage values standard process.
in the arc process which were measured at a scanning
rate of 5,000 Hz. At a welding speed of 2 m/min, the fol- 6 Comparison of the process stability
lowing results were shown for the individual arc types: The welding process using the coupling of a low-en-
• The arc powers are on roughly the same level with ergy arc with the laser beam takes place very much more
the standard short arc (1,946 W), the “coldArc“ stably than in the case of a comparative weld with a short
(1,859.4 W) and the “CMT“ arc (1,981 W). arc. This initially purely subjective impression was con-
Literature
[1] Reisgen, U., et al.: Erweiterung des Laser-MSG-Hybrid-
schweißens durch das HyDRA-Schweißverfahren. Proceed-
ings 8. Int. Konf. Strahltechnik. Self-publiction SLV Halle,
Halle 2010.
[2] Olschok, S.: Laserstrahl-Lichtbogen-Hybridschweißen von
actor (FRM2). Laser/GMA hybrid welding with the Stahl im Dickblechbereich. Diss., TH Aachen 2008. Shaker-
Verlag, Aachen 2008, ISBN 978-3-8322-7289-0.
“coldArc“ was particularly suitable for this component. Due
[3] Fuhrmann, C.: Laser-Lichtbogen-Hybridschweißen bis zu
to the inclination to hot cracking, it is imperative to supply Blechdicken von 25 mm. Diss., TH , Aachen 2007. Shaker-
welding filler material in the case of the utilised alloy. Be- Verlag, Aachen 2007, ISBN 978-3-8322-6236-5.
cause the maximum available laser beam power was re- [4] Cramer, H., and M. Dudziak: Overview of modern arc
stricted to 2 kW, it was not possible to carry out welding processes and their material transfer in the case of gas-
shielded metal-arc welding. Welding and Cutting 11 (2012),
with cold wire supply. In addition, the distortion had to be
No. 5, pp. 319/25.
limited to a minimum because of the structure. The base [5] Steiners, M.: Lichtbogenfügen von beschichteten Stahl-
material was once again AlMg1SiCu and SG-AlSi5 with a blechen an Aluminiumlegierungen. Diss., TH Aachen 2011.
wire diameter of 1.2 mm was used as the filler material. Shaker-Verlag, Aachen 2011, ISBN 978-3-8440-0021-4.
The welding speed was 1.8 m/min at a laser beam power
of 2 kW and a wire feed speed of 4.8 m/min. These measures ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
served to ensure the successful welding of the joint and the The IGF Project 16.671 B / DVS Number 06.072 of the research as-
utilisation of the process in the initial application, Fig. 11. sociation “Forschungsvereinigung Schweißen und verwandte Ver-
fahren des DVS, Aachener Straße 172, 40223 Düsseldorf“ was, on
10 Concluding remarks the basis of a resolution of the Lower House of the German Parlia-
The utilisation of low-energy short arcs during ment, promoted by the German Ministry of Economic Affairs and
Energy via AiF within the framework of the programme for the
laser/GMA hybrid welding yields numerous advantages.
promotion of joint industrial research and development (IGF).
By detecting the short circuit and simultaneously lowering
Closing date for advertisements and editiorial contributions: Closing date for advertisements and editorial contributions:
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Books Publisher:
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The art of welding to make repairs or as part of a hobby, in- collaboration with The Welding Institute, Cambridge/UK
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ISSN 1612-3433
58 Schweißen und Schneiden 1/2012
Bundled DVS Technical Codes in the area of
Electron Beam Welding | Adhesive Bonding Technology | Rail Vehicle Construction
1st Edition, September 2013 1st Edition, September 2013 1st Edition, September 2013
52 Pages 32 Pages 80 Pages
Order No.: 180009 Order No.: 180006 Order No.: 180007
Selected Translations Elaborated by Working Selected Translations Elaborated by Working Selected Translations Elaborated by Working
Group V 9.1 “Electron Beam Welding” of the Group V 8 “Adhesive Bonding Technology” Group A 7 “Welding in Rail Vehicle Construc-
Technical Committee of the German Welding of the Technical Committee of the German tion” of the Technical Committee of the German
Society – DVS Welding Society – DVS Welding Society – DVS
The documents cover the topics of “welda- Three of the most important sets of rules relating The technical codes included in this publication
bility of metallic materials”, “case hardening”, to adhesive bonding technology are presented were elaborated with the objectives of contri-
“x-ray protection”, “recommendations for the in this brochure and, for the urgent needs of in- buting to harmonization in relation to the dimen-
cleaning of the joining zone”, “test procedures dustry, have been created in the working bodies sioning of rail vehicles and of proposing a rele-
for the quality assurance” and “wedge speci- dealing with adhesive bonding technology on vant, integrated set of rules.
men for the joining zone”, “test procedures for the Technical Committee of DVS.
the quality assurance” and “”wedge specimen DVS 1608 “Design and strength assessment
for the verification of electron beam welds” as Including DVS 3310, DVS 3311, DVS 3320-1 of welded structures from aluminium alloys in
well as fundamental principle for the “designing railway applications” and DVS 1612 “Design
of components” and “utilization of non-vacuum and endurance strength assessment of weld-
electron beam welding”. ed joints with steels in rail vehicle construction”
include notes for the configuration and stipula-
The publication should help to work more effec- tions for the designing of welded structures as
tively by using EB technology and improving the well as a compilation of welded structure details
quality of your products and to strengthen the which are essential for rail vehicle construction.
competitiveness of your company. The technical codes specify in more concrete
terms the requirements included in the DIN EN
Including DVS 3201, DVS 3204, DVS 3205, 15085 series of European standards “Railway
DVS 3210, DVS 3212, DVS 3213, DVS 3220, applications – Welding of railway vehicles and
DVS 3221 components” in order to define weld perfor-
mance classes taking account of strength and
safety requirements.
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